Muscular System

S
Organization of the Muscles
Function and Gross Structure of Muscles

S  Primary function: create tension along the axis of their

fibers.
S  The Sliding Filament Model

S  Active muscles shorten, thus moving a bone or constricting

a space.
Function and Gross Structure of Muscles

S  Various secondary functions

S  Protection
S  Maintenance of posture
S  Respiration
S  Heat generation
S  Homeothermy
S  Communication
S  Constriction of organs and blood vessels
S  Pumping blood
 Properties of Muscle Fibers

S  Contractility

S  Excitability

S  Extensibility

S  Elasticity

S  Color

S  Tonic and twitch fibers

Vertebrate Muscles •  striated vs. smooth
•  voluntary vs. involuntary
•  skeletal vs. non-skeletal
• striated vs. smooth
Vertebrate muscles • voluntary vs. involuntary
• skeletal vs. non-skeletal

Skeletal muscle (left) & Smooth muscle (right)

• Skeletal muscle
– muscles
•  Skeletal attached to the skeleton that are striated &
muscle
voluntary
•  muscles attached to the skeleton that are striated
& voluntary
• Non-skeletal muscle
– muscles not attached to the skeleton
•  – most are smooth
Non-skeletal muscle& involuntary 

•  muscles not attached to the skeleton
•  most are smooth & involuntary
 
 Skeletal Muscles

S  Axial
S  body wall & tail
S  hypobranchial & tongue
S  extrinsic eyeball muscles

S  Appendicular

S  Branchiomeric (homologous to the branchial/ pharyngeal

muscles from fishes to mammals, striated muscles,
innervated by cranial nerves)

S  Integumentary
 Skeletal muscles have muscular
and tendinous portions
S  Muscle
S  consists of skeletal muscle cells (consist of
myofibrils and myofilaments)

S  Tendons
S  extensions of a muscle's tough connective
tissue sheath (fascia & epimysium) that
anchor a muscle to its O & I

S  Origin
S  site of attachment that is relatively fixed

S  Insertion
S  site of attachment that is normally displaced
by contraction of the muscle
 Skeletal Muscles

S  striated (striped) w/ multiple

nuclei;

S  many, long, cylindrical cells

bundled together;

S  several bundles enclosed in

tough connective tissue sheath
 Basis for naming skeletal
muscles
1.  direction of fibers (e.g., oblique)

2.  location or position (e.g., superficial)

3.  number of divisions (e.g., triceps)

4.  shape (e.g., deltoid)

5.  origin and/or insertion (e.g.,

iliocostalis)

6.  action (e.g., levator scapulae)

7.  size (e.g., major)

8.  or some combination of these

 Myosin vs Actin

S  Myosin heads attach to binding sites on the actin filaments.

S  The heads swivel toward the center of the sarcomere, detach and
then reattach to the nearest active site of the actin filament.

S  Each cycle of attachment, swiveling, and detachment

S  shortens the sarcomere 1%

S  Hundreds of such cycles

S  occur each second during

muscle contraction
 Non-Skeletal Muscles

S  muscles of tubes, vessels, & hollow organs

S  intrinsic eyeball muscles

S  erectors of feathers and hairs

S  Cardiac muscle

S  Electric organs
 Axial Muscles

S  skeletal muscles of the trunk & tail

S  extend as hypobranchial muscles & muscles of the tongue

S  present in orbits as extrinsic eyeball muscles

S  metameric (most evident in fish and aquatic amphibians

where the axial muscles are used in locomotion)

S  segmental because of their embryonic origin;

S  arise from segmental mesodermal somites
 Taste Buds

Extrinsic Eyeball
Muscles
 Trunk and Tail Muscles of Fishes

S  Axial musculature consists of a series of segments (myomeres)

separated by myosepta
S  Myosepta serve as O & I for segmented muscles
S  Myomeres are divided into dorsal & ventral masses by a horizontal septum
(transverse processes)
S  Epaxials = above the septum
S  Hypaxials = below the septum
S  Middorsal & midventral septa separate the myomeres of the 2 sides of the body.
The midventral septum is called the LINEA ALBA.
Trunk and Tail Muscles of Tetrapods

S  Tetrapods, like fish, have epaxial & hypaxial masses, & these
retain some evidence of metamerism.

S  Modifications:
S  Epaxials
S  elongated bundles that extend through many body segments
S  located below the appendicular muscles required to operate the limbs
S  Hypaxials of the abdomen have no myosepta & form broad sheets of muscle
( oblique, rectus, & transverse bundles)

Axial musculature of an aquatic salamander, Necturus

maculosus. The number of external oblique layers varies
between one and two. Abbreviations: oes, M. obliquus
externus superficialis; oep, M. obliquus externus
profundus; oi, M. obliquus internus; ta, M. transversus
abdominis (Brainerd and Simons 2000).
Function of Epaxials of Tetrapods

S  short epaxials perform same function as in fish (side-to-side

movements of vertebral column)

S  short & long bundles arch & support the vertebral column

S  most anterior bundles = attach to & move the skull

Function of Hypaxials of Tetrapods

S  Aquatic urodeles = used chiefly for swimming

S  Terrestrial urodeles = assist in locomotion

S  Other tetrapods = reduced in volume compared to fish

(because of shift in mode of locomotion); (1) support
contents of abdomen, (2) assist in respiration (especially
intercostal muscles), (3) assist epaxials in bending vertebral
column (rectus muscles)
 Epaxials of Tetrapods

S  lie along vertebral column dorsal to transverse processes & lateral to neural
arches

S  extend from base of the skull to tip of the tail

S  Urodeles & some lizards - epaxials are obviously metameric & are referred
to as the dorsalis trunci

S  Higher tetrapods - superficial epaxial bundles form long muscles that

extend many body segments; deep bundles are still segmented
S  Longest bundles
S  Shortest bundles
S  Longest Bundles
S  longissimus group (lies on transverse processes of vertebrae)
S  subdivisions include: longissimus dorsi , longissimus cervicis ,longissimus capitis
S  iliocostalis group (lateral to longissimus & spinalis ) - arises on ilium &
inserts on dorsal ends of ribs or uncinate processes
S  spinalis group (lies close to neural arches ) - connects spinous processes or
transverse processes with those vertebrae anteriorly

S  Shortest Bundles
S  Intervertebrals
S  remain segmented
S  connect processes (spinous, transverse,& zygapophyses) of adjacent
vertebrae
 Hypaxials of Tetrapods

S  Muscles of lateral body wall:

S  oblique (external & internal), transverse,

& rectus muscles

S  Muscles that form longitudinal bands in

roof of body cavity (subvertebral
muscles)
 Oblique and Transverse Muscles

S  Early amphibians & reptiles

S  ribs developed in myosepta along entire length
of the trunk

S  Modern amniotes
S  myosepta & ribs are restricted to the thorax
(abdominal muscles are not segmented)
S  hypaxials form 3 layers:
S  external oblique
S  internal oblique
S  transverse abdominis (play an important role in 1 - External intercostal muscles
respiration) 2 - Internal intercostal muscles
3 - Ribs
4 - Intercartilaginous muscles
5 - Sternum
 Rectus Muscles

S  weakly developed in most fish

S  'stronger' in tetrapods

S  support ventral body wall & aid

in arching the back

S  in mammals
S  rectus abdominis ( from the
anterior end of the sternum to the
pelvic girdle)
 Subvertebral Muscles

S  underneath & against transverse

processes of vertebrae

S  includes the psoas &  iliacus in

the lumbar region & the longus
colli in the neck

S  less developed in the thorax &

none in the tail
 Hypobranchial and Tongue Muscles

S  Fish
S  hypobranchials
S  Origin: extend forward from pectoral girdle
S  Insertion: on mandible, hyoid, & gill cartilages
S  Action: strengthen floor of pharynx & assist branchiomeric muscles in
elevating floor of mouth, lowering jaw & extending gill pouches

S  Tetrapods
S  hypobranchials stabilize & move hyoid apparatus & larynx
S  the tongue of amniotes is a 'sac' anchored to hyoid skeleton &
filled with hypobranchial muscle
The neck muscles ending in "hyoid" are associated with the hyoid apparatus,
whereas those beginning or ending with "thyro" are attached to the larynx.
These muscles are hypobranchia and function in movement of the hyoid
apparatus, larynx and/or floor of the mouth.
 Appendicular Muscles

S  move fins or limbs

S  Can be extrinsic or intrinsic

 Fish

S  appendicular muscles serve

mostly as stabilizers

S  intrinsic muscles are

limited in number &
undifferentiated
 Tetrapods

S  appendicular muscles are much more complicated than in

fish

S  greater leverage required for locomotion on land

S  jointed appendages (as opposed to fins) require complex

muscles
Extrinsic Appendicular Musculature

S  most develop from hypaxial blastemas in the body wall

S  referred to as secondary appendicular muscles because it was not

their original function to operate appendages

S  chief extrinsic muscles of forelimbs of tetrapods include:

S  scapular deltoid, latissimus dorsi, rhomboideus, serratus ventralis, &
pectorals
 Extrinsic Appendicular Musculature

S  Dorsal group
S  forelimbs - trapezius and latissimus
dorsi, arise on:
S  fascia of trunk in lower tetrapods
S  skull, vertebral column, & ribs
S  behind the scapula in higher tetrapods
and converge on the girdle & limb

S  Ventral group
S  pectoralis - arises on sternum &
coracoid, & converge on limb
RESULT = pectoral girdle & limb are joined to trunk by extrinsic appendicular muscles

The 'muscular sling' of tetrapods. Appendicular muscles of the forelimbs

suspend the anterior body of tetrapods from the shoulders. Some of these
muscles are axial muscles (rhomboideus & serratus ventralis), some are branchial
muscles (trapezius), & some arise from the forelimb musculature itself
(pectoralis).
 Intrinsic Appendicular Musculature

S  form from blastemas within the limb bud

S  called primary appendicular muscles

 Comparison of Appendicular
Musculature
S  Amphibians
•  much more complex than in fish

S  Reptiles
•  more numerous & diverse than in amphibians;
•  better support of body & increased mobility of distal segments of the
limbs

S  Birds
•  intrinsic musculature is reduced; pectoralis (downstroke muscle) &
supracoracoideus (upstroke muscle) are enlarged

S  Mammals
•  similar to reptiles but more diverse
 Branchiomeric Muscles

•  associated with the pharyngeal arches

•  series of skeletal & smooth muscles

•  adductors, constrictors, & levators operate jaws plus

successive gill arches
 Branchial Muscles

•  Develop from the hypomere

•  Striated and voluntary

•  cranial nerves 5 (mandibular arch)

•  7 (hyoidean arch)

•  9 (first branchial arch), 10, and 11.

 Muscles of the Mandibular
Arch

•  Squalus & other fish - operate the jaws (adductor

mandibulae & intermandibularis)

•  Tetrapods
•  muscles of 1st arch operate jaws
•  adductors of mandible (masseter & temporalis ,
pterygoid )
•  digastric
 Electric Organs

•  usually modified muscular cells

•  weak action potential generated during muscle activity is
amplified.
•  About 7 fish families and 250 species;
•  Most species are tropical freshwater teleosts
•  Modified axial, appendicular, or branchiomeric (of visceral
arches) muscles.
•  On head. body, or tail.
•  Function: Orientation, Detection of prey, Offense and defense.