Digestive System

S
 Functions

S  Ingestion

S  Secretion

S  Mixing and movement

S  Digestion

S  Absorption

S  Excretion
 Major Subdivisions

S  include the oral cavity,

pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small &
large intestines, and
cloaca.
S  A c c e s s o r y o r ga n s
include the tongue,
teeth, oral glands,
pancreas, liver, & gall
bladder.
 Differences in the Anatomy of
Vertebrate

S  Correlated with the nature & abundance of food:

S  readily absorbed vs. requiring extensive enzymatic
activity
S  constant food supply vs. scattered supply
 Development of the Gut

S  As embryo lengthens, endoderm is

drawn out into tube; initially the tube
is more-or-less straight, but soon
establishes outgrowths (diverticula)
(liver, gall bladder, pancreas, and
various ducts of these organs)

S  Muscular and connective tissue

associated with gut--mesodermal
origin
 Embryonic Digestive Tract of
Vertebrates

S  The consists of 3 regions:

S  midgut - contains yolk or

attached yolk sac

S  foregut - oral cavity,

p h a r y n x , e s o p h a g u s,
stomach, & small intestine
S  hindgut - large intestine &
cloaca
 Mouth and Oral Cavity

S  Begins at the mouth & ends at the

pharynx.

S  Fish have a very short oral cavity.

S  Tetrapods typically have longer

oral cavities.

S  T h e m a m m a l i a n m o u t h i s
specialized to serve as a suckling
and masticatory organ (with
muscular cheeks).
 Palate

S  primary palate
S  internal nares lead into the oral cavity anteriorly

S  secondary palate
S  nasal passages are located above the secondary palate and open at the
end of the oral cavity
 Mouth & oral cavity
(The Vertebrate Parade)

S  Ancestral vertebrate--probably a filter feeder with small mouth;

large pharynx to remove particles from water.

S  Agnatha--no jaws; therefore ingest small or soft food; cyclostomes

with rasping organ.

S  Cartilaginous and bony fishes--mouth parts may be protrusible;

firm tongue that is little moveable; oral glands restricted to scattered
mucous cells.

S  Tetrapods--evolutionary trends have been to first increase oral

lubrication and then to add physical and chemical digestion.
 Mouth and Oral Cavity

S  Tongue and lips present.

S  Multicellular oral glands with ducts.

S  Secretions required to lubricate dry food.

S  Certain glands with special functions:

S  Venomous.
S  Anticoagulant.
S  Salt excretion.
 Teeth

S  derivations of dermal armor

S  Placoid scales –
S  show gradual transition to teeth at
the edge of the jaw

S  Composition of teeth –
S  primarily dentin surrounded by
enamel

S  Vary among vertebrates

S  in number, distribution in the oral
cavity, degree of permanence,
mode of attachment, & shape
 Teeth

S  Toothless vertebrates are found in every class of vertebrates

S  Include agnathans, sturgeons, some toads, turtles, birds, &

baleen whales.

Baleen Plates
 Toothed Vertebrates

S  Fish- teeth are numerous & widely distributed in the oral cavity & pharynx

S  Early tetrapods - teeth widely distributed on the palate; most amphibians &
some reptiles still have teeth on the vomer, palatine, & pterygoid bones

S  Crocodilians, toothed birds, & mammals - teeth are limited to the jaws
 Teeth

S  have tended toward reduced numbers

& distribution

S  most vertebrates (through reptiles)

have succession of teeth

S  most vertebrates (except mammals)

replace teeth in ‘waves’ (back to front;
every other tooth)

S  mammals generally develop 2 sets of

teeth: milk (deciduous) teeth &
permanent teeth
Tooth Attachment
 Morphological Variation in
Teeth
S  vertebrates other than mammals -
all teeth are shaped alike
(homodont dentition)

S  mammals - teeth exhibit

morphological variation: incisors,
canines, premolars, & molars
(heterodont dentition)
S  incisors = cutting
S  canines = piercing & tearing
S  premolars & molars =
macerating
Specialized Mammalian Teeth
 Tongue Mobility

S  Turtles, crocodilians, some birds, & whales –

S  largely immobilized in the floor of the oral cavity & cannot
be extended

S  Snakes, insectivorous lizards & amphibians, & some birds –

S  sometimes long and may move in and out of the oral
cavity

S  Mammals
S  tongue is attached to the floor of the oral cavity (via the
frenulum) but can still be extended out of the oral cavity
 Functions of Vertebrate
Tongues
1.  capturing, gathering and
swallowing food

2.  taste

3.  manipulate fluids & solids in oral

cavity

4.  thermoregulation

5.  grooming

6.  human speech

Woodpecker Tongue
 Among the Vertebrates

S  Gnathostome fish & primitive amphibians

S  primary tongue-is simple crescent-shaped

S  Most amphibians
S  primary tongue + glandular field

S  Reptiles & mammals

S  primary tongue + glandular field + lateral lingual swellings

S  Birds
S  lateral lingual swellings are suppressed & intrinsic muscle is usually
lacking
 Oral Glands

S  secrete a variety of substances including:

S  Saliva
S  Poison
S  Anticoagulant
 Fine Structure of the Gut

S  Mucosa

S  Submucosa

S  Muscularis externa

S  Serosa
 Pharynx

S  Part of digestive tract exhibiting pharyngeal pouches

(at least in the embryo) that may give rise to slits

S  Fish
S  respiratory organ

S  Tetrapods:
S  part of the foregut preceeding the esophagus & includes:
S  Glottis
S  openings of auditory tubes
S  opening into esophagus
 Mammals

S  an epiglottis is positioned over

the glottis so that, when a
mammal swallows, the larynx
is drawn forward against the
epiglottis & the epiglottis
blocks the glottis.
Larynx
 Esophagus

S  a distensible muscular tube

connecting the pharynx &
the stomach

S  may have diver ticulum

called the crop
 Stomach

S  muscular chamber(s) at
end of esophagus

S  s e r ve s a s s t o r a g e &
macerating site for
ingested solids & secretes
digestive enzymes
S  Cyclostomes - weakly developed; similar to esophagus

S  Fish, amphibians, & reptiles - increasing specialization

S  Birds – proventriculus and ventriculus

S  Mammals - well-developed stomach;

ruminants have multichambered stomachs

 Multichambered Stomach

S  Reticulo-rumen (reticulum and rumen)

S  Omasum

S  Abomasum
 Reticulo-rumen (reticulum and
rumen)

S  compartment is separated by a low partition.

S  80% of the capacity of the stomach is related to the

reticulo-rumen.
S  The rumen- main fermentation ( microorganisms
attack and break down the feed components of the
ruminant's diet )
 Omasum

S  After fermentation in the reticulum and rumen,

food passes to the omasum.
S  acting as a filter pump to sort liquid and fine
food particles.
S  Coarse fibre particles are not allowed to
enter
S  site for absorption of water, minerals and
nitrogen.
 Abomasum

S  True stomach

S  Only site on the digestive tract that produces

gastric juices (HCl and the enzymes, pepsin
and rennin).
S  Ingesta only remains here for 1 to 2 hours.
Bird’s Stomach

S  Stomach in two parts--

S  p r ove n t r i c u l u s p r o d u c e s
digestive enzymes
S  ventriculus (also called the
gizzard) muscular for grinding
food;

S  these two regions least distinctive

in carnivorous birds, most distinct
in granivorous species.
 Intestine

S  located between the stomach & the cloaca or anus

S  an important site for digestion & absorption.

S  Vertebrate intestines are differentiated to varying degrees

into small & large intestines.

S  Tetrapods have 1 or 2 small diverticula at the juncture

between small and large intestines called colic caeca.
S  Rectum
S  Cloaca.
 Among the Vertebrates

S  Fishes -
S  relatively straight & short intestine in
cartilaginous fishes & in primitive bony fishes.
S  Amphibians -
S  intestines differentiated into small intestine and
large intestine
 Among the Vertebrates

S  Reptiles & Birds -

S  coiled small intestines & a relatively short large intestine

S  Mammals -
S  Small intestine long & coiled and differentiated into
duodenum, jejunum, & ileum.
S  The large intestine is often relatively long
S  A cecum is often present at the junction of the small &
large intestines in herbivores.
Gut Parade of Vertebrate
 Cyclostomes

S  Intestine relatively straight,

region differentiation
slight.

S  Lampreys with single fold

of intestinal mucosa ,
lengthwise in gentle spiral.
 Sharks

S  Posteriorly a spiral intestine

S  Functional advantage:
S  increase in surface
epithelium.

S  Short rectum joins the cloaca

S  Rectal gland--dorsal appendage

from rectum.
 Bony Fishes

S  Coiled

S  Length up to 12 times body length.

S  All modern bony fishes except teleosts, spiral intestine

present.

S  Ray-finned fishes have diverticula called pyloric caeca.

S  Only dipnoans and coelecanth (Latimeria) have cloaca.

S  No rectal gland.
 Amphibians

S  Tadpoles with long coiled gut

S  Adult amphibians have relatively short and simple

digestive tracts from 1.5 to 3.5 times body length.
S  Single colic caecum.

S  Cloaca present.
 Reptiles

S  Intestine straight in most snakes and

amphisbaenians
S  but moderately coiled in others.

S  Length usually about 1-2 times body length.

S  Dorsal colic caecum present in some species.

 Birds

S  Duodenum always forms long narrow loop

and tightly joined to pancreas.

S  Remainder of small intestine long in

complicated pattern.

S  Two colic caeca usual.

S  Cloaca present with dorsal diverticulum called

cloacal bursa(also called bursa of Fabricius)--
site of maturation of B-lymphocytes.
 Mammals

S  Many insectivores and carnivores

S  intestine 2-6 times body length.

S  Some artiodactyls and marine mammals

S  intestine 20-25 times body length.

S  Pattern of folding irregular

S  Large intestine bulky

S  Usually single ventral colic caeca.

Functional Adaptation of the
Gut

S  If vertebrate feeds on nutritious food, if food is

ingested in small particles, and feeding is slow
but frequent--what kind of gut?
S  Examples: cyclostomes, nectar-feeding birds,
vampire bat.
S  Carnivores, scavengers, and fish-eaters--what
kind of gut?
S  Short gut, capacious for temporary storage.
 Functional Adaptation of the
Gut

S  If food ingested is low in food value--what kind of gut?

S  Mechanical grinding, bacterial fermentation, capacious

storage, long gut, perhaps a crop or gizzard.

S  The folds, villi, and microvilli increase surface area roughly

600-fold.

S  The lining of the gut may be replaced every 2-3 days.

 Accessory Organs

S  Liver

S  Gall bladder

S  Pancreas
 Liver and Gall Bladder

S  Liver unique to subphylum; varies little among the classes; largest

organ of the body; typically lobed
S  Embryonic liver produces blood cells.

S  Liver produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder

(cyclostomes, most birds, and some mammals, including cervids,
have no gall bladder)

S  Bile aids in digestion by emulsifying fats breaking fats down into

tiny particles that permits more efficient digestion by enzymes)
S  Storage for carbohydrates and fats; release of nitrogenous wastes.
S  Bile is secreted and delivered to duodenum.
 Pancreas

S  secretes pancreatic juice

S  (bicarbonate solution to neutralize acids coming from the stomach
plus enzymes to help digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) into
the intestine

S  Compound organ having both exocrine and endocrine functions.

S  Endocrine secretions: insulin and glucagon.

S  Pancreas forms from pancreatic diverticula that fuse.

S  Endocrine tissue consists of cells that form scattered

aggregations call the islets of Langerhans.
S  Blind diverticula that serve to
increase the surface area of
the vertebrate digestive tract

S  Fishes
S  pyloric & duodenal ceca are
common in teleosts;
S  primary areas for digestion and
absorption

S  Tetrapods
S  ceca are present in some
herbivores may contain bacteria
S  Fishes
S  pyloric & duodenal ceca are common in teleosts;
S  primary areas for digestion and absorption (not fermentation
chambers)

S  Tetrapods
S  ceca are present in some herbivores may contain bacteria that
aid in the digestion of cellulose
 Cloaca

S  chamber at end of digestive tract

that receives the intestine, &
urinary & genital ducts, & opens
to the exterior via the vent

S  shallow or non-existent in
lampreys, ray-finned fishes, &
mammals (except monotremes)

S  if no cloaca is present, the

intestine opens directly to the
exterior via anus
The shark Herbivores Birds Ungulates