THE SCIENCE OF TAXONOMY AND Stuessy, 2009

SYSTEMATICS
- Crooked pie chart representation of
systematics
- Systematics cannot totally isolate one
Taxonomy- describing, naming, classifying
study from the other. One study always
organisms
encompasses the others
What taxonomists do
Ernst Mayr
- Discover, discern, describe, name, classify,
- Father of Modern Taxonomy
compare, study, and identify the world’s
- Believed first that taxonomy is the
living and extinct species and taxa
greater science while systematics is the
- To document the living world
extension of taxonomy
*9.4 million unnamed species in the world, 420
Wheeler also believed that taxonomy is the
000 in Australia and 170 000 in New Zealand
greater science than systematics.
- Use a universally and internationally
What biosystematists do
accepted naming system, governed by a
body of agreed rules to ensure that taxon  Study the big picture. The diversity of
names are unambiguous and precise living organisms on earth is the result of
- Make sure that knowledge and billions of years of evolution.
understanding of biodiversity is organized  Seek to ensure that the classification of
and can be accessed organisms to genera, families and higher
categories is founded on evolutionary
*International Code for Zoological Nomenclature
relationships
*Shenzen Code- for botanists; every 3 years  Allow prediction about properties and
updated based on the country convened (Shenzen, traits and is important requirement for
China 2018) many other branches of biology

Systematics and Taxonomy

Systematics - Foundation of all sciences

1. Feeds the world
- Study of nature and the origins of the  Taxonomy of pests and pathogens
natural population (thru evolution) of living  Discovering biological control
organisms, both present and past (Myers, agents
1952)  Exploring taxonomy of soils and
- The production of cladograms that link microbes
taxa through their observed variation 2. Discovering the drugs of the future
(Wheeler, 2005)  Pharmaceutical compounds
derived from organisms.
*Cladograms- representation of evolutionary
history E.g. Paclitaxel/Taxol that combats cancer derived
from Taxus brevifolia which has a few populations.
Taxonomy
By research, there was a discovery of an abundant
Systematics Study of Phylogeny cousin of T. brevifolia the Taxus bacata where
taxol is now get.
Study of Process of
Evolution
*Horseshoe crabs have LAL amebocytes in their - By discovering and documenting the
blood that is used to identify endotoxins emitted organisms many of them microscopic and
from the plasma membrane of bacteria poorly studied, that underpin and drive
ocean productivity
3. Improve human health (yakult)
*Carbon sink- plant areas that can absorb CO 2 in
Superbug- antibiotic resistant organisms
the atmosphere and retain them in their system
4. Enables industrial innovation
*Largest carbon sink is the ocean (phytoplanktons,
*Nata de coco- from fermentation of coconut green algae)
water by Acetobacter cilinum
Climate science
*Biomimicry in products
- By enabling past, current and future
5. Enables sustainability climate change to be tracked, thru an
understanding of their effects on species
and ecological communities (ice age,
dinosaur extinction)
Taxonomy and systematics support the other
field of sciences Agricultural science

Ecology Medicine

- By ensuring that species and other taxa Environmental science

(the substance of most biological studies)
are scientifically robust, well- Conservation science
characterized and can be accurately
- Providing the authoritative species names
defined
that underpin conservation planning and
Genetics legislation

- By providing the evolutionary and *Lepidoptera (Order) moths and butterflies

taxonomic framework that allows
Lepido- dust brushed off; ptera- wings
understanding of genetic diversity of
evolution Papilo chikae or Luzon swallow tail in Benguet,
Cordillera. If proven a different species from the
Geology
one in Mindanao, it can become protected by law.
- By characterizing and documenting the
fossils that form the basis of much of
stratigraphy hence are key to mining oil Kingdom
and gas exploration
Phylum
Earth science
Class
- By enabling documentation of
Order
biogeochemical cycles (nitrogen, carbon-
oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus and water Family
cycles) that help stabilize and drive the
earth system Genus

Oceanography Species
Category- a hierarchical classification which the
taxa belong
Theophrastus
Group- certain character uniting them (birds,
 Student of Aristotle
algae)
 Divided the plant world according to habit
Taxa/taxon- any group that is accepted at certain – trees, shrubs, undershrubs and herbs
categorical classification or within a categorical  Wrote nearly 500 plants and uses;
section arranged to several groups we now call as
families and orders

Deductive reasoning
HISTORY OF SYSTEMATICS
- Aristotle and Theophrastus’ way of
16th century
classification
- Study of botany and zoology as applied - Apriori approach- no weight or value given
sciences to the characteristic
- Botany study of medicinal plants
Platonic Principle of Plenitude/Great Chain of
- Zoology study of human anatomy and
Being/Ladder of Nature
physiology
- Adopted up until the 14th century
(zoology and botany- phytography)
- Gradual hierarchy of nature
*Taxonomists are mainly medical people - States that the lowest forms of organism
are plants and the highest is humans
18th and 19th century
2. Period of Herbalist to Darwin
- Extensive botanical and geological
a. Leonhard Fuchs- first to describe the
taxonomy (identification)
plant Cannabis sativa (color fuchsia)
- Europeans were the earliest taxonomists
b. Otto Brunfels- water lily
thru explorations
c. Conrad Gesner- zoologist
- First taxonomists were priests or soldiers
d. Heironymous (Jerome) Bock-
19th century strawberry illustration
e. Valerius Cordus
- Introduction of theory of evolution
- Systematics studied in the universities Everyone confronted to how Aristotle does which
- Taxonomy assigned in museums is according to plant habit.
 Geographic isolation
Presented that plants are not the lower forms of
 Biological species concept
organisms
 Ecological and behavioral research
Inventories of natural genera
1. Ancient Greeks
- 4th century BC, the golden age of
Greece
Andrea Cesalpino
Aristotle
- Among the first systematists
 Entoma (insects), Malakia (cephalopods or - De Plantis Libri – descriptions of about
mollusks), reptiles, fishes and birds 1520 plant species grouped as herbs and
 Classified thru blood (hemoglobin blood) trees
 Nested sets
 - One of his failures was the denial of sex
of flower
Michael Adanson
- Cesalpino’s question’s importane: (1)
characters that are evolutionary - Grandfather of Numerical Taxonomy
characters and (2) less plasticity - Reflected natural system
- Weighing of characters
Phenotypic plasticity

- Always changing; a character may be

present in a plant in a certain environment 4. Phylogenetic Systems Period
but disappears when the plant is placed in - Theory of Evolution
a different environment. When the plant
is placed back again to the environment it Adolf Angler
originally came, the characteristic
- Considered monocots more primitive than
becomes observable again.
dicots
- Less importance since it does not reflect
- Already establishes relationship
the actual genotype of the organism
Charles Bessey

Linnaeus (a better botanist than a zoologist) - Considered seed plants as polyphyletic

- Bessey’s cactus- earliest graphical
- Binomial system of nomenclature
representation of a phylogenetic tree
Lamarck and Cuvier

- Classified animals

John Ray
MICROTAXONOMY
- Monocotyledons and dicotyledons
Microtaxonomy- demarcation of species
- Classification according to combinations of
character Macrotaxonomy- classification of species
- Termed “genus” combination of characters
unique to that organism
Steps in taxonomy (progress in systematics)
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
α- taxonomy– recognition and description of
- Further established “genus” as a higher
species and first classification
category concept
- Collected plants from Greece, Asia Minor, β- taxonomy- classification of species in
France and Spain hierarchical system
- Elements de Botanique (1694) and
Institutiones Rei Herbariae (1700) γ- taxonomy- understanding the evolutionary
- Author of modern genus concept factors
- Termed “Herbarium” α and β- taxonomy- microtaxonomy

β and γ- taxonomy- macrotaxonomy

3. Birth of Renaissance

Georges- Louis Leclerc de Buffon 6.5 million terrestrial species

- Genealogy (phylogeny today) 2.2 million aquatic species
3-100 million estimated number of species Limitations:

Species 1. Arbitrary
2. Individuals of two populations were very
 “building bricks” in biological classification
hard to tell apart but would not mate with
which concepts of higher and lower groups
one another (elephants, dogs)
are developed (Stuessy, 2009)
3. Mimicry complexes
 “eidos” or species- any different kind of a
 Batesian mimicry- resembles a
thing (Aristotle)
model that is
 Any unit possessing a common essence
poisonous/unpleasant to eat;
(principle of logical division by Aristotle);
beneficial since predators have
essence- spirit, life
learned to avoid it
 True breeding, variatons are accidents
 Mullerian mimicry- two or more
(Johm Ray)
equally poisonous or distasteful
 Created by God; possesses an essence in
species having a similar color
the Aristotelian and religious senses;
pattern; reinforces the warning it
deviant forms were not deserving to the
gives to predators
rank of species but rather of variety
4. Life stages
(Linnaeus)
 Holometabolous life cycle-
 Specific form conditioned by function
metamorphosis
(Cuvier)
 Hemimetabolous- incomplete;
 Set of individuals closely resembling each
cockroaches
other and that it does not essentially
5. Sexual dimorphism
differ from the term variety (Darwin);
morphological species; species and
variations are interchangeable
Biological Species Concept
 Distinct breeding groups existing together
within a community (Jordan) - A species is a group of actually or
 Groups of actually or potentially potentially interbreeding individuals who
interbreeding populations, which are are reproductively isolated from other
isolated from other such groups (Ernst such groups
Mayr); biological species concept
Problems:

1. Testing museum species and fossils

2. Testing for interbreeding populations

Morphological Species Concept Sympatric- if they do not interbreed, then they

are a species
- Most practical
- Based on resemblance Allopatric- less clear, it may be difficult to assess
- Members of a species are individuals whether they are potentially interbreeding
(introduction to speciation)
Cronquist- distinguishable by ordinary means
3. There are asexual organisms e.g. microbes
Shull- on simple gross observations
reproduce via fission
Regan- community whose distinct morphological 4. Reproductive isolation is always
characteristics are sufficiently definite to entitle incomplete. Hybridization is common
it or them to a specific name among many groups (terrestrial plants,
freshwater fishes)
Horse x donkey- mule Reproductive Isolation Mechanism

Lion x tiger- liger 1. Prezygotic isolation

 Prevents mating (deliverance of
Hybrid breakdown
sperm to egg) from occurring
When zygote does not fully form; if it  Prevents gametes from forming a
does it will die before reaching reproductive zygote
maturity or will be unable to produce functional A. Temporal Isolation
gametes  Isolated by time
 May breed
 Different times of day
 Different seasons
Evolutionary Species Concept
 Different years
- Evolutionary species is a lineage evolving
separately from others with its own
unitary revolutionary role and tendencies B. Habitat Isolation
 Same geographic area, different
Advantage: Solves problem of intermittent
habitat e.g. fishes living in
hybridization
different light concentrations in
Problems: Arbitrary the ocean
C. Behavioral Isolation
 How can you say it is a totally different
 Different courtship rituals
lineage?
 Little or no sexual interaction
 How do you define evolutionary
between males and females
independence?
(plumage, calls in birds)
Phylogenetic Species Concept D. Mechanical Isolation
 Structure differences in genitalia
- Smallest diagnosable monophyletic group or flowers prevent copulation or
of populations within which there is a pollen transfer
parental pattern of ancestry and descent
- Members share derived characteristics Pollination Syndrome
and treated as evidence of descent
Set of characters in a flower that gives
Problems: clues to what are its pollinators. The structure will
dictate the type of pollinators
 What characters to use
 What level of divergence constitutes a E. Gametic Isolation
species  Sperms cannot fertilize the egg
 Distinguishing between gene trees and  Very important in aquatic species
species trees (broadcast spawners)
2. Postzygotic Isolating Mechanism
 Prevents hybrid zygote from
Pluralism developing into a viable, fertile
adult
- Using biological concept with some A. Reduced Hybrid Viability
qualifications  Hybrid zygote fails to develop or
- How species are formed fail to reach sexual maturity
- How reproductive isolation comes about B. Reduced Hybrid Fertility
  Hybrid fails to produce functional - Can interbreed
gametes - Same genetic make-up/ gene pool
C. Hybrid Breakdown - Gene pool – genetic divergence
 Only first generations are fertile
Unfit genes are eliminated while the fit genes are
and viable
passed on to the descendants, thus the
 Offsprings of hybrid have
descendants becoming a new species.
reduced viability or fertility
 Usually in plants because of
chromosome number/ploidy
 Indeterminate organisms (number Modes of Speciation
of leaves)
1. Allopatric
Lumpers- individuals that are hard to convince  “allo” other “patric” homeland
when presenting species  Speciation starts when gene
between them is restricted
Splitters-  Geographic isolation- first step in
allopatric speciation
 Undergo genetic divergence
TYPES OF SPECIATION
E.g. Harris antelope squirrel and white-tailed
Speciation- formation of a new and distinct species squirrel- separated by the Grand Canyon
in the course of evolution
2. Sympatric
Anagenesis  “sym” same
 Occurs in geographically
 No creation of species occurring
overlapping populations when
 Phyletic evolution
biological factors such as
 One species replaces another
chromosomal changes and non-
 Pattern of evolution that results in linear
random mating reduce gene flow
descent with no branching off of a new
population E.g. Balanced polymorphism; polyploidy (wheat)

Chrono species/Paleo species Populations of insects that possess

polymorphism of color. There are times that there
Species appearing more than once in the
are phenotypically preferred characteristics when
course of evolution
choosing a mate and this selective behavior will
Cladogenesis eventually lead to speciation- cichlids, tilapia
cousin.
 Branching evolution
 When a new species branched out from a 3. Habitat Isolation
parent species  Preference where they want to
 Evolutionary change and diversification live
resulting from the branching of the new
Temporal isolation
taxa from common ancestral lineages
 Results to diversification Mechanical isolation

Unit of evolution: Population Behavioral isolation

- Group of organisms that belong to the Gametic isolation

same species
Post-zygote isolation
- Same place at specific time
 4. Parapatric  Caste polymorphism- honey bees,
 Two separate regions occur with a ants, termites
zone of hybridization where the  Eusociality- true sociality
two subpopulations overlap  Bees have female haploid and the
 Small contact zone may be the rest are diploid
result of unequal dispersal or  The food eaten in bees dictates
distribution, incomplete the fate of the larva (royal jelly
geographical barriers only fed at queen bees)
3. Ecological variation
E.g. ring species- ring distribution of species
 Mainly due to environmental
factors

LEVELS OF VARIATION Density dependent

Intrapopulation variation - Depends on the number of populations in a

certain area
- variation within the population - Highly colored locusts signify poisonous
- how to distinguish: difference between characters in few populations or in solitary
the population or difference between locusts but does not exhibit coloration
species when it is a part of a swarm since they are
dangerous enough
Non-genetic Variation
Host dependent
1. Temporal variation
 Age variation - Helicoverpa armigera. Army worms (moth).
- Same set of genes but Appearance depends on the host
genes expressed are (tomatoes, corn, etc.)
different at different
life stages Allometry
- Holometabolism
- Depends on what they will do
- Hemimatabolism
- Worker, harvester, soldier ants
 Seasonal polyphenism (pheno-
form) Ecotypic variation
- Bicyclus anynana and
- Phenotypic plasticity
Cissia pompilia
- Alpine- below glaciers; a barren land with
butterflies expressing
few shrubs and herbs
different patterns of
- Prairie- grass land area
eyespots in their wings
Reciprocal Transplantation- to determine
 Seasonal variations of the same
if the characteristic is a plastic one. Grow
individual
Stellaria longipes in a prairie and then to
- Logopus muta
an alpine and see if some characters are
hyperborean or arctic
plastic.
foxes. They shed their
4. Traumatic variation
plumage according to the
season (winter and Parasite induced
summer coat)
- Green banded broodsac worm on snails
(NatGeo)

2. Social variation Endosymbiont (induced)

 - Some arthropods with Wolbachia become - Categories below species level
parthenogenetic
- Manipulative parasites so they could make
Species
the host reproduce via parthenogenesis so
the parasite will remain in them - Building block of every taxonomic
classification
Genetic variation
- Subspecies does not occur without first
1. Sexual dimorphism establishing species
 Sex chromosome alters the
History
appearance or expression of
morphology 1870’s to 1900
2. Alternation of generation
 Diplohaplontic  Splitters – presence of subspecies
 Evident in ferns and mosses  Lumpers- same to all, no ssp.
 Different genetic makeup
Darwin- species does not essentially differ from
(ploidy)
variety
3. Polymorphism
Elliot Coves
Discontinuous variation
- Catalog of American Birds
 Multi-allele in one locus genes (allele-
- “var” prefix of subspecies
alternating genes for a specific
characteristic) Robert Ringway- dropped “var”
 Different phenotypes (snow goose)
Karl Jordan- recognition of subspecies
Continuous variation

 Highly influenced by environment

1930’s
 Distributed at genes that are multi-loci in
chromosome Otto Kleinschmidt
 Observed in gradient (eye and skin color)
- Formenkreis Theory (Ring of Forms)
- Promoted subspecies and trinomial
nomenclature on geographically distinct
Genetic variation
populations
- Foundation for evolution
Bernard Rensch
Mutation and Recombination
- Rassenkrais- circle of races
- Gives rise to genetic differences among - Artenkreis- circle of species
many members of the population

Great evolutionary changes in organisms all

1940’s
originated as intraspecific genetic variation
 Further heat in debates of species
- Polymorphism could give rise to speciation
concept and variations of populations;
subspecies as genetically distinct,
geographically separate populations
POLYTYPIC SPECIES AND INFRA SPECIES
belonging to the same species
Infraspecies
Ernst Mayr
  Translated rassenkreis and artenkreis; - considering an occurring
subspecies, semispecies and superspecies speciation/clues/hints
 Rassenkreis- polytypic species (non- - a concept
observeble)
*monotypic species can become superspecies
 Artenkreis- superspecies (observable)

Superspecies- species that are encompassing the

subspecies Significance of Polytypic Species

Polytypic species- species of organism with - provide greater organization for well-
subspecies studied groups (birds, mammals,
butterflies)
Semispecies- Formenkreis
- 19 000 monotypic species to 9040
- Hybridizing different forms of species polytypic species
(ring species) - important in conservation
- Somehow similar to ancestor but forms a - encompasses evidence for allopatric
distinction speciation
- to convert the nominal species of all
1950’s
groups of animals
Wilson and Brown- opposed Mayr

 No clear-cut standard in determining a

subspecies distribution
 Attack on the subspecies or trinomial
concept
 Most formally named subspecies are in
effect little more that special cases…
validity is no stronger than the concept
itself
 There is no evident advantage in the use
of the recommended nomenclature

Subspecies

- started with geographical races

- population that taxonomists considers to
differ sufficiently from previously named
population of a species
- subspecies- ssp
- subforma- in plants only

Polytypic species

- species with subspecies

Monotypic species

- species not subdivided into subspecies

Superspecies