Math 21 Module Unit I PDF

MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module
Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines Diliman
iv
2018
c by the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
All rights reserved.
No copies can be made in part or in whole without prior written permission from the
Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
Mathematics 21 Module Writers and Editors:
Carlo Francisco Adajar

Michael Baysauli
Katrina Burdeos
Lawrence Fabrero
s
Alip Oropeza
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h em
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UP
Chapter 1
Limits and Continuity
1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach

We begin this course with an introduction to the core concept needed in studying calculus: the
limit. We start studying the notion of limits in an informal, intuitive way. We treat limits using
s
a descriptive, graphical, and numerical approach. We then develop computational methods in
ic
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evaluating limits of algebraic expressions.
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At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
h
at
• interpret the limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;
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• compute the limit of polynomial and rational functions using limit theorems; and
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ut
• evaluate limits of functions using substitution, cancellation of common factors,

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and rationalization of radical expressions (for indeterminate forms 0/0).

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In
UP
1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits
(
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x − 1, x 6= 1
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) = 4 h(x) =
x−1 0, x=1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
−1 −1 −1
Figure 1.1.1: Graphs of y = f (x), y = g(x) and y = h(x) in Illustration 1.1.1.
In this subsection, we use graphs of functions in order to develop an intuitive notion of the basic
concept of limits. We make a distinction between the value of a function at a real number a and
1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
the function’s behavior for values very near a. A function f may be undefined at a, but it can be
described by studying the values of f when x is very close to a, but not equal to a. To illustrate
our point, let us consider the following functions:
Illustration 1.1.1.
1. Let f (x) = 3x − 1 and consider the tables below.
x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003
In the tables above, we evaluated f at values of x very close to 1. Observe that as the values
of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 2. If we continue
ic s
replacing x with values even closer to 1, the value of f (x) will get even closer to 2.
at
3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)(x − 1)
em
2. Let g(x) = = . Note that g(x) is undefined at x = 1. Observe
x−1 x−1
though that if x 6= 1, then g(x) = 3x − 1 = f (x). Thus, g is identical to f except only at
h
at
x = 1. Hence, as in the first item, if x assumes values going closer and closer to 1 but not
M
reaching 1, then the values of g(x) go closer and closer to 2.

of
(
3x − 1, x 6= 1
e
3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,

ut
0, x=1
tit
h(x) goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer to 1. (See Figure 1.1.1 for a
s
comparison of f , g and h.)

In
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In each of the above examples, we saw that as x got closer and closer to a certain number a, the
value of the function approached a particular number. This does not always happen, but in the
case that it does, the number to which the function value gets closer and closer is what we will call
the limit of the function as x approaches a.
Let f be a function defined on some open interval I containing a, except possibly at a. We say
R
that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, where L ∈ , denoted
lim f (x) = L,
x→a
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as x assumes values going closer and closer to a but
not reaching a.
Remark 1.1.2. Alternatively, lim f (x) = L if we can make f (x) as close to L as we like by taking
x→a
values of x sufficiently close to a (but not necessarily equal to a).
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 3
Example 1.1.3. Since the value of 3x − 1 goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer
to 1 as shown in Illustration 1.1.1, we now write
lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1
Remark 1.1.4. Note that in finding the limit of f (x) as x tends to a, we only need to consider
values of x that are very close to a but not exactly a. This means that the limit may exist even if
there is no function value for f (x) at x = a.
3x2 − 4x + 1
Example 1.1.5. In Illustration 1.1.1, we see that g(x) = is undefined at x = 1.
x−1
However, since x only approaches 1 and is not equal to 1, we conclude that x − 1 6= 0. Hence,
(3x − 1)(x − 1)
lim g(x) = lim = lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1
Remark 1.1.6. If lim f (x) and f (a) both exist, their values may not be equal. In other words, it
s
x→a
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is possible that f (a) 6= lim f (x).
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x→a
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Example 1.1.7. Recall that (
3x − 1, x 6= 1
h
h(x) =
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0, x=1
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from Illustration 1.1.1. Here, h(1) = 0 but lim h(x) = 2.

of
x→1
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Remark 1.1.8. If f (x) does not approach a real number as x tends to a, then we say that the
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limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (dne).

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Example 1.1.9. Let H(x) be defined by

In
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
1, x≥0
H(x) =
0, x<0
This function is called the Heaviside step function. The graph of the function is given below:
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1
From the graph, we see that there is no particular value to which H(x) approaches as x approaches
0. We cannot say that the limit is 0 because if x approaches 0 through values greater than 0,
the value of H(x) approaches 1. In the same way, we cannot say that the limit is 1 because if x
approaches 0 through values less than 0, the value of H(x) approaches 0. In this case, lim H(x)
x→0
does not exist.
1.1.2 Evaluating Limits

In the previous subsection, we tried to compute the limit of a given function using tables of values.
However, this method only gives us an estimate of the limit, not guaranteeing that the value which
the function seems to approach is indeed the limit. In this section, we will compute limits not by
making tables of values or by graphing, but by applying the theorem below.
Theorem 1.1.10. Let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined on some open interval containing a,
except possibly at a.
1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

x→a
2. If c ∈ R, then x→a
lim c = c.
3. lim x = a
x→a
4. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 where L1 , L2 ∈

x→a x→a
R, and c ∈ R.
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(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L1 ± L2
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x→a
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(b) lim [cf (x)] = cL1
x→a h
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(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
x→a
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f (x) L1
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(d) lim = , provided that g(x) 6= 0 on some open interval containing a, except
x→a g(x) L2
e
possibly at a, and L2 6= 0.
ut
N.
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(e) lim [f (x)]n = (L1 )n for n ∈

x→a
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In
N, n > 1 and provided that L1 > 0 when n is even.

p
n
p
n
(f ) lim f (x) = L1 for n ∈
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x→a
Example 1.1.11. Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1
Solution.
From the theorem above,
lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= 2 lim x3 − 4 lim x2 + 1
x→−1 x→−1
= 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1
= −5.
(x − 3)(x2 − 2)
Example 1.1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1
Solution.
First, note that
lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.
x→1 x→1 x→1
Using the theorem,
(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

x→1
lim =
x→1 x2 + 1 lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim (x − 3) · lim (x2 − 2)
x→1 x→1
=
lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim x − lim 3 lim x2 − lim 2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2
lim (x + 1)
x→1
(1 − 3)(12 − 2)
=
2
= 1.
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√
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2x + 5
Example 1.1.13. Evaluate: lim
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x→2 1 − 3x
Solution.
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First, note that
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lim (1 − 3x) = lim 1 − lim 3x = 1 − 6 = −5 6= 0.

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x→2 x→2 x→2

Also,
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lim (2x + 5) = lim 2x + lim 5 = 4 + 5 = 9 > 0.

x→2 x→2 x→2
tit
Thus, using the theorem,

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√ √ q
√
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x→2 9 3
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x→2
lim = = = =− .
x→2 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x −5 5
x→2 x→2
Theorem 1.1.14. Let f be a polynomial or rational function. If a ∈ dom f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a
Example 1.1.15. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1
Solution.
Using Theorem 1.1.14,
lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = −5.

x→−1
4
1 − 5x
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4
Solution.
By Theorem 1.1.14,
4 4
1 − 5x 1 − 5(1) 1
lim = = .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4 1 + 3(1)2 + 4(1)4 16
1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits

In this part, we shall see that there are functions whose limits cannot be calculated using only the
previous techniques. For instance, Theorems 1.1.10 and 1.1.14 do not apply to
F (x) 3x2 − 4x + 1
lim = lim
x→1 G(x) x→1 x−1
(where F (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1 and G(x) = x − 1) in Illustration 1.1.1. This is because lim G(x) = 0.
x→1
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F (x)
Now, observe that lim F (x) = 0 = lim G(x). We call the limit lim an indeterminate form.
at
x→1 x→1 x→1 G(x)
em
3x2 − 4x + 1
Such limits may or may not exist. Example 1.1.5 showed us that the limit lim exists,
hx→1 x−1
and is in fact equal to 2. We shall see that limits with indeterminate forms, if they exist, may be
at
determined using algebraic manipulation.
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of

f (x) 0
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form of type .
e
x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0

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Remark 1.1.17.
f (x)
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1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined at x = a, and NOT indeterminate.

g(x)
f (x)
Remember that the term “indeterminate” only applies to the limit lim , and not the
x→a g(x)
f (a)
function value .
g(a)
2. A limit that is indeterminate of type 00 may exist, and to compute the limit, one may use

cancellation of common factors and rationalization of expressions (if applicable).

x2 + 2x + 1
x→−1 x+1
Solution.
The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches −1 is 0. Thus, this limit in
its current form is indeterminate of type 00 . However, observe that x + 1 is a common factor of

the numerator and the denominator. Thus, we may simplify the function as
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, when x 6= −1.
x+1 x+1
Therefore, we obtain the limit as follows:
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0
x→−1 x+1 x→−1
x2 − 5x + 6
x→2 x2 − 4
Solution.
x2 − 5x + 6 0

Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type 0 . Using the same technique,
x→2 x2 − 4
x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3) x−3 1
lim = lim = lim =− .
x→2 x2 − 4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) x→2 x + 2 4
x2 − 16
Example 1.1.20. Evaluate lim √ .
x→4 2 − x
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Solution.
at
x2 − 16
√ is an indeterminate form of type 00 . Observe that in its current form, the

Again, lim
em
x→4 2 − x
numerator and denominator do not have common factors. So we multiply the numerator and
h
√
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denominator by 2 + x to get
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√ √
x2 − 16 2 + x (x − 4)(x + 4)(2 + x) √
√ · √ = = −(x + 4)(2 + x),
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2− x 2+ x 4−x
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ut
when x 6= 4. Thus, we have

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x2 − 16 √
s
lim √ = lim −(x + 4)(2 + x) = −32.

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x→4 2 − x x→4
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√
x+5−3
x→4 x−4
Solution.
This limit is also an indeterminate form of type ( 00 ). Similar to the previous example,
√ √
x+5−3 x+5+3 (x + 5) − 9
lim ·√ = lim √
x→4 x−4 x+5+3 x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 − 3)
x−4
= lim √
x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 + 3)
1
= lim √
x→4 x+5+3
1
= .
6
1.1.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
A. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in the figure below.
0 2 4
Evaluate f (0), f (2), and f (3). Evaluate also lim f (x), lim f (x) and lim f (x).
x→0 x→2 x→3
B. Evaluate the following limits.
ic s
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1. lim x(x − 2)(x + 2) 3
2z − z 2

em
x→−1 6. lim
z→2 z2 − 4
3x2 + 2x − 1 √
h
2. lim x2 + 3 − 2
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x→−1 x3 + 1 7. lim
x2 − 1
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√ x→−1
t−2−4 √ √
3. lim 2x − 6 − x
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t→18 t − 18 8. lim
x→2 4 − x2
e
2s2 − 7s + 3 p3 − 1
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4. lim 9. lim √
s→3 s2 − 4s + 3 2p − 1 − 1
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p→1
2x2 − 13x + 20 6x + 3x2

s
In
5. lim 10. lim √

x→4 x3 − 64 p→1 −1 − 3 2x + 5
UP
C. Do as indicated.
1. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = x2 for all x 6= 10 but f (10) = 99.
x→0
x
2. Determine the values of the constants a and b such that lim √ = 1.
x→0 ax + b − 2
Supplementary Exercises
A. Evaluate the following limits.
q3 + q2 − q − 1 x3 − x2 − x + 1
1. lim 9. lim
q→−1 q2 − 1 x→−1 x3 − 3x − 2
2y 2 − 3y + 1 t−1
2. lim 10. lim √
2
6t + 3 − 3t
y→1 y3 − 1 t→1
√
6 + x − x2 4x2 + 5x + 9 − 3
3. lim 2 11. lim
x→−2 x − 4x − 12 x→0 x
√ √ √
2− 7−a 8 − x − 1 − 8x
4. lim 12. lim √ √
a→3 2a2 − 3a − 9 x→−1 3 − x − 6x + 10
x3 − x2 − x + 10 (x + t)3 − x3
5. lim 13. lim
x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2 t→0 t
√ √ 1
4
x4 + 1 − x2 + 1 +1
6. lim 14. lim x2 4
x→−1 x2 x→−4 x − 16
s
√
ic
p 1
7+ 3x−3 −1
lim x+t x
at
7. lim 15.
w→8 x−8 t→0 t
em
p √
9q 2 − 4 − 17 + 12q 4 8
8. lim h 16. lim + 2
q→−1 q 2 + 3q + 2 x→−2 x + 2 x + 2x
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bx2 + 15x + b + 15
B. Find whether there exists a constant b so that lim exists. If it exist,
b→−2 x2 + x − 2
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determine the value of b and find the limit.

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C. For each of the following functions below, use a calculator to evaluate f (x) when
tit
x = ±0.1, ±0.001, ±0.000001. Based on your results, what could the value of lim f (x) be?
x→0
s
In
sin x
1. f (x) =
UP
x
1 − cos x
2. f (x) =
x
tan x
3. f (x) =
x
1.2 One-Sided Limits

When we compute the limit of a function f as x approaches a, we observe the behavior of f as x
approaches a from both sides. However, there are instances when the behavior of f as x approaches
a from the right is not the same as its behavior as x approaches a from the left. This may happen
for piecewise functions. Moreover, it is also possible that a function is not defined for some open
interval containing a, but defined only for values greater than a or less than a. In this case, we can
only observe the behavior of f as x approaches a from one side.
• interpret the one-sided limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;
• evaluate one-sided limits of functions; and
• determine the limit of piecewise functions using one-sided limits.
s
ic
at
Consider the following functions. h em
at
M
Illustration 1.2.1. Let 

3 − 5x2 , x<1
of
f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
e
ut
tit
If x is less than and very close to 1, then f (x) = 3 − 5x2 . If we let x approach 1 through these
values, then f (x) would approach −2. On the other hand, if we let x approach 1 through values
s
In
greater than 1, then we use f (x) = 4x − 3 and f (x) approaches 1. Similar to Example 1.1.9,
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lim f (x) does not exist.

x→1
y = 3 − 5x2
y = 4x − 3
1
−1 0 1 2
−1
−2
Figure 1.2.1: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.1
√
Illustration 1.2.2. Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞). So we can only consider values of
x which are greater than 0 if we want to to get the “limit” of f as x goes to 0.
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 11
√
2 f (x) = x
0 1 2 3 4
Figure 1.2.2: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.2
These cases lead us to what are called one-sided limits.
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (c, a). We say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a from the left is L, denoted
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
ic s
less than a.
at
em
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right is L, denoted
h
at
M
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
of
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
e
ut
greater than a.
stit
Remark 1.2.3.
In
1. The conclusions in Theorem 1.1.10 still hold when “x → a” is replaced by “x → a− ” or

UP
“x → a+ ”.
2. We sometimes refer to lim f (x) as the two-sided limit to distinguish it from one-sided limits.
x→a
Example 1.2.4. Let H(x) be defined by


1, x≥0
H(x) = .
0, x<0
(Recall that this is the Heaviside step function.) We easily see that lim H(x) = lim 1 = 1 while
x→0+ x→0+
lim H(x) = lim 0 = 0.
x→0− x→0−
Example 1.2.5. Let 

3 − 5x2 , x<1
f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
From Illustration 1.2.1, we have
lim f (x) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2,

x→1− x→1−
and
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 1.
x→1+ x→1+
Suppose a function f satisfies lim f (x) = 0. We shall distinguish between ways by which f
x→a
approaches 0. For example, for f (x) = 2 − x, notice that lim (2 − x) = 0. As x approaches
x→2
2 from the left, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through positive values. On the other hand, if x
approaches 2 from the right, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through negative values:
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 −0.001 −0.01 −0.1
Meanwhile, consider g(x) = (2−x)2 . Similarly, lim (2−x)2 = 0, but this time, regardless of whether
s
x→2
ic
x approaches 2 from the left or right, g(x) passes through positive values as it approaches 0:
at
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001
h em 2.01 2.1
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g(x) 0.01 0.0001 0.000001 0 0.000001 0.0001 0.01
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We now state the following definition which will be helpful in our computations later.
of
e
ut
Suppose lim f (x) = 0. If f approaches 0 through positive values, we write

x→a
tit
f (x) → 0+ .
s
In
Similarly, if f approaches 0 through negative values, we write

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f (x) → 0− .
Remark 1.2.6. If f (x) → 0+ as x → a, and n is even, then

p
lim n f (x) = 0.
x→a
p
If f (x) → 0− as x → a, and n is even, then lim n
f (x) does not exist.
x→a
√
Example 1.2.7. Let f (x) = 2 − x. Note that f (x) → 0+ as x → 2− , so lim 2 − x = 0. On the
√ x→2−
other hand, f (x) → 0− as x → 2+ , so lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2+
√
Example 1.2.8. Consider g(x) = 2x2 + x − 1.
p p hp √ i
• lim 2x2 + x − 1 = lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (−3) · (0− ) = 0+
x→−1− x→−1−
p hp √ i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (−3) · (0+ ) = 0−
x→−1+
p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (0− ) · ( 23 )
1−
x→ 2
p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (0+ ) · ( 32 )
1+
x→ 2
Example 1.2.9. Let

 2
x −x−2
, x<0


 x+1


√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4



x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4

Find (a) lim f (x), (b) lim f (x), (c) lim f (x), and (d) lim f (x).
x→−1− x→0− x→0+ x→4+
ic s
at
Solution.
em
To evaluate (a), we need x to be less than −1 but very close to −1, so we use the expression
x2 − x − 2 h
. Thus,
at
x+1
M
(x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim (x − 2) = −3.
of
x→−1− x→−1− x+1 x→−1−

e
ut
For (b), we take x to be less than 0 but very close to zero. By the definition of the function, we
tit
x2 − x − 2
s
should take f (x) = for such values of x. Hence, lim f (x) = −2.
In
x+1 x→0−
√
UP
For (c), lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 2.

x→0+ x→0+
Finally, for (d), lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0.

x→4+ x→4+
Some limits can be calculated by finding the one-sided limits first. In fact, we have the following
result:
Theorem 1.2.10. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L = lim f (x).
x→a x→a− x→a+
√ √
Example 1.2.11. From Example 1.2.7, since lim 2 − x = 0 and lim 2 − x does not exist,
√ x→2− x→2+
lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2
Example 1.2.12. If H(x) is the Heaviside step function, then lim H(x) does not exist (see Example
x→0
1.2.4).
Example 1.2.13. Let √

 4 − x, x≤4
f (x) =
x2 − 5x + 4, x>4
Evaluate lim f (x).
x→4
Solution.
Observe that f is defined differently when x < 4 and when x > 4, so we consider one-sided limits.
Since
√
lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 0,
x→4− x→4−
and
lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0,
x→4+ x→4+
we have lim f (x) = 0.

x→4
t+4
s
Example 1.2.14. Let g(t) = . Evaluate lim g(t).
ic
|t + 4| t→−4
at
em
Solution.
Recall that  h
at
t + 4, if t ≥ −4
|t + 4| = .
M
−(t + 4), if t < −4

of
Therefore,
e
t+4
ut
lim g(t) = lim = lim −1 = −1,

t→−4− t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
tit
and
s
t+4
In
lim g(t) = lim = lim 1 = 1.

t→−4+ t→−4+ t + 4 t→−4+
UP
Hence, lim g(t) does not exist.

t→4
Example 1.2.15. Evaluate: lim [[x]]

x→−2
Solution.
..

.





−3, −3 ≤ x < −2





Note that [[x]] = −2, −2 ≤ x < −1

−1, −1 ≤ x < 0





 ..



.
Thus, lim [[x]] = lim (−3) = −3, while lim [[x]] = lim (−2) = −2, so lim [[x]] does not
x→−2− x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2+ x→−2
exist.

Example 1.2.16. Evaluate: lim s + [[1 − s]]
s→2+
Solution.
..




 .

−2, −2 ≤ 1 − s < −1 ⇔ 2 < s ≤ 3

Note that [[1 − s]] =


−1, −1 ≤ 1 − s < 0 ⇔ 1 < s ≤ 2

 .
 .

.

Therefore, lim s + [[1 − s]] = lim (s − 2) = 0.
s→2+ s→2+
[[2x − 1]] − 2x
x→ 21
− 2x + 1
Solution.
..




 .

−1, −1 ≤ 2x − 1 < 0 ⇔ 0 ≤ x < 1

2
Note that [[2x − 1]] = 1


 0, 0 ≤ 2x − 1 < 1 ⇔ 2 ≤ x < 1
s

 .

ic
 ..
at
[[2x − 1]] − 2x −1 − 2x
= −1.
em
So, lim = lim
x→ 1− 2x + 1 x→ 1 − 2x + 1
2 2 h
at
x2 − 2x + 1
M
x→1 x − [[x]]
of
Solution.
e
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
ut
• lim = lim =0
tit
x→1− x − [[x]] x→1− x − 0

s
x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
In
• lim = lim = lim (x − 1) = 0

x→1+ x − [[x]] x→1+ x − 1 x→1+
UP
x2 − 2x + 1
Therefore, lim = 0.
x→1 x − [[x]]
1.2.1 Exercises
p
1. lim 7x2 − 12x + 5 5. lim [[3x + 1]]
2
x→3− x→ 3
p
2. lim 4x2 − 12x + 9 |4x| − |x − 5|
3 6. lim
x→ 2 x→1 1−x
3. lim [[3x + 1]] 2t + 1
7. lim
2+ 1 |2t2 − 3t − 2|
x→ 3 t→− 2
4. lim [[3x + 1]] x [[x]] − 1
2− 8. lim
x→ 3 x→1− [[x]] − 1
B. Let  2
x −4
x < −1
s
,


ic
 2
x + 2x
g(x) = .
at
x+1
√ , x > −1


em
2x + 3 − 1
h
Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)
at
x→−2 x→−1 x→0
M
C. Given 
of
kx − 3, x ≤ −1
h(x) = ,
e
x2 + k, x > −1
ut
tit
where k is constant. Find k so that lim h(x) exists.

x→−1
s
In
D. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) satisfying all of the following:

UP
• dom f = [−4, 4] • f (4) = 0 • lim f (x) = 4

x→0+
• f (−4) = f (−2) = 3 • lim f (x) = 0
x→−4+
• lim f (x) = −1
• f (0) = 1 • lim f (x) = 1 x→2
x→−2
• f (2) = −1 • lim f (x) = 1 • lim f (x) = 0

x→0− x→4−
1 − 4x2
s
x2 − 9 7. lim
1. lim 1− |2x2 − 3x + 1| + |2x2 − x|
x→3− x+2 x→ 2
2. lim [[1 − 2x]] [[x]] − 2

x→5−
8. lim
x→2+ [[x]] − x

1 1 [[2 − y]]
3. lim − 9. lim
x→2− x [[x]] y→4 [[y + 2]] − y
+
4. lim [[2 + x]] x2 − [[x + 2]] x

x→2 10. lim
x→2 x − [[2x]]

1 1 [[x]] + 2
5. lim − 11. lim
x→−2+ [[−x]] |x| x→2 [[x]] − 2
−
|3x + 2| − |x − 2| x2 − 3x + 2
6. lim 12. lim
s
x→2− [[x]] − x
ic
x→0 x
at
B. Let
 2 h em
x + 4x + 3
, x ≤ −1
at


 x2 − x − 2


M
f (x) = [[x + 3]] , −1 < x < 1 .


of
√x − 1,



x≥1
e
ut
Evaluate: lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x)

tit
x→−1 x→0 x→1 x→2

s
In
C. Let
UP

 |2x − x2 |

 , x<0


 x
[[x + 3]] − 6

g(x) = , 0≤x<3.

 3 − [[x]]
x2 − 6x + 5


, x≥3


 3
x − 19x − 30
Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)

x→0 x→3 x→5
D. Let 

a − 3x x < −2


f (x) = ax + 3b −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ,



4x + b x>1

where a and b are constants. Find a and b so that lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist.
x→−2 x→1
E. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) satisfying all of the following:
• dom f = [−3, 2) ∪ (2, 5] • lim f (x) = −2 • lim f (x) = 4

x→−3+ x→2+
7
• f (−3) = f (−1) = 1 • lim f (x) = 3
2 • lim f (x) = − x→4
• f (4) = 3 x→−1 2
5
• f (5) = −1 • lim f (x) = 0 • lim f (x) = −
x→2− x→5− 2
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 19
1.3 Limits Involving Infinity
In this section, we consider functions that may increase indefinitely either positively or negatively.
We will also be interested in the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases without bound,
or as we shall say, as x approaches positive infinity or negative infinity.
• interpret infinite limits and limits at infinity of a function through graphs and
tables of values; and
• evaluate infinite limits and limits at infinity of functions (e.g. rational, radical).
ic s
1.3.1 Infinite Limits
at
em
Let us start with what are called infinite limits.
h
1
at
Illustration 1.3.1. Let f (x) = . Note that f is undefined at x = 0.
x2
M
of
x f (x) x f (x)
e
−1
ut
1 1 1
−0.5
tit
0.5 4 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
s
In
0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000

UP
0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000
Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) become larger and
larger, and that there is no bound to the growth of the values of f (x).
1 1
Figure 1.3.1: Graphs of y = and y = − 2 near x = 0
x2 x
Let f be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a.

We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is positive infinity, denoted
lim f (x) = +∞,

x→a
if the value of f (x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).
Also, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is negative infinity, denoted
lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a
if the value of f (x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).
Remark 1.3.2. The expressions above with “x → a” replaced by “x → a− ” or “x → a+ ” are

similarly defined.
ic s
Example 1.3.3. In Illustration 1.3.1, we have
at
em
1
lim = +∞,
x→0 x2 h
at
and
1
M
lim − 2 = −∞.
x→0 x
of
Remark 1.3.4. Note that ∞ is not a real number. Thus, if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, we do not
x→a
e
ut
mean that the limit exists. Though the limit does not exist, through the symbol we are able to
describe the behavior of f near a: that it increases or decreases indefinitely as x → a.
tit
3x
s
Consider f (x) = . Note that lim 3x = 3 while lim (x − 1) = 0. In this case, lim f (x) does
In
x−1 x→1 x→1 x→1

not exist, but observe that:
UP
• as x → 1− , x − 1 → 0− . Thus, the numerator approaches 3 while the numerical value of the

3x
denominator becomes smaller and smaller. As a result, approaches negative infinity.
x−1
3x
• as x → 1+ , x − 1 → 0+ , so this time, approaches positive infinity.
x−1
In general, we have the following theorem.
Theorem 1.3.5. Let c be a nonzero real number. Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a
1. If c > 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = +∞.
g(x)
x→a
f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)
2. If c < 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = −∞.
g(x)
x→a
f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)
5x
Example 1.3.6. Consider: g(x) = .
4 − x2

5x −10
• lim = +∞
x→−2 (2 + x)(2 − x)
− (0− )(4)

5x −10
• lim = −∞
x→−2 (2 + x)(2 − x)
+ (0+ )(4)

5x 10
• lim = +∞
x→2− (2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0+ )
s

5x 10
ic
• lim = −∞
(2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0− )
at
x→2+
Theorem 1.3.7.
h em
at
M
1. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = ±∞.
x→a x→a x→a
of
2. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = ∓∞.
e
x→a x→a x→a

ut
3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = +∞.
tit
x→a x→a x→a

s
In
4. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = +∞ and
x→a x→a x→a
lim (g(x) − f (x)) = −∞.
UP
x→a
5. Let c ∈ R \ {0}. Suppose x→a

lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→a
(a) lim f (x)g(x) = ±∞, if c > 0.

x→a
(b) lim f (x)g(x) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a

2
Example 1.3.8. Determine lim x2 − .
x→1− x−1
Solution.
2
Using the above theorem, since lim x2 = 1 and lim = −∞, we have (see Figure 1.3.2)
x→1− x→1− x−1

2
lim x2 − = +∞.
x→1− x−1
The graph of x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if at least one of the following
is true:
• lim f (x) = −∞ • lim f (x) = −∞

x→a− x→a+
• lim f (x) = +∞ • lim f (x) = +∞

x→a− x→a+
A more detailed discussion of the previous definition will be given in a later chapter.

2 2
Example 1.3.9. From the previous example, since lim x − = +∞, the line x = 1 is a
x→1− x−1
2
vertical asymptote of the graph of y = x2 − . (See Figure 1.3.2.)
x−1
x=1
ics
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
2
tit
Figure 1.3.2: Graph of y = x2 − with vertical asymptote x = 1

x−1
s
In
UP
Notice that in Theorem 1.3.7, nothing is said about lim [f (x) + g(x)], where lim f (x) = +∞ while
x→a x→a
lim g(x) = −∞. In this case, does the limit exist? If it does, is the limit simply equal to zero? The
x→a
answer is no. In fact, this is another indeterminate form: ∞ − ∞. Moreover, in Theorem 1.3.7,
limits of the form c · ∞ where c 6= 0 were dealt with. When c = 0, the limit is also indeterminate.
1. Suppose lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞. Then lim [f (x) − g(x)] is called an indetermi-
x→a x→a x→a
nate form of type ∞ − ∞.
2. Suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then lim [f (x)g(x)] is called an indeterminate
x→a x→a x→a
form of type 0 · ∞.

1 3
Example 1.3.10. Evaluate: lim + 2
x→−1− x + 1 2x + x − 1
Solution.

1 3 1 3
lim + −
+
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0 (−3)(0− )
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞. To compute, we combine the expressions into one:

1 3 (2x − 1) + 3
lim + = lim
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1)

2x + 2 0
= lim
x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0
2
= lim
x→−1 2x − 1
−
2
=−
3

1 t 8
Example 1.3.11. Evaluate: lim −
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2
ic s
at
Solution.
em

1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − h −
t→4 4 − t
+ t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
at
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type 0 · ∞. To compute, we rewrite the expression as a quotient:
M
of

1 t 8 1 t(t + 2) − 8(t − 1)
lim − = lim
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2 t→4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
e
ut
2

t − 6t + 8 0
tit
= lim
t→4 + (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2) 0
s
In

(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
t→4 + (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
UP

−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ (t − 1)(t + 2)
1
=−
9
1.3.2 Limits at Infinity

We now discuss limits at infinity, that is, the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases
without bound. Let us consider the following illustration.
1
Illustration 1.3.12. Let f (x) = . Observe from the tables below that the values of f (x) get
x
closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach positive infinity, as seen in the left table.
Similarly, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach negative
infinity, as seen in the right table.
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 −1
10 0.1 −100 −0.01
1000 0.001 −10000 −0.0001
1000000 0.000001 −10000000 −0.0000001
1000000000 0.000000001 −1000000000 −0.000000001
1
f (x) =
x
s
1
ic
Figure 1.3.3: Graph of y =
x
at
em
Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a, ∞). We say that the limit of f (x)
h
at
as x approaches positive infinity is L, denoted
M
lim f (x) = L
of
x→+∞
e
ut
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x increase without bound.
tit
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (−∞, a). We say that the
s
In
limit of f (x) as x approaches negative infinity is L, denoted

UP
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x decrease without bound.
Remark 1.3.13. We have similar notions for the following symbols:
• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
x→+∞
• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
x→−∞
1 1
Example 1.3.14. In the previous illustration, lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x
In general, we have the following results.

Theorem 1.3.15.
1. lim xn = +∞, if n is even.

x→±∞
2. lim xn = ±∞, if n is odd.

x→±∞
1
3. lim =0
x→±∞ xn
4. Let c ∈ R. Suppose x→+∞

lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→+∞
f (x)
lim = 0.
x→+∞ g(x)
Remark 1.3.16. In statement 4 of the previous theorem, “x → +∞” may be replaced by

“x → −∞”, “x → a”, “x → a+ ”, and “x → a− ”. What is important is that the limit of the
numerator exists, while the denominator increases or decreases without bound.
ic s
Example 1.3.17. Evaluate: lim (5x4 − x3 − x + 8)
at
x→+∞
Solution.
em
h
Note that since we are letting x increase without bound, we have x 6= 0. We may then write
at
1 1 8
M
5x4 − x3 − x + 8 = x4 · 5 − − 3 + 4 . By the previous theorem, lim x4 = +∞, while each

x x x x→+∞
of
1 1 8
of , 3 and 4 approach 0, as x → +∞. Statement 4 of Theorem 1.3.7 then implies that
x x x
e
ut

1 1 8
tit
4
lim x · 5 − − 3 + 4 = +∞. (+∞)(5 − 0 − 0 + 0)
x→+∞ x x x
s
In
UP
Example 1.3.18. Evaluate: lim (3x5 − x4 + 2x − 4)

x→−∞
Solution.

5 4 1 52 4
lim (3x − x + 2x − 4) = lim x · 3 − + 4 − 5 = −∞ (−∞)(3 − 0 + 0 − 0)
x→−∞ x→−∞ x x x
Remark 1.3.19. In general, to find lim f (x) if f is a polynomial function, it suffices to consider
x→±∞
the behavior of the leading term of f (x) as x → +∞ (or as x → −∞).
1
x→−∞ x3 − 4
Solution.
1
Note that lim x3 − 4 = −∞. Thus, lim = 0.
x→−∞ −4
x→−∞ x3

2 4
Example 1.3.21. Evaluate: lim 3x + 2x −
x→+∞ x
Solution.
4
Here, since lim (3x2 + 2x) = +∞ and lim = 0, we have
x→+∞ x→+∞ x

2 4
lim 3x + 2x − = +∞.
x→+∞ x
3x − 1
Example 1.3.22. Evaluate: lim .
x→+∞ 9x + 3
Solution.
∞
Note that lim (3x − 1) = +∞ and lim (9x + 3) = +∞. Thus, the limit has the form . Does
x→+∞ x→+∞ ∞
this mean that the limit does not exist? Consider the table of values below.
3x−1
x 9x+3
1 0.1666667
10 ≈ 0.311828
100000 ≈ 0.3333311
ic s
1000000000 ≈ 0.3333333
at
3x − 1
em
It seems that as x → +∞, the quotient approaches a particular value: 0.3333333. Let us
9x + 3 h
2
3x − 1 1
at
3
verify this. Using long division, we can write = − . Therefore,
9x + 3 3 3x + 1
M
!
2
3x − 1 1 1 1
of
3
lim = lim − = −0= .
x→+∞ 9x + 3 x→+∞ 3 3x + 1 3 3
e
ut
So the limit exists, but it is not equal to 0.3333333 as we initially guessed—it is equal to 13 .
stit
In
From the above example, we see that if both the numerator and denominator have infinite limits,
then the limit of the quotient may exist. In fact, this is another indeterminate form.
UP
f (x)
Suppose lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞. Then lim is called an
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞
indeterminate form of type ∞ .
Remark 1.3.23. The expression “x → a” may be replaced by “x → a− ”, “x → a+ ”, “x → −∞”

and “x → +∞”.
x3 − 2x2 + 3
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1
Solution.
x3 − 2x2 + 3 ∞
Note that lim 4 2
is an indeterminate form of type . Since we are letting x
x→+∞ 4x − x + x + 1 ∞
approach +∞, we have x 6= 0. Thus, we may divide both numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x in the denominator which is x4 :
1 1 2 3
x3 − 2x2 + 3 x4 x − x2
+ x4 0
lim · 1 = lim 1 1 1 = =0
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1 x→+∞ 4− + + 4
x4 x2 x3 x4
√
x2 − 3
x→+∞ x+2
Solution.
∞

This is an indeterminate form of type . To evaluate this, we use the fact that
∞

√ x, if x ≥ 0
x2 = |x| = .
−x, if x < 0
√
Since we are letting x → +∞, we have x > 0 and so, x2 = x. Hence,
√ √ 1
x2 − 3 x 2 − 3 √ x2
lim = lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2 x→+∞ x + 2 √
2 x
√ √1
x2 − 3 x2
= lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2
x
q
1 − x32
s
= lim
ic
x→+∞ 1 + 2
x
at
= 1.
em
p
Example 1.3.26. Evaluate: lim ( 9x2 − x + 3x) h
x→−∞
at
Solution.
M
This is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞. We solve

√ it as follows:
of
p
2
p
2
( 9x2 − x − 3x)
lim ( 9x − x + 3x) = lim ( 9x − x + 3x) · √
e
x→−∞ x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x)

ut

−x ∞
tit
= lim √
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) ∞+∞
s
In
√1
−x x2
= lim √ ·
UP
2
x→−∞ ( 9x − x − 3x) √1
x2
1 √
−x −x
= lim √ · since x2 = |x| = −x when x < 0
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) √1
x2
−x
−x
= lim q
x→−∞ 9x2 x 3x
x2
− x2
− −x
1
= lim q
x→−∞
9 − x1 + 3
1
=
6
The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.

x→+∞ x→−∞
(A more detailed discussion of the previous definition will be given in a later section.) Let us
illustrate the above definition with the following examples.
3
Example 1.3.27. Consider lim = 0. Here, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of
x→+∞ x2 −9
3
the graph of y = .
x2 −9
3x − 1 1 1
Example 1.3.28. From a previous example, lim = . The line y = 3 is a horizontal
x→−∞ 9x + 3 3
3x − 1
asymptote of the graph of y = .
9x + 3
p
2 − x + 3x =
1 1
Example
y 1.3.29. From a previous example, lim 9x . The line y = 6 is a
√ x→−∞ 6
horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = 9x2 − x + 3x.
3 3x−1
y= x2 −9 y= 9x+3
1
y=
s
x 3
ic
at
y=
√
9x2 − x + 3x em
h
at
1
y= 6
M
of
e
ut
Figure 1.3.4: The graphs of some functions with their respective horizontal asymptotes
s tit
In
UP
1.3.3 Exercises
Evaluate the following limits.
2

x x−2
1. lim 5. lim + 2
1 1 − 3x
−
x→−2− x+2 x +x−2
x→ 3

1 1
[[x]] − 1
2. lim √ − 6. lim
t→0 t t+3 t x→2+ [[x]] − x
x−2 2x3 − 6x + 5
3. lim √ 7. lim
x→2− 2 − 4x − x2 x→+∞ 4 + 7x − 6x3

4 1 1 4z 3 + 5
4. lim − − 8. lim
x→−2− (x + 2)2 (2 − x) (x + 2)2 x z→+∞ 1 − 2z + 3z 2
s
ic
at
Evaluate the following limits.
2x3 − 5x2
h em x − [[x]]2
2
at
1. lim 8. lim
M
x→1− x2 − 1 x→1+ x2 − 1
4 − x2
of
2. lim 3
x→2+ 4 − 4x + x2 9. lim
e
x→−∞ x2 −3
ut
2−y
3. lim
tit
y→4 y 2 − 8y + 16 10. lim (3x4 − 3x2 + x + 4)

s
x→−∞
In

1 1
4. lim √ −1
t→0 t t+3 3y 2 − 5y + 2
UP
11. lim
y→−∞ 6y 3 − 2y 2 − 1

2 1 7s
5. lim + 2 +
s→−1 s2 − 1 s + 3s + 2 s3 + 8
y 2 + 3y − 8
1 1 12. lim
6. lim 1− √ y→∞ 2 − 5y − 3y 2
t→0+ t 2t + 1
√
[[s]] − 1 2x + x2 − 1
7. lim 13. lim
s→−1 [[s]] + 1 x→+∞ x+3
1.4 Limit of a Function: The Formal Definition

In this section, we give the formal definition of the limit of a function. This involves a more rigorous
approach on showing the limit of a function. We will then establish limits of a function using the
formal definition.
• describe the limit of a function using the formal definition; and
• illustrate the formal definition of the limit of a function using graphs.
1.4.1 The Formal Definition of Limits

We start this section with the formal definition of the limit of a function. Recall that informally,
we define limit of a function f is the real number L as x approaches a, written lim f (x) = L, if
s
x→a
ic
the values of the function f get closer and closer to L as we allow the values of x to get closer and
at
closer to a. We will make this informal notion of “closer and closer” mathematical precise.
em
Let us consider the next illustration.
h
at
Illustration 1.4.1. Consider the function f (x) = 2x − 1.
M
of
• For which values of x do we have 0 < f (x) < 2?

Answer: For all x in 21 , 32 , or for all x such that 1
< x < 32 .

e
2
ut
• For which values of x do we have 21 < f (x) < 23 ?

tit
Answer: For all x in 34 , 54 , or for all x such that 3

< x < 54 .

s
4
In
• For which values of x do we have 0.98 < f (x) < 1.02?

UP
Answer: For all x in (0.99, 1.01), or for all x such that 0.99 < x < 1.01.
• For which values of x do we have 0.9998 < f (x) < 1.0002?

Answer: For all x in (0.9999, 1.0001), or for all x such that 0.9999 < x < 1.0001.
In general, for any positive number ε, suppose we want to find a range of values for x so that
1 − ε < f (x) < 1 + ε or |f (x) − 1| < ε.
Then we can choose x satisfying

ε ε ε
1− <x<1+ or 0 < |x − 1| < .
2 2 2
Moreover, if ε is very, very close to zero, then the expression
|f (x) − 1| < ε
means that f (x) is very, very close to 1. This happens if we choose x such that
ε
0 < |x − 1| < ,
2
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 31
2 f (x) = 2x − 1
1+ε
(

ε
1
ε
1−ε
)
|{z}|{z}
δ δ
( )
1 2
1−δ 1+δ
0
Figure 1.4.1: Given ε > 0, what is δ?
that is, if x is chosen to be very, very close to 1.
ic s
The illustration above summarizes to the following problem:
at
em
If ε is any positive number, what should δ be so that
|f (x) − 1| < ε whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ?
h
at
M
ε
The solution above implies that we may choose δ to be .
2
of
e
Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a. The limit
ut
of f (x) as x approaches a is L, written lim f (x) = L, if and only if for every ε > 0 (no matter how
tit
x→a
small) there exists a δ > 0 such that
s
In
|f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

UP
This definition formalizes our intuitive notion of a limit: that lim f (x) = L if f (x) can be made as
x→a
close as possible to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a). Recall that:
|f (x) − L| < ε ⇔ −ε < f (x) − L < ε ⇔ L − ε < f (x) < L + ε

0 < |x − a| < δ ⇔ −δ < x − a < δ, x − a 6= 0 ⇔ a − δ < x < a + δ, x 6= a
That is, the absolute value inequalities represent open intervals “centered” at L and at a. The
formal definition then says this: for any open interval Iy centered at L, there is a corresponding
open interval Jx “centered” at a such that whenever x is in Jx (but x 6= a), f (x) is guaranteed to
be in Iy . Because this can be done for any open interval Iy , the interval Iy can be chosen to be as
short as we like.
1.4.2 Proving Limits using the Definition

In the next examples, we illustrate how the definition is used to prove that the limit of a function
is a particular number.
Example 1.4.2. Prove that lim (3x + 2) = 5.

x→1
Solution.
The solution is composed of two parts: the first part is to systematically guess what δ would be
sufficient, and the second part is to verify whether the guessed δ works.
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(3x + 2) − 5| < ε.
Note that |(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then 3|x − 1| < ε,
or
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |x − 1| < ε/3.
ic s
ε
at
This suggests that we may take δ = .
3
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works).
em
Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/3.
h
at
If 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then
M
ε
|(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
of
3
e
That is,
ut
tit
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(3x + 2) − 5| < ε.

s
In
Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

UP
lim (3x + 2) = 5.
x→1
Example 1.4.3. Prove that lim (5x + 6) = −4.

x→−2
Solution.
I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a given positive number. We want to find a number δ such
that
if 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then |(5x + 6) − (−4)| < ε.
Note that |(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
if 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then 5|x + 2| < ε

or
if 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then |x + 2| < ε/5.

ε
5
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/5.
If 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2| < 5δ = 5 = ε.
5
That is,
if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |(5x + 6) − (−4)| < ε.
lim (5x + 6) = −4.
ic s
x→−2
at
Example 1.4.4. Prove that lim (4 − 3x) = 4.
h em
at
x→0
M
Solution.
of
e
ut
tit
if 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ, then |(4 − 3x) − 4| < ε.

s
In
Note that |(4 − 3x) − 4| = | − 3x| = 3|x|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
UP
if 0 < |x| < δ, then 3|x| < ε
or
if 0 < |x| < δ, then |x| < ε/3.

ε
3
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/3.
If 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then
ε
|(4 − 3x) − (4)| = 3|x| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
3
That is,
if 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then |(4 − 3x) − 4| < ε.

lim (4 − 3x) = 4.
x→0
Remark 1.4.5. The value of δ is not unique. Note that if a given δ works such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε
then we can take any smaller positive δ0 ≤ δ such that
0 < |x − a| < δ0 .
The statement then becomes
if 0 < |x − a| < δ0 ≤ δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.
ic s
at
Example 1.4.6. Prove that lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
em
x→−2
h
at
Solution.
M
of
e
ut
if 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε.

tit
Note that |(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
s
In
UP
if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |x − 2||x + 2| < ε.
Since we are just getting the limit of the function for values of x very close to −2, it is safe
to assume that
0 < |x + 2| < 1.
Thus,
−1 < x + 2 < 1 =⇒ −3 < x < −1 =⇒ −5 < x − 2 < −3 < 5 =⇒ |x − 2| < 5.
Summarizing, if |x + 2| < 1, one way to ensure that |(x2 − 1) − 3| < is to ensure that
|x + 2| < ε/5. Thus, if |x + 2| is less than both 1 and ε/5, then we arrive at the desired
conclusion. This suggests that we may take δ to be the smaller of the two numbers, written
δ = min{1, ε/5}1 .
1
By δ = min{1, ε/5}, we mean that if 1 ≤ ε/5, δ may be chosen to be 1, and when ε/5 < 1, δ may be taken to
be ε/5.
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, ε/5}.
If 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2| < 5δ ≤ 5 = ε.
5
That is,
if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε.
lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
x→−2
Remark 1.4.7. If lim f (x) = L, observe that in one way or another, the expression |x − a| can
x→a
be factored (but it may not be easy to do so!) from the expression |f (x) − L|. This means that if
ic s
0 < |x − a| < δ, then
at
|f (x) − L| = |x − a||g(x)| < δ|g(x)|
h em
for some function g(x). In this case, if g(x) is a nonzero constant, say g(x) = c, then δ = ε/|c|. If
g(x) is an expression in x, we shall find an upper bound for |g(x)| by restricting values of x to a
at
certain interval about a.
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.4.3 Exercises
A. Prove the following.
1. lim (5x − 3) = −3 4. lim (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0

x→0 x→1
2. lim (2x + 1) = −3 5. lim (2 − x2 ) = 1
x→−2 x→−1
3. lim (5 − 2x) = −1 6. lim (4 − 3x + x2 ) = 8

x→3 x→−1
B. Use the definition of the limit of a function to prove that lim f (x) = −6 if
x→− 43

2
 16x − 9 ,

x 6= − 34
f (x) = 4x + 3 .
2, x= − 34

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 37
1.5 Continuity of Functions; The Intermediate Value Theorem

Notice that in the previous sections, to compute the limit of polynomial or rational functions as
x approaches a, we simply calculate the value of the function at a, if possible. We will see later
on that this property is a condition for possession of other “desirable” characteristics. Functions
satisfying that property are said to be continuous at x = a.
• interpret the continuity of a function at a point using graphs;
• distinguish the types of discontinuity graphically;
• find the possible points of discontinuity of a function;
• identify the type of discontinuity as either removable, jump essential, or infinite

essential;
s
• redefine functions with removable discontinuities;
ic
at
• describe the continuity of a function on an interval;
h em
• evaluate limits and determine continuity of composite functions; and
at
M
• interpret the Intermediate Value Theorem using graphs and real life situations
of
e
ut
1.5.1 Continuity
tit
Continuity at a Point
s
In
A function f is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions are all satisfied:

UP
(i) f is defined at x = a
(ii) lim f (x) exists

x→a
(iii) f (a) = lim f (x)

x→a
Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x = a.
Example 1.5.1. Let f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2. Let us examine the continuity of f at x = 1. First of all,
f (1) = 0. Moreover, lim f (x) = 0. Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1
x2 − x − 2
Example 1.5.2. Let f (x) = . Since f is not defined at x = 2, f is discontinuous at
x−2
R
x = 2. However, it is continuous at every other a ∈ \ {2}.
Remark 1.5.3. In general, if f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is any element in the
domain of f , then f is continuous at x = a.
Example 1.5.4. Let g be defined by
 2
 x −x−2
, x 6= 2
g(x) = x−2 .
0, x=2

Note that g is defined at x = 2 with g(2) = 0. However,
x2 − x − 2
lim g(x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2
Since g(2) is not equal to lim g(x), g is discontinuous at x = 2.

x→2
Example 1.5.5. Let h be defined by
s
 2
 x − x − 2 , x 6= 2
ic
at
h(x) = x−2 .
em

3, x=2
h
at
For this function, we have h(2) = 3 = lim h(x). Therefore, h(x) is continuous at x = 2.
M
x→2
of
e
3x2 − 4x + 1
ut
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) =
x−1
tit
3 3
s
In
2 2
1 1
UP
0 1 2 0 1 2 3
−1 −1
3
1
h(x) = 2
x
1
Heaviside function H
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1 1
−2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 −1
Figure 1.5.1: The figures above show graphs of various functions. The function whose graph appears
R
on the upper left is continuous at all a ∈ , while the other three graphs are those of functions
that are discontinuous at some a ∈ . R
1. If lim f (x) exists but either f (a) is undefined or f (a) 6= lim f (x), then we say that f has a
x→a x→a
removable discontinuity at x = a.
2. If lim f (x) does not exist, then we say that f has an essential discontinuity at x = a.
x→a
Moreover,
(a) if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal, then f is said to have a jump
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity at x = a.
(b) if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, or lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, then f is said to have an infinite
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity.
Example 1.5.6. Refer to Figure 1.5.1.
• For f (x) = 3x − 1, note that f (1) = 2 = lim (3x − 1), so f is continuous at x = 1.
s
x→1
ic
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x2 − 4x + 1
at
• For g(x) = , g(1) is undefined but lim = 2, so g has a removable
em
x−1 x→1 x−1
discontinuity at x = 1. h
at
1
• Take h(x) = . Then h is undefined at x = 0, while lim h(x) = −∞ and lim h(x) = +∞.
M
x x→0− x→0+
Thus, h has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = 0.
of
• Finally, for the Heaviside function H, we have H(0) = 1, lim H(x) = 0, and lim H(x) = 1.
e
x→0−
ut
x→0+
Therefore, H has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 0.
s tit
Remark 1.5.7. The discontinuity in statement 1 of Definition 1.5.1 is called removable, because
In
the discontinuity can be “removed” by redefining the value of f at a so that f (a) = lim f (x),
UP
x→a
resulting in a function that is now continuous at x = a. On the other hand, it is not possible to do
this for essential discontinuities.
Example 1.5.8. The function g in Example 1.5.4 has a removable discontinuity at x = 2, since
g(2) = 0 while lim g(x) = 3. However, if we redefine g at x = 2 such that g(2) = 3, then the
x→2
resulting function would be continuous at x = 2.
Example 1.5.9. Determine if the function


4x − 3,
 x<1
f (x) = x−2


2
, x≥1
2x − 5x + 2
is continuous at x = 1 and at x = 2. If discontinuous, classify the type of discontinuity as removable,
jump essential, or infinite essential.
Solution.
• x = 1:
1−2
(i) f (1) = =1
2−5+2
(ii) lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 4(1) − 3 = 1
x→1− x→1−
x−2 1−2
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = =1
x→1+ x→1− 2x2 − 5x + 2 2−5+2
Thus, lim f (x) = 1 = f (1). Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1
• x = 2:
x−2
Note that f (x) = for values of x close enough to 2.
2x2 − 5x + 2
(i) f (2) is undefined

x−2 x−2 1 1
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim =
x→2 x→2 2x2 − 5x + 2 x→2 (2x − 1)(x − 2) x→2 2x − 1 3
Hence, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.
s
Remark 1.5.10. In general, the discontinuities of a given function f may occur at points where
ic
f is undefined or, for the case of piecewise functions, at the endpoints of intervals. Such points are
at
aptly called the possible points of discontinuity of f .
h em R. Then the following are
at
Theorem 1.5.11. Let f and g be continuous at x = a and let c ∈
M
also continuous at x = a:
of
1. f + g f
4. provided that g(a) 6= 0
e
g
ut
2. f − g
tit
3. f g 5. cf
s
In
Similar to limits, we define continuity from the left and continuity from the right.
UP
1. A function f is said to be continuous from the left at x = a if
f (a) = lim f (x).

x→a−
2. A function f is said to be continuous from the right at x = a if
f (a) = lim f (x).

x→a+
√
Example 1.5.12. The function f defined by f (x) = 2 − x is continuous from the left at x = 2
but not from the right at x = 2 (since f is undefined for x > 2).
Example 1.5.13. Let g(x) = [[x]] be the greatest integer function. Then g is continuous from the
right at x = 1, but not continuous from the left at x = 1. In general, if n is any integer, then g is
continuous from the right at x = n, but not continuous from the left at x = n (recall the graph of
g(x) = [[x]]).
Continuity on an Interval
We can also consider continuity of functions on intervals. Being continuous on an interval means
that the graph of a function has no “gaps” or “holes” on that interval.
A function f is said to be continuous
1. everywhere if f is continuous at every real number.
2. on (a, b) if f is continuous at every point x in (a, b).
3. on [a, b) if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the right of a.
4. on (a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the left of b.
5. on [a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b] and on [a, b).
6. on (a, ∞) if f is continuous at all x > a.
7. on [a, ∞) if f is continuous on (a, ∞) and from the right of a.
ic s
8. on (−∞, b) if f is continuous at all x < b.
at
em
9. on (−∞, b] if f is continuous on (−∞, b) and from the left of b.
h
at
M
Remark 1.5.14.
of
1. Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.

e
ut
2. The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere.

s tit
3. Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains.

In
√
UP
4. The square root function f (x) = x is continuous on [0, ∞).
5. The greatest integer function f (x) = [[x]] is continuous on [n, n + 1), where n is any integer.
The following theorem allows us to get the limit of a composition of functions provided that certain
conditions are satisfied.
Theorem 1.5.15. If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). In other
x→a x→a
words, if f is continuous at lim g(x),
x→a

lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

x−2
Example 1.5.16. Evaluate: lim 2

x→2 x − 4
Solution.
Since the absolute value function is continuous everywhere, we can apply the previous theorem:

x−2 x − 2 1 1
lim = lim 2
= − =
x→2 x2 − 4 x→2 x − 4 4 4
Example 1.5.17. Evaluate: lim 3x2

1
x→ 3
Solution.
1 1
Since lim 3x2 = and the greatest integer function is continuous at x = , we have
x→
1 3 3
3

1
lim 3x2 =

= 0.
1
x→ 3 3
s
Theorem 1.5.18. If g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g(a), then (f ◦ g)(x) =
ic
at
f (g(x)) is continuous at x = a.
em
√
Example 1.5.19. Determine the largest interval for which h(x) =h x2 − 1 is continuous.
at
Solution.
M
√
Note that if a > 0, the square root function f (x) = x is continuous at x = a. Moreover,
√
of
g(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous everywhere. By the previous theorem, h(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous at

e
all a satisfying a2 − 1 > 0, or for all a in (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). It is left to the reader to verify that
ut
h is continuous from the left at x = −1 and from the right at x = 1. Therefore, h is continuous on
tit
(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

s
In
Example 1.5.20. Determine the values of x where the function

UP
x−2


 , x ≤ −1
 2x + 6
f (x) =
2x2 + x − 6
, x > −1


|2x − 3|

is discontinuous. Classify each discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential.
Solution.
The function f is undefined at x = −3 and at x = 32 , and its definition splits at x = −1. Thus, f
R
is continuous at each x ∈ , except possibly at x = −3, −1 and 32 . Moreover, note that
(
2x − 3, 2x − 3 ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 23
|2x − 3| = .
−(2x − 3), 2x − 3 < 0 ⇔ x < 32
• x = −3:
(i) f (−3) is undefined


x−2 −5
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = +∞
x→−3− x→−3− 2(x + 3) 2(0− )

x−2 −5
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = −∞
x→−3+ x→−3+ 2(x + 3) 2(0+ )
Thus, f has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = −3.
• x = −1:
−1 − 2 3
(i) f (−1) = =−
2(−1) + 6 4
x−2 3
(ii) lim f (x) = lim =−
x→−1− x→−1− 2x + 6 4
2
2x + x − 6 2x2 + x − 6 2−1−6
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = = −1
x→−1+ x→−1+ |2x − 3| x→−1+ −(2x − 3) −(2(−1) − 3)
Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = −1.
• x = 23 :
ic s
3

at
(i) f 2 is undefined
em
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim −(x + 2) = −
3−
x→ 2
3−
x→ 2
|2x − 3| x→
3 −
h −(2x − 3) x→
3 − 2
at
2 2
2x2+x−6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
M
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 2) =

3+ 3+ |2x − 3| 3 + 2x − 3 3 − 2
of
x→ 2 x→ 2 x→ 2 x→ 2
e
Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 32 .

ut
tit
Example 1.5.21. Determine the values of x where the function

s
In
 1 1
 + , x<0
 x2 − x x

UP

g(x) = [[x − 1]] , 0≤x≤2


 √
x − 2,

x>2
is discontinuous. Classify each discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential.
Solution.
Note that between 0 and 2, x − 1 is an integer when x = 1. Thus, the definition of the function
R
splits at x = 0, 1 and 2. Moreover, g is defined at all x ∈ . Thus, g is continuous everywhere
except possibly at 0, 1 and 2.
• x = 0:
(i) g(0) = [[0 − 1]] = −1

1 1 1 + (x − 1) 1
(ii) lim g(x) = lim + = lim = lim = −1
x→0 − x→0 − x(x − 1) x x→0 − x(x − 1) x→0 x − 1
−
(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1

x→0+ x→0+ x→0+
Thus, g is continuous at x = 0.
• x = 1:
(i) g(1) = [[1 − 1]] = 0

(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1
x→1− x→1− x→1−
(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
x→1+ x→1+ x→0+
Thus, g has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 1.
• x = 2:
(i) g(2) = [[2 − 1]] = 1

(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
x→2− x→2− x→2−
√ √
(iii) lim g(x) = lim x − 2 = 0 0+
x→2+ x→2+
ic s
Thus, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.
at
1.5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem h em
at
The next theorem gives an important property of continuous functions. It states that a continuous
M
function f on [a, b] takes on any value between the numbers f (a) and f (b).
of
e
Theorem 1.5.22 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). Let f be continuous on a closed in-
ut
terval [a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b). For every k between f (a) and f (b), there exists c in (a, b) such
tit
that f (c) = k.
s
In
UP
f (b)
k (c, f (c))
a c b
f (a)
Figure 1.5.2: A graphical illustration for IVT
Geometrically, IVT states that if f is continuous on [a, b], then the graph of y = f (x) intersects
any horizontal line y = k between y = f (a) and y = f (b).
Remark 1.5.23.
1. The continuity of the function on [a, b] in IVT is required. In general, the theorem is not true
for functions that are discontinuous on [a, b].
2. The c in the conclusion of IVT may not be unique.
x−1
Example 1.5.24. Consider the function f (x) = .
x
1. Verify that the Intermediate Value Theorem holds for f in the interval [1, 3].
1
2. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to justify why there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = ,
3
and find the value of c.
Solution.
1. Since dom f is R \ {0} and f is continuous at every number in its domain, f is continuous on
2
[1, 3]. Moreover, f (1) = 0 and f (3) = , so f (1) 6= f (3). Thus, IVT holds for f in [1, 3].
s
3
ic
at
2
2. IVT guarantees that for every k between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = k.
em
3
1 2 h 1
Since is between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = . We solve for c:
at
3 3 3
M
1
f (c) =
of
3
c−1 1
e
=
ut
c 3
3c − 3 = c
tit
2c = 3
s
In
3
c =
2
UP
3
Thus, the desired c in the interval (1, 3) is c = .
2
Remark 1.5.25. Note that in using IVT (or any theorem), one must first verify that the theorem
holds before stating the conclusion of the theorem. For instance, in IVT, we must first show that the
function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and that k is between f (a) and f (b) where f (a) 6= f (b)
before we can conclude that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = k.
The Intermediate Value Theorem can also be used to locate roots of equations, as illustrated in the
next example.
Example 1.5.26. Show that the equation
3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
has a solution between 0 and 1.

Solution.
Let f (x) = 3x4 −4x2 +5x−1. We wish to find c ∈ (0, 1) such that c is a root of the equation f (x) = 0
(that is, f (c) = 0). We check if IVT applies for f in (0, 1) with k = 0. Note that f is a polynomial
function so f is continuous on [0, 1]. Moreover, we have f (0) = −1 and f (1) = 3 − 4 + 5 − 1 = 3.
Hence, k = 0 is between f (0) and f (1). Therefore, the assumptions of IVT are satisfied, and we can
conclude that there exists c in (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0, that is, the equation 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
has at least one root c between 0 and 1.
ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
1.5.3 Exercises
A. Determine if f is continuous at all possible points of discontinuity. Classify each discontinuity

as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential. Redefine f so that it will be continuous at
every point of
removable discontinuity.
1

 , if x < 3
1. f (x) = x
2

 , if 3 ≤ x
9−x



 |x + 3|, if x ≤ 0


2. f (x) = [[2x]] , if 0 < x < 1

 2
x − 5x
, if x ≥ 1



x−5

3x + 3

 , if x < 1
x3√+ 1


3. f (x) = 2 + 2 − x, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
ic s


x2 − 6,

 if x > 2
at
em

 x + 2a, if x < −2

h
B. Find all values of a and b such that h(x) = 3ax + b, if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 is continuous every-
at

 3x − 2b, if x > 1
M
where.
of
C. Use IVT to prove the following.

e
ut
cos x
1. Show that p(x) = has a solution between 1 and 2.
tit
x
2. The graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x − 3 intersects the x-axis at least once between 3 and
s
In
4.
UP
A. Determine if f is continuous at all possible points of discontinuity. Classify each discontinuity

as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential. Redefine f so that it will be continuous at
every point of
removable discontinuity.

 |x + 6|, if x ≤ −1
1. f (x) = x2 − 6x + 9
 , if x > −1
x2 − 3x

x2 + 2x

, if x < 0


x+2


2. f (x) = |x − 1| + 1, if 0 ≤ x < 2



x2 − 2, if x ≥ 2

 2
x −x−2
, if x < 0


x−1

3. f (x) = √

 4 − x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
 2
x − 5x + 4, if x > 4
 2
x −x−2
, if x < −1


x+2

4. f (x) = [[x]] + 1, if − 1 ≤ x < 1


|x + 2|, if x ≥ 1

 2
x − 3x + 2
, if x < 0


x−1


5. f (x) = [[x]] + [[−x]] , if 0 ≤ x < 2



x2 − 5, if x ≥ 2



 x, if x ≤ 0

 3, if 0 < x ≤ 1
B. Is the function g(x) = 2 continuous on [1, 4]? [0, 4)? (−∞, 0)?

 3 − x , if 1 < x ≤ 4

x − 3, if x > 4

(
x + 2, if x ≤ m
C. Find all values of m such that g(x) = is continuous everywhere.
x2 , if x > m
ic s
D. Use IVT to prove the following.
at
em
1. The equation x5 + 4x3 + 14 − 7x = 0 has at least one real solution.
h
2. Show that f (x) = x4 − 7x2 + x + 4 has at least two real zeros.
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM49
1.6 Trigonometric Functions: Limits and Continuity;

The Squeeze Theorem
In the preceding sections, we considered the behavior of algebraic functions such as polynomial and
rational functions, and those that involve rational exponents and radicals. We now investigate the
limits and continuity of trigonometric functions.
• interpret the Squeeze Theorem graphically;
• evaluate limits using Squeeze Theorem;
• apply theorems on limits and continuity to trigonometric functions; and
• evaluate limits of trigonometric functions using prescribed theorems

and techniques.
ic s
at
em
1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem
h
We begin with an important theorem that is helpful in computing limits involving trigonometric
at
M
functions. In fact, this theorem is used in the proofs of other theorems in this section.
of
Theorem 1.6.1 (Squeeze Theorem). Let f (x), g(x) and h(x) be defined on some open interval
e
ut
I containing a except possibly at x = a such that

tit
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x),

s
In
for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim f (x) and lim h(x) exist and are both equal to L ∈ R, then x→a
lim g(x) =
UP
x→a x→a
L.
Remark 1.6.2. With some modifications, “x → a” can be replaced by “x → a− ”, “x → a+ ”,

“x → +∞” and “x → −∞”.
The Squeeze Theorem, sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem, states that if g(x) is “squeezed”
between f (x) and h(x) near a, and if f and h have the same limit at a, then g must have the same
limit at a.

2 1
Example 1.6.3. Evaluate: lim x cos
x→0 x
Solution.
1
Note that we cannot distribute the limit over the product since lim cos does not exist. How-
x→0 x
ever, we do know that for all real numbers x 6= 0,

1
−1 ≤ cos ≤ 1.
x
y = h(x)
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
Figure 1.6.1: An illustration of Squeeze Theorem
Since x2 is nonnegative, we may multiply all sides of the inequality by x2 to obtain
s
ic

2 1 2
≤ x2 .
at
−x ≤ x cos
x
Since
hem
at
lim (−x2 ) = lim x2 = 0,
M
x→0 x→0
we conclude by Squeeze Theorem that

of
e

1
ut
2
lim x cos = 0.
x→0 x
s tit
In
sin x
UP

x→+∞ x
Solution.
Note that lim sin x does not exist, while lim x = +∞. We will show, however, that the limit
x→+∞ x→+∞
of the quotient exists. Observe that whenever x > 0:
−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤
x x x

1 1 sin x
Now, lim − = 0 = lim . Thus, by Squeeze Theorem, lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
2 [[x]] + 1
x→−∞ x
Solution.
Note that lim [[x]] + 1 = −∞, while lim x = −∞. Observe that whenever x < 0:
x→−∞ x→−∞
x−1 ≤ [[x]] x ≤
2x − 2 ≤ 2 [[x]]2x ≤
2x − 1 ≤ 2 [[x]] + 1
2x + 1≤
2x − 1 2 [[x]] + 1
2x + 1
≥ ≥
x x x
! !
2 − x1 1

2x − 1 2x + 1 2+ x
Since lim = lim = 2, and lim = lim = 2, we
x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1 x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1
2 [[x]] + 1
get lim = 2 by Squeeze Theorem.
x→+∞ x
We now present the following special trigonometric limits.
Theorem 1.6.6.
sin x 3. lim sin x = 0
ic s
1. lim =1 x→0
x→0 x
at
1 − cos x
em
2. lim =0 4. lim cos x = 1
x→0 x h x→0
at
sin(4x)
M
x→0 x
of
Solution.
e
First of all, note that the argument of sine is 4x, while the denominator is simply x. To compute
ut
the limit, we multiply both the numerator and denominator by 4. We have

stit
sin(4x) 4 4 sin(4x)
In
lim · = lim .
x→0 x 4 x→0 4x
UP
sin(4x)
Note that x → 0 if and only if 4x → 0. Applying the theorem, we have lim = 1, and so,
x→0 4x
4 sin(4x)
lim = 4.
x→0 4x
Remark 1.6.8.
x
1. lim =1
x→0 sin x
x 1 1
This is because lim = lim = = 1.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x 1
x
x
2. lim 6= 0
x→0 1 − cos x
x 1 1
Similar to the previous item, lim = lim = 6= 0.
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x 0
x
x2
x→0 sin(3x2 )
Solution.
x2 3x2

3 1 1 1
lim · = lim · = (1) =
x→0 sin(3x2 ) 3 x→0 3 sin(3x2 ) 3 3
sin(x2 − 1)
x→−1 x+1
Solution.
sin(x2 − 1) x − 1 sin(x2 − 1)
lim · = lim · (x − 1) = 1(−2) = −2
x→−1 x+1 x − 1 x→−1 x2 − 1
tan x
s
ic
x→0 x
at
em
Solution.
tan x sin x 1
h
at
lim = lim · = 1(1) = 1
x→0 x x→0 x cos x
M
of
sin(3x)
e
x→0 sin(5x)
ut
tit
Solution.
s
In

sin(3x) 3x 5 3 sin(3x) 5x 3 3
lim · · = lim · · = (1)(1) =
UP
x→0 sin(5x) 3x 5 x→0 5 3x sin(5x) 5 5
tan(3x)
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x)
Solution.
tan(3x) tan(3x)
lim = lim
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x) x→0+sin2 (2x)
sin(3x) 3 2 x
= lim · · ·
x→0+ cos(3x) sin2 (2x) 3 2 x
3 sin(3x) 2x 1
= lim · · ·
x→0+ 2 3x sin(2x)
cos(3x) sin(2x)
3 1
= +∞ (1)(1)
2 (1)(0+ )
1 − cos x
x→0 x2
Solution.
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1
Note that lim 2
= lim · , and whether one takes the limit as x → 0− or as
x→0 x x→0 x x
x → 0+ , the form is 0 · ∞. We therefore wish to rewrite the function such that the resulting limit
is not indeterminate. The trick is to multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 + cos x:
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x

lim 2
= lim ·
x→0 x x→0 x2 1 + cos x
1 − cos x 2 1
= lim ·
x→0 x2 1 + cos x
sin2 x 1
= lim 2
·
x→0 x 1 + cos x
2
sin x 1
= lim ·
x→0 x 1 + cos x

1
= (1)2
2
1
= .
ic s
2
at
1.6.2 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions h em
at
The next theorem, which is a consequence of the Squeeze Theorem, deals with the continuity of
M
trigonometric functions.
of
e
Theorem 1.6.15.
ut
tit
1. lim cos x = cos a and lim sin x = sin a

x→a x→a
s
In
2. The trigonometric functions are continuous on their respective domains.

UP
Remark 1.6.16. By the previous theorem, we can conclude that if f is a trigonometric function
and a ∈ dom f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Example 1.6.17. Evaluate the following limits.
1. limπ tan x
x→ 4
Solution.
π
limπ tan x = tan =1
x→ 4 4
1 − cos x
2. lim
x→π x
Solution.

1 − cos x lim 1 − lim cos x 1 − cos π 2
lim = x→π x→π = =
x→π x lim x π π
x→π
3. lim sin x2 − 1

x→1
Solution.
Since the sine function is continuous everywhere and lim (x2 − 1) = 0, we have
x→1

2 2

lim sin x − 1 = sin lim (x − 1) = sin 0 = 0.
x→1 x→1

1
4. lim cos
x→+∞ x
Solution.
1
Since the cosine function is continuous everywhere and lim = 0, we have
s
x→+∞ x
ic
at

1 1
lim cos = cos lim = cos 0 = 1.
em
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
h
at

1 − cos x
5. lim tan
M
x→0 x
of
Solution.
1 − cos x
e
Since lim = 0 and the tangent function is continuous at x = 0, we have

ut
x→0 x
tit

1 − cos x 1 − cos x
s
lim tan = tan lim = tan 0 = 0.

In
x→0 x x→0 x
UP
6. lim cot x
x→π +
Solution.
If f (x) = cot x, then π ∈
/ dom f , so we cannot use the preceding remark to compute this limit.
cos x
However, we may use the identity cot x = . Since sin x → 0− as x → π from the right, we
sin x
have
cos x −1
lim cot x = lim = ∞.
x→π + x→π sin x
+ 0−
1.6.3 Exercises
sin(x2 + x − 2) 6. lim x csc 3x

1. lim x→0
x→1 x−1 7. lim 2x cos(2x) csc(4x)
sin 3x x→0
2. lim
x→0 sin 4x 3y − sin(4y)
x 8. lim
3. lim y→0 y
x→0 tan x
+
1 − cos 5x + tan 3x x2 − 3 sin x

4. lim 9. lim
x→0− sin 2x x→0 x
x tan 5x 3
tan (3x)
5. lim 10. lim
x→0 sin2 2x x→0 3x3
B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
ic s
sin x + 3 cos x

1
at
1. lim x sin 2. lim
x→0+ x2 x→+∞ x
hem
C. Test the following function for continuity at x = −3, −2, 0, and π:
at
M
x+2

 |x + 5x + 6| , if x < 0


 2
of
f (x) = x csc x
, if 0 < x ≤ π
2
e


ut

 x + π, if x > π
tit
s
In

UP
sin4 (2x) sin(sin t)

1. lim 8. lim
x→0 4x4 t→0 t
2 sin x − 1

1
2. lim x 1 − cos 9. limπ
x→−∞ x x→ 6x − π
6
sin(4x − 8) cos x − cos 3
3. lim 2 10. lim
x→2 4x − 5x − 6 x→3 x−3
sin(4x) sin πx

4. lim 4 −1
x→0 |x| 11. lim
x→2 2x − 4
1 π−x
5. lim sin 12. lim
x→0 + x x→π sin x
1 − cos 2x + tan2 x

1
6. lim x sin 13. lim
x→+∞ x2 x→0 x sin 2x
t (2x − π) cos x
7. lim π 14. limπ
t→0 cos( − t)
2
x→ 2 1 − sin x
B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.
2x3 + 1 + 5 cos x [[2x − 1]]

1. lim 2. lim
x→−∞ 3x3 x→+∞ x
C. Given:  2
x −x−2

 , if x ≤ 0
x2 − 1


f (x) = sin 4x
, if 0 < x ≤ 1
 2 2x



x + 3x − 1, if x > 1
Discuss the continuity of f at x = −1, 0, and 1. Classify each discontinuity as jump essential,
infinite essential, or removable.
D. Miscellaneous Problems.
x+2


2
, if x < 0
 |x + 5x + 6|


1. Let F (x) = sin x , where a is a real number.
s
, if 0 < x ≤ π
ic
3x


at

ax + π, if x > π

em
i. Test f for continuity at x = −3, −2, and 0. Classify each discontinuity as removable,
jump essential or infinite essential.
h
at
ii. Find the value of a that will make f continuous at x = π.
M
iii. If a is not equal to the value in the previous item, identify the type of discontinuity
of
that f has at x = π.
e
2. If 2x ≤ f (x) ≤ 3x2 − 16 for all x ≤ 0, find lim f (x).

ut
x→−2
tit
3. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find lim g(x) given that

x→5
s
In
|g(x) − 8| < 3(x − 5)2 ,

UP
for all x ∈ R \ {5}.

4. Prove that lim f (x) = 0 if and only if lim |f (x)| = 0.
x→0 x→0
5. Let f and g be functions such that |f (x)| ≤ 2 and lim |g(x)| = 0. Use the Squeeze
x→a
Theorem to verify that lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
x→a
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 57
1.7 New Classes of Functions: Limits and Continuity

In this section, we study new classes of functions. We recall inverse functions and in particular,
exponential and logarithmic functions. We also revisit the inverse circular functions. We review
the properties and graphs of these functions.
After, we introduce new types of functions, the hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic func-
tions, and examine their properties and graphs. Our goal is to investigate the limits and continuity
of all aforementioned functions.
• recall the basic concepts of inverse functions;
• recall the properties and graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions;
• define and identify the properties of the inverse circular functions, the hyperbolic
functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions;
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• familiarize themselves with the graphs of the inverse circular functions, the hyper-
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bolic functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions;
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• apply theorems on limits and continuity to exponential, logarithmic, inverse
h
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circular, hyperbolic, and inverse hyperbolic function.
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1.7.1 Inverse Functions

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Let us revisit the definition of inverse functions and their properties. This will prepare us in our
study of the exponential and logarithmic functions in the next subsection,
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If the functions f and g satisfy

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(f ◦ g)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom g, and

(g ◦ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f ,
then we say f and g are inverse functions of each other. We write,
g = f −1 or g = f −1 .
Example 1.7.1. The functions f (x) = −2x + 4 and g(x) = − 12 x + 2 are inverse functions of each
other. Indeed,
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (− 12 x + 2) = −2(− 21 x + 2) + 4 = x, and

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(−2x + 4) = − 12 (−2x + 4) + 2 = x.
Hence, we can write f −1 (x) = 21 x + 2.
We note that not every function has an inverse. We define a class of functions that always possesses
an inverse.
A function f is a one-to-one function if for all x1 , x2 ∈ dom f with x1 6= x2 , f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
Remark 1.7.2. (Horizontal Line Test) A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.
We present the following important theorem that will guarantee the existence of an inverse.
Theorem 1.7.3. A function f has an inverse if and and only if it is one-to-one.
Example 1.7.4. The function g(x) = x2 is not one-to-one. Indeed, g(1) = g(−1) = 1, so it violates
the definition of one-to-one function. Further, the horizontal line y = 1 intersects the graph of g in
two points. Based on the theorem above, g has no inverse function.
Remark 1.7.5. Let f be a one-to-one function.
1. We have y = f (x) if and only if x = f −1 (y).
s
2. The domains and range of f and f −1 are related. Indeed,
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em
dom f −1 = ran f and ran f −1 = dom f .
h
3. The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x.
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4. We have the following cancellation equations:

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f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ dom f , f (f −1 (x)) = x for all x ∈ dom f −1 .

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ut
tit
5. To find the inverse function f −1 , we write y = f (x) and then solve for x in terms of y to obtain
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x = f −1 (y). Finally, interchange x and y to get y = f −1 (x).

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4x − 1
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Example 1.7.6. Find the inverse of f (x) = .

2x + 3
Solution.
4x − 1
Following the remark above, we write y = . We then solve for x in terms of y. We get
2x + 3
3y + 1 3x + 1
f −1 (y) = x = . Hence, f −1 (x) = .
4 − 2y 4 − 2x
1.7.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we recall the exponential and logarithmic functions and review their properties.
These functions are important in studying different phenomena in the natural sciences, such as
population growth and decay, radioactive decay, acidity of chemicals and earthquakes.
Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The exponential function with base a is given by f (x) = ax , where
x∈ .R
Exponential functions can be classified into two types: those with base greater than 1, and those
with base between 0 and 1. The fundamental distinction between the two classes is that if a > 1,
then p < q implies ap < aq ; whereas if 0 < a < 1, then p < q implies ap > aq . The graphs of these
functions are found in Figure 1.7.1. Note that exponential functions are continuous everywhere.
It is good to remember the graphs of these functions as they serve as visual aids in remembering
their properties, such as their behavior as x → +∞ or as x → −∞, and where the functions are
increasing or decreasing.
f (x) = ax
f (x) = ax 0<a<1
(0, 1) a>1
(0, 1)
Figure 1.7.1: Graphs of Exponential Functions
Remark 1.7.7. Let f (x) = ax with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:
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R and ran f = (0, +∞).
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1. dom f =
2. f is one-to-one and continuous on R. em

h
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3. If a > 1, then f is increasing onR, x→+∞
lim ax = +∞ and lim ax = 0.
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x→−∞
4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on R, lim ax = 0 and lim ax = +∞.

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x→+∞ x→−∞
e
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Because the exponential function with base a is one-to-one, it has an inverse function, called the
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logarithmic function with base a.

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Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The logarithmic function with base a, denoted by loga , is the inverse
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function of the exponential function with base a; that is,

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y = loga x if and only if x = ay .
Hence, the logarithm of x to the base a is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x.
Following the inverse relationship of exponentials and logarithms, we have loga (ax ) = x for all
R
x ∈ and aloga x = x for all x > 0.
As with exponential functions, logarithmic functions can be classified into those with base greater
than 1 and those with base between 0 and 1. The graphs of these functions are given in Figure 1.7.2.
Again, note the continuity of these functions on their domains.
Remark 1.7.8. Let f (x) = loga x with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:
1. dom f = (0, +∞) and ran f = R.

2. f is one-to-one and continuous on (0, +∞).
f (x) = loga x f (x) = loga x

a>1 0<a<1
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
Figure 1.7.2: Graphs of Logarithmic Functions
3. If a > 1, then f is increasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = +∞ and lim loga x = −∞.
x→+∞ x→0+
4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = −∞ and lim loga x = +∞.
x→+∞ x→0+
Table 1.7.1 gives additional properties of exponentials and logarithms.
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R R
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a, b > 0, r, s ∈ a, b, m, n > 0, a, b 6= 1, c ∈
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a0 = 1, a1 = a loga 1 = 0
em
ar as = ar+s loga a = 1
ar
h
= ar−s loga mn = loga m + loga n
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as m
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(ar )s = ars loga = loga m − loga n

n
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(ab)x = ax bx log c
a m = c loga m
a x ax 1
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= x loga = − loga m
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b b m
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1 logb m 1
a−r = r loga m = =
a logb a logm a
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In
Table 1.7.1: Laws of Exponents and Logarithms

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Example 1.7.9. Rewrite 22x · 5x as an exponential expression with a single base.
Solution.
By the laws of exponents, we have
22x · 5x = (22 )x · 5x = 4x · 5x = (4 · 5)x = 20x .
272x
Example 1.7.10. Rewrite as an exponential expression in base 3.
(9x+2 )2−x
Solution.
Using laws of exponents, we get
272x (33 )2x (3)6x 2 2
= = = 36x−(8−2x ) = 32x +6x−8 .
(9x+2 )2−x (32 )(2+x)(2−x) (3)2(4−x2 )
Example 1.7.11. Find the exact value of log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20.
Solution.
Because of the laws of logarithms, we have
6 (6)(20)
log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20 = log2 + log2 20 = log2 = log2 8 = 3.
15 15
Example 1.7.12. Solve for x: 32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 2.
2
32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 3log3 2 − 32 · 3x = 4 − 9 · 3x .
Therefore, the equation becomes

2 2
4 − 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 3x = ⇐⇒ x = log3 .
9 9
2x + 3x
x→+∞ 6x
Solution.
We recall that lim ax = 0, whenever 0 < a < 1. Thus, we get
x→+∞
x x
2x + 3x 2x 3x

1 1
lim = lim + = lim + = 0.
x→+∞ 6x x→+∞ 6x 6x x→+∞ 3 2
In the next chapter, we will compute the derivative of logarithmic functions. In doing so, the
1
existence of lim (1 + h) h is crucial. This limit exists, but advanced concepts beyond the scope
h→0
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of this course are needed to establish this fact rigorously. Instead, we estimate its value to a few
1
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decimal places by computing (1 + h) h for values of h very near 0. The limit shall be called Euler’s
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number and denoted by e.
1
h 1
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h (1 + h) h h (1 + h) h
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0.5 2.25 -0.5 4

0.1 2.593742460 -0.1 2.867971991
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0.01 2.704813829 -0.01 2.731999026

e
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0.0001 2.718145927 -0.0001 2.718417728

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0.00000001 2.718281815 -0.00000001 2.718281842

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
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0+ e− 0− e+
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1
Euler’s number e is defined as e = lim (1 + h) h .
h→0
Remark 1.7.14. The number e is irrational, and to the first 15 decimal places,
e = 2.718281828459045 . . . .
1. The natural exponential function is given by f (x) = ex .
2. The natural logarithmic function is given by f (x) = ln x = loge x.
Remark 1.7.15. Let a, b > 0 and a, b 6= 1. Then we have the following:

1. ln ex = x for all x ∈ R. x
4. ax = eln a = ex ln a = (ex )ln a for all x ∈ R.
2. eln x = x for all x > 0.
logb x ln x
3. ln e = 1. 5. loga x = = for all x > 0.
logb a ln a
Items 4 and 5 in the previous remark show that any exponential or logarithmic function can
be expressed in terms of the natural exponential function or the natural logarithmic function,
respectively.
1
Example 1.7.16. Determine the domain of f (x) = .
1 − ex
Solution.
For the function to be defined, the denominator should not be zero. Now, the denominator is zero
exactly when ex = 1, that is, x = ln 1 = 0. Hence, dom f = \ {0}. R
Example 1.7.17. Express 3x+2 in terms of the natural exponential function.
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Solution.
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Using the remark above, we have
x+2 )
h
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3x+2 = eln (3 = (ex+2 )ln 3 .
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Example 1.7.18. Express as a single logarithm: ln 5 + 2 ln 3.

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Solution.
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Applying the laws of logarithms, we have

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ln 5 + 2 ln 3 = ln 5 + ln 32 = ln(5)(32 ) = ln 45.
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Example 1.7.19. Solve for x: ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = 2.
Solution.
x+1
We have ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = ln . Thus,
x−2
2e2 + 1

x+1 x+1
ln =2 ⇐⇒ = e2 ⇐⇒ x + 1 = e2 x − 2e2 ⇐⇒ x= .
x−2 x−2 e2 − 1
e−x − 2
x→−∞ e−x + 2
Solution.
Recall that since e > 1 we have lim ex = 0. Thus, we have
x→−∞
e−x − 2 e−x − 2 ex 1 − 2ex 1−0

lim = lim · = lim = = 1.
x→−∞ e−x + 2 x→−∞ e−x + 2 ex x→−∞ 1 + 2ex 1+0
1.7.3 Inverse Circular Functions

We now apply techniques of basic calculus to another familiar class of functions: the inverses of the
circular functions. Recall that the circular functions are periodic; a fortiori they are not one-to-one.
In order to define the inverse of each such function, we restrict the domain of each to a set over
which the corresponding circular function is one-to-one.
1. The inverse sine function, denoted sin−1 , is defined as follows:
y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y, y ∈ − π2 , π2 .

2. The inverse cosine function, denoted cos−1 , is defined as follows:
y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y, y ∈ [0, π] .
3. The inverse tangent function, denoted tan−1 , is defined as follows:

π π
y = tan−1 x if and only if x = tan y, y ∈ − ,
s
.
ic
2 2
at
em
4. The inverse cotangent function, denoted cot−1 , is defined as follows:
h
y = cot−1 x if and only if x = cot y, y ∈ (0, π) .
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M
5. The inverse secant function, denoted sec−1 , is defined as follows:

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h π 3π
e
y = sec−1 x if and only if x = sec y, y ∈ 0, ∪ π, .

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2 2
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6. The inverse cosecant function, denoted csc−1 , is defined as follows:

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πi πi
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y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y, y ∈ −π, − ∪ 0, .

2 2
Example 1.7.21. Evaluate the following.
√ ! √ !
3 3
1. sin−1 3. tan−1 −
2 3
√ √
2. sec−1 − 2 4. csc−1 − 2
Solution. √ !
3 π
√ ! 3. tan−1 − =−
−1 3 π 3 6
1. sin =
2 3
√ 3π
√ 5π 4. csc−1 − 2 = −
2. sec−1 − 2 = 4
4
Example 1.7.22.

−1 9π
1. Evaluate: sin sin .
7
Solution.

−1 9π −1 2π 2π
sin sin = sin sin − =− .
7 7 7

1
2. Evaluate: sin cos−1 .
4
Solution.

1 1
Let k = cos−1 . Then, cos k = where k ∈ ran cos−1 = [0, π] . We may now rewrite the
4 4
given as
−1 1
sin cos = sin k.
4
Solving for sin k, we have that
s
ic
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sin2 k = 1 − cos2 k,
and h em
at
p
sin k = 1 − cos2 k
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r
1
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= 1−
16
√
e
15
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=
4
stit
since sin k ≥ 0 for k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,

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√
−1 1 15
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sin cos = .
4 4
" √ !#
3
3. Evaluate: sec sin−1 .
5
Solution.
√ ! √
−1 3 3 h π πi
Let k = sin . Then, sin k = where k ∈ ran sin−1 = − , . We may now
5 5 2 2
rewrite the given as
" √ !#
3
sec sin−1 = sec k.
5
√
3
Before solving for sec k, observe that sin k = ≥ 0 indicates that k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,
h π πi h πi 5
k∈ − , ∩ [0, π] = 0, .
2 2 2
Now, solving for sec k, we have that
sec2 k = 1 + tan2 k,
so that
p
sec k = 1 + tan2 k
r
sin2 k
= 1+
s cos2 k
sin2 k
= 1+
1 − sin2 k
v
u √ 2
u 3/5
= 1+
t √ 2
1 − 3/5
5
=√
22
ic s
h πi
since sec k > 0 for k ∈ 0, . Thus,
at
2
em
" √ !#
3 5
sec sin−1
h =√
at
5 22
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of
e
ut
3π
y= 2
tit
π
(1, 2
)
π
y=
s
2
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(−1, π) f (x) = sec−1 x

f (x) = tan−1 x
UP
π
y= 2
f (x) = sin−1 x
y = − π2
(−1, − π2 ) (1, 0)
π
(1, 2
)
(−1, π)
f (x) = cos−1 x y=π f (x) = csc−1 x
(−1, − π2 )
f (x) = cot−1 x
y = −π
(1, 0)
Figure 1.7.3: Graphs of inverse circular functions
The graphs of the inverse circular functions defined above are shown in Figure 1.7.3. From these
graphs, one can predict the behavior of each inverse circular function and deduce some limit state-
ments involving them.
Example 1.7.23.
1. From the graph of tan−1 x, we can infer the following statements involving limits at infinity:
π π
lim tan−1 x = and lim tan−1 x = − .
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2
Similarly, we infer the following from the graphs of sec−1 x and csc−1 x:
π 3π
lim sec−1 x = , lim sec−1 x = ,
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2
lim csc−1 x = 0 and, lim csc−1 x = −π.

x→ +∞ x→ −∞
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2. Evaluate: lim π.
x→ +∞
tan−1 x −
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2
Solution.
Note that as x → +∞, tan−1 x approaches
π π
h em
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from values less than . Thus,
2 2
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1 1
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lim −1 π = −∞
x→ +∞ tan x− 2 0−
e
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3. Evaluate: lim tan−1 (ex ).

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x→ −∞
s
In
Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Now,
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x→ −∞

−1 x −1 x
lim tan (e ) = tan lim e
x→ −∞ x→ −∞
= tan−1 (0)
= 0.
Passing the limit to the inner function is permissible in this situation due to the continuity of
tan−1 x at x = 0.
1.7.4 Hyperbolic Functions

We now introduce another new class of functions, arising from the natural exponential function.
They are called hyperbolic functions and have properties very similar to the circular functions.
Each circular function has a hyperbolic analogue, and we will see in Theorems 1.7.25 that identities
involving these new functions will look very much like those involving their corresponding circular
analogues.
1. The hyperbolic sine function, denoted sinh, is defined by
ex − e−x
sinh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
2. The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted cosh, is defined by
ex + e−x
cosh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
3. The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted tanh, is defined by
ex − e−x
tanh x = ,
ex + e−x
R.
s
for any x ∈
ic
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4. The hyperbolic cotangent function, denoted coth, is defined by
h
coth x = em
ex + e−x
,
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ex − e−x
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for any x 6= 0.
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5. The hyperbolic secant function, denoted sech, is defined by

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ut
2
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sech x = ,
ex + e−x
s
R.
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for any x ∈
UP
6. The hyperbolic cosecant function, denoted csch, is defined by

2
csch x = ,
ex − e−x
for any x 6= 0.
Example 1.7.24.
e0 − e−0 1−1
1. sinh 0 = = =0
2 2
1
eln 2 + e− ln 2 eln 2 + eln 2 2+ 1
2 5
2. cosh(ln 2) = = = =
2 2 2 4
1
eln 25 − e− ln 25 eln 25 − eln(1/25) 25 − 25 624 312
3. tanh(2 ln 5) = tanh(ln 25) = ln 25 − ln 25
= = 1 = = .
e +e eln 25 + eln( /25)
1
25 + 25
626 313
y=1
f (x) = sinh x f (x) = tanh x

f (x) = sech x
(0, 1)
y = −1
f (x) = coth x
f (x) = csch x
y=1
y = −1
(0, 1) f (x) = cosh x
ic s
Figure 1.7.4: Graphs of hyperbolic functions
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Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions h em
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Theorem 1.7.25.
1 1 1
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1. sech x = , csch x = , coth x =

cosh x sinh x tanh x
e
ut
sinh x cosh x
2. tanh x = , coth x =
tit
cosh x sinh x
s
3. cosh x + sinh x = ex
In
UP
4. cosh x − sinh x = e−x
5. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
6. 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x
7. 1 − coth2 x = − csch2 x
8. sinh(x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
9. cosh(x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
10. sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
11. cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 1 + 2 sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1
Proof. We shall prove statements 3, 5 and 8 only.

ex + e−x ex − e−x ex + e−x + ex − e−x
cosh x + sinh x = + = = ex
2 2 2
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = (cosh x + sinh x)(cosh x − sinh x) = ex · e−x = 1
ex − e−x e + e−y e + e−x e − e−y

y x y
sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y = +
2 2 2 2
ex+y +e x−y −e−x+y −e −x−y +e x+y −e x−y + e−x+y − e−x−y
=
4
2ex+y − 2e−x−y ex+y − e−(x+y)
= = = sinh(x + y)
4 2
12
Example 1.7.26. If tanh x = , find the values of the other hyperbolic functions of x.
13
Solution.
13
We readily have coth x = . Now, since sech x > 0 for all x, using the identities above we obtain
12
ic s
s 2
12 5
at
p
sech x = 1 − tanh2 x = 1− = .
13 13
13
hem
at
This implies that cosh x = . Using another identity, we get
5
M
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12 13 12
sinh x = tanh x cosh x = · = .
13 5 5
e
ut
5
tit
Finally, we get csch x = .

12
s
In
UP
Why they are called Hyperbolic Functions
In the same way that points with coordinates (cos t, sin t) are on the unit circle, the points with
coordinates (cosh t, sinh t) are on the unit hyperbola, which has equation x2 − y 2 = 1. In particular,
they are on the right “branch” of the hyperbola. Those on the other branch have coordinates
(− cosh t, sinh t). See Figure 1.7.5.
(cos t, sin t)
(cosh t, sinh t)
x2 − y 2 = 1
x2 + y 2 = 1
Figure 1.7.5: Circular functions versus Hyperbolic functions

Applications of Hyperbolic Functions
As mentioned earlier, hyperbolic functions have several applications, such as understanding the
behavior of hanging cables, electric current, and waves. A telephone or electrical wire suspended
between fixed ends at the same height forms a curve described by a function involving the hyperbolic
cosine function. We clarify that the graph of y = a cosh[b(x − c)] + d is not a parabola, but is
a catenary, from the Latin word catena for chain. In fact, it can be shown that a catenary
always outgrows a parabola having the same vertex and opening in the same direction. Hyperbolic
functions are also used in describing current flow in electrical wires. Similarly, the hyperbolic
tangent function is used in models describing the velocity of (idealized) ocean waves.
1.7.5 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We recall that the inverse of a function can be defined only when the function is one-to-one. Among
the hyperbolic functions, only the hyperbolic cosine and secant functions are not one-to-one. We
restrict the domain of these functions to [0, +∞), on which the two functions become one-to-one.
ic s
Now, we may define an inverse function for each hyperbolic function. The graphs of the inverse
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hyperbolic functions, obtained by reflecting about the line y = x the graphs of the corresponding
hyperbolic functions, are given in Figure 1.7.6.
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
f (x) = tanh−1 x
f (x) = sech−1 x
s
In
f (x) = sinh−1 x
UP
x = −1 x=1 (1, 0)
f (x) = csch−1 x
f (x) = cosh−1 x f (x) = coth−1 x
(1, 0) x = −1 x=1
Figure 1.7.6: Graphs of inverse hyperbolic functions
Since the hyperbolic functions are constructed using exponential functions, we expect that their
inverses can be written in terms of logarithms. In fact, the following hold.
Theorem 1.7.27.
√
1

x+1

1. sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 4. coth −1
x = ln
2 x−1
√ !
√ 1 + 1 − x2
2. cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 5. sech−1 x = ln
x
√ !
1

1+x

−1 1 1 + x2
3. tanh−1 x = ln 6. csch x = ln +
2 1−x x |x|
√
Example 1.7.28. Prove that sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1).
Proof. Let y = sinh−1 x. Then sinh y = x, and
ey − e−y
x=
s
2
ic
2xey = e2y − 1
at
0 = (ey )2 − 2x (ey ) − 1
y
e =
p
2x ± (−2x)2 − 4(1)(−1)
h em
at
2
M
p
y
e = x ± x2 + 1
of
p p
ey = x + x2 + 1, since ey > 0, whereas x − x2 + 1 < 0 .
e
ut
√
Finally, taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields y = ln x + x2 + 1 .
s tit
In
Example 1.7.29. Find the numerical value of the following.

UP
1. cosh−1 1 3. sinh−1 1

−1 5 −1 3
2. coth 4. sech
4 5
Solution.
√
1. cosh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 − 12 = ln 1 = 0
! !
5 9
−1 5 1 4 +1 1 4 1
2. coth = ln 5 = ln 1 = ln 9 = ln 3
4 2 4 −1
2 4
2
√ √
3. sinh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 + 12 = ln 1 + 2
 q 
3 2
! !
1 + 1− 4 9

3 5 1+
4. sech−1 = ln  3
 = ln 3
5
= ln 5
3 = ln 3
5 5 5 5
Example 1.7.30.
1. Observe from the graph of tanh−1 that the following hold:
lim tanh−1 x = +∞, and lim tanh−1 x = −∞.

x→ 1− x→ 1+
−1
2. Evaluate: lim ecoth x
.
x→ −∞
Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Furthermore, ex is continuous on R. Thus,
x→ −∞
we have:
coth−1 x
lim coth−1 x
lim e = ex→ −∞
x→ −∞
= e0
= 1.
ics
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.7.6 Exercises
A. Find the exact value.
1. log3 100 − log3 18 − log3 50 csc−1 (−4)

4. tan
2. sech(ln 2) 2
3. sinh(3 ln 2 − ln 4) 5. tanh−1 0.5
√ !
2 3
B. Solve for x: cos−1 (x) = tan−1 (0) − sec−1 − .
3
C. Given below is a value of the hyperbolic function of a positive number x. Find the exact
value of the remaining five hyperbolic functions of x.
s
1. sinh x = 2 15
ic
2. cosh x =
8
at
em
D. Evaluate the following limits. h
at
4x + 2 x lim sec−1 (csch x)
M
1. lim 3.
x→−∞ 8x − 2x x→ 0+
of
cosh x
2. lim 4. lim coth−1 x
e
x→+∞ ex x→ 1−
ut
tit
E. Establish the following identities.

s
In
tanh x + tanh y 1 + tanh x

UP
1. tanh(x + y) = 2. e2x =
1 + tanh x tanh y 1 − tanh x
−1
√
2
3. cosh x = ln x + x − 1
F. Do as indicated.
1. Find the domain of
√
i. f (x) = sin(e−x ) ii. g(x) = 2 − 2x
h
f (x + h) − f (x) 5 −1
2. If f (x) = 5x ,
show that =5x .
h h
3. Find the exponential function f (x) = Cax whose graphs passes (1, 6) and (3, 24).
1 − e1/x
4. Show that f (x) = is an odd function.
1 − e1/x
A. Find the exact value.
1. 22 log2 3 + ln(− ln ee ) − e−2 ln 2 3. cosh(ln 5 + ln 6)

−1 1 −1 3
2. tanh(ln 4) 4. sin tan − − sec
4 2
B. Evaluate the following limits.
2ex − 1 3. lim 2 csch

−1
x
1. lim x→0−
x→+∞ ex + 2
sinh x
2. lim 4. lim csc−1 (ln x)
x→+∞ ex x→ 0+
C. Given below is a value of the hyperbolic function of a positive number x. Find the exact
s
value of the remaining five hyperbolic functions of x.
ic
at
em
7 4
1. coth x = 2. sech x =
25 5
h
at
M
D. Establish the following identities.

of
1. cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x − 3 cosh x

r
e
x 1 + cosh x
ut
2. cosh =
2 2
s tit
E. Do as indicated.
In
UP
1. Show that the horizontal lines y = 1 and y = −1 are asymptotes of y = tanh x and
y = coth x.
2. Show that the graph of y = sech x is asymptotic to the x-axis.
3. If x = ln(sec s + tan s), show that sec s = cosh x.

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MATHEMATICS 21

Mathematics 21 Module Writers and Editors:

Carlo Francisco Adajar

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach

• evaluate limits of functions using substitution, cancellation of common factors,

and rationalization of radical expressions (for indeterminate forms 0/0).

1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits

Figure 1.1.1: Graphs of y = f (x), y = g(x) and y = h(x) in Illustration 1.1.1.

1. Let f (x) = 3x − 1 and consider the tables below.

reaching 1, then the values of g(x) go closer and closer to 2.

3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,

comparison of f , g and h.)

from Illustration 1.1.1. Here, h(1) = 0 but lim h(x) = 2.

limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (dne).

Example 1.1.9. Let H(x) be defined by

1.1.2 Evaluating Limits

1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

4. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 where L1 , L2 ∈

(e) lim [f (x)]n = (L1 )n for n ∈

N, n > 1 and provided that L1 > 0 when n is even.

Example 1.1.11. Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1

(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

lim (1 − 3x) = lim 1 − lim 3x = 1 − 6 = −5 6= 0.

x→2 x→2 x→2

lim (2x + 5) = lim 2x + lim 5 = 4 + 5 = 9 > 0.

Thus, using the theorem,

Theorem 1.1.14. Let f be a polynomial or rational function. If a ∈ dom f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

Example 1.1.15. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = −5.

1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits

x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0

1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined at x = a, and NOT indeterminate.

cancellation of common factors and rationalization of expressions (if applicable).

Therefore, we obtain the limit as follows:

when x 6= 4. Thus, we have

lim √ = lim −(x + 4)(2 + x) = −32.

A. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in the figure below.

B. Evaluate the following limits.

2x2 − 13x + 20 6x + 3x2

5. lim 10. lim √

A. Evaluate the following limits.

determine the value of b and find the limit.

1.2 One-Sided Limits

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• evaluate one-sided limits of functions; and

• determine the limit of piecewise functions using one-sided limits.

Illustration 1.2.1. Let 

lim f (x) does not exist.

Figure 1.2.1: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.1

Figure 1.2.2: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.2

These cases lead us to what are called one-sided limits.

1. The conclusions in Theorem 1.1.10 still hold when “x → a” is replaced by “x → a− ” or

Example 1.2.4. Let H(x) be defined by

Example 1.2.5. Let 

From Illustration 1.2.1, we have

lim f (x) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2,

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

Suppose lim f (x) = 0. If f approaches 0 through positive values, we write

Similarly, if f approaches 0 through negative values, we write

Remark 1.2.6. If f (x) → 0+ as x → a, and n is even, then