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Edited by:
Pil Hansen,
University of Calgary, Canada
Reviewed by:
Paula Thomson,
California State University, Northridge,
United States
Fernando Marmolejo-Ramos,
University of South Australia, Australia
*Correspondence:
Ana Hedberg Olenina
ana.olenina@asu.edu
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Performance Science,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 26 May 2019
Accepted: 23 September 2019
Published: 09 October 2019
Citation:
Olenina AH, Amazeen EL,
Eckard B and Papenfuss J (2019)
Embodied Cognition in Performance:
The Impact of Michael Chekhov’s
Acting Exercises on Affect and Height
Perception. Front. Psychol. 10:2277.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02277
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 09 October 2019
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02277
Embodied Cognition in Performance:
The Impact of Michael Chekhov’s
Acting Exercises on Affect and
Height Perception
Ana Hedberg Olenina 1* , Eric L. Amazeen 2 , Bonnie Eckard 3 and Jason Papenfuss 4
1
School of International Letters and Cultures, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States, 2 Department
of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States, 3 Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts, Arizona
State University, Tempe, AZ, United States, 4 School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
Modern embodied approaches to cognitive science overlap with ideas long explored
in theater. Performance coaches such as Michael Chekhov have emphasized
proprioceptive awareness of movement as a path to attaining psychological states
relevant for embodying characters and inhabiting fictional spaces. Yet, the psychology
of performance remains scientifically understudied. Experiments, presented in this
paper, investigated the effects of three sets of exercises adapted from Chekhov’s
influential techniques for actors’ training. Following a continuous physical demonstration
and verbal prompts by the actress Bonnie Eckard, 29 participants enacted neutral,
expanding, and contracting gestures and attitudes in space. After each set of exercises,
the participants’ affect (pleasantness and arousal) and self-perceptions of height were
measured. Within the limitations of the study, we measured a significant impact of the
exercises on affect: pleasantness increased by 50% after 15 min of expanding exercises
and arousal increased by 15% after 15 min of contracting exercises, each relative to the
other exercise. Although the exercises produced statistically non-significant changes
in the perceived height, there was a significant relation between perceived height
and affect, in which perceived height increased with increases in either pleasantness,
or arousal. These findings provide a preliminary support for Chekhov’s intuition that
expanding and contracting physical actions exert opposite effects on the practitioners’
psychological experience. Further studies are needed to consider a wider range of
factors at work in Chekhov’s method and the embodied experience of acting in general.
Keywords: acting, affect, height perception, Michael Chekhov, movement, psychological gesture
INTRODUCTION
Much of the work in modern cognitive philosophy could be considered embodied, situated,
or enactive (Thompson and Varela, 2001; Chemero, 2009; Clark, 2011; Varela et al., 2017).
Embodiment, in particular, is also rapidly becoming a topic of interest in cognitive science (Wilson
and Gibbs, 2007; Van Dantzig et al., 2008; Glenberg, 2010; Sulutvedt et al., 2018). The key
assumption underlying these approaches is that the mental processes we associate with cognition
are fundamentally linked to bodily processes, such as perception and movement (and, by extension,
1 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2277
Olenina et al.
to the environment in which the body is situated). The
notion that psychological states are simultaneously bodily (or
environmental) states is an idea that has been explored separately
in theater. Michael Chekhov (1891–1955), an Oscar-nominated
Russian-American actor and theater director, left a legacy of
actor training techniques and theoretical reflections emphasizing
the importance of proprioceptive sensations of movement to
embodying a character and inhabiting a fictional space. The
roots of Chekhov’s techniques lie in Konstantin Stanislavsky’s
system, which cultivated “a spatial adpositional conceptualization
of experience” in the actors, helping them construct “a stable
attention field” within which they could interact with each
other and the environment during performance (Clare, 2017,
p. 43). Initially an actor in Stanislavsky’s theater troupe, Chekhov
elaborated his own method based on decades of creative work,
self-observation, and pedagogical experience. As his approach
became widely accepted in acting schools, performance theorists
have explored Chekhov’s acting techniques through the lens
of cognitive neuroscience (Blair, 2007; Kemp, 2012; Lutterbie,
2015). Yet, while these scholars have identified intriguing
parallels between Chekhov’s insights and current scientific
models of the mind, there is not enough empirical data to evaluate
the psychological effects of Chekhov’s movement exercises. In
the present study, then, we tested the effects of expanding and
contracting exercises (adapted from Chekhov, 1953, pp. 63–84)
on the psychological experiences of perceived height and affect.
As our base condition for comparison, we also measured the
participants’ self-perception of height and affect after neutral
poses, which preceded the contracting and expanding exercise
sets. These neutral poses were intended to focus the participants’
attention on the present moment and signal the beginning of the
experimental session.
Poses, Emotions, and Spatial
Self-Awareness
The present study proceeds from the premise that proprioceptive
sensations of posture and movement are linked to emotional
and cognitive processes (Paillard, 2005, pp. 90, 105). From the
neurophysiological standpoint, this connection may be explained
by the fact that the limbic system of the brain, involved in the
emotional experience and expression, projects diffuse reciprocal
pathways into the somatosensory and moto-neurons of the
locus coeruleus and the nucleus subcoeruleus in the brainstem,
enabling access to the spinal cord (Holstege, 1992, p. 78).
According to Holstege (1992, p. 78), the “emotional brain has
a great impact on the sensory as well as the motor systems.”
For example, in the state of aggression, the limbic system
is capable of changing membrane excitability of the neurons,
evoking analgesia, while at the same time setting the motor
system on high alert (Holstege, 1992, p. 78). The psychological
dimension of the interconnected relationship between kinesthetic
sensations, emotional states, and cognitive processes has been
examined in multiple recent studies. In an experiment by Rahona
et al. (2014), clinically depressed patients exhibited a greater
persistence of the sad mood when they shook their heads at
the sight of pleasant images, as opposed to those who nodded
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Embodied Cognition in Performance
when presented with the same images. Likewise, holding “power
poses” – socially recognized as dominant – for as little as 2 min
has been shown to increase the subjects’ reported self-confidence
and willingness to take risks, in addition to raising the level of
adrenaline and lowering the level of the stress hormone cortisol
in the saliva (Carney et al., 2010). A more nuanced study,
which took into account the participants’ self-evaluation prior
to experimental manipulation, found that assuming dominant
poses heightened the self-confidence of subjects with preexistent
high self-esteem and exacerbated the feeling of low self-worth
among those who reported this condition before the experiment
(Briñol et al., 2009). While the above studies have focused
on the impact of consciously induced gestures and poses on
mood, a reverse effect has also been documented: elicited moods
influence the character of motor action. In a study by Giraud
et al. (2016), involving motion capture and analysis technologies,
positive moods were associated with a more impulsive movement
signature, and negative moods with tenser, more rigid, and jerkier
movement signatures.
Movement has also been shown to influence our perceptions
of space. As Paillard (2005, p. 91) explains, motor action
frames spatial self-awareness, contributing both to our mental
predictions about the outside world and our own, perceived
and unconsciously registered, body schema. We process visual
stimuli in relation to the concomitant sensations of posture,
balance, muscle strain, and fatigue, as well as the experience of
our bodily size. For example, the ability to judge distance by
sight is influenced by a person’s experience of physical effort. In a
series of experiments by Proffitt et al. (2003), individuals wearing
a heavy backpack estimated distances as longer compared to
subjects without backpacks. The experience of walking on a
treadmill while blindfolded produced an aftereffect whereby the
subjects not only judged distances to be of greater magnitude,
but also walked further away from the initial position when
asked to “walk in place,” compared to people who walked on
the treadmill with no interruption of their optical flow. In
another study, again using backpacks, Bhalla and Proffitt (1999)
reported that wearing a heavy backpack (approximately 20%
of body weight) impacted the way in which people judged
the steepness of a hill in front of them. Participants in the
study who wore backpacks reported steeper hill inclinations,
both verbally and visually, than participants without. Findings
such as these have been interpreted to signify that spatial
awareness is influenced by the costs associated with intended
and performed actions (Proffitt, 2006, 2008). Several studies have
also reported an increase of visual acuity in subjects carrying
weights, although gradually making the load heavier does not
produce corresponding incremental changes to vision (Gonzalo-
Fonrodona and Porras, 2013; Yonemitsu et al., 2017).
Not only has research concluded that proprioceptive
sensations of movement influence mood and spatial perception,
but these two psychological experiences have been shown
to interact, suggesting a complex mediating effect. In a
study by Riener et al. (2011), participants’ moods were
manipulated before they were asked to estimate geographic
slant. The subjects reporting a sad mood were more likely
to overestimate the incline of a slope than participants
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Olenina et al.
reporting a happy mood. Similarly, a cross-sectional study
by Duguid and Goncalo (2012) suggested that individual
power was correlated with perceptions of height. During a
multi-part experiment, participants’ power was manipulated
both experientially and by role-playing. Results suggested that
having greater power was associated with smaller estimates
of the height of external objects and larger estimates of
one’s own height.
Michael Chekhov’s “Psychological
Gesture” Concept
The exercises used in the present experiment were adopted
from Michael Chekhov’s description of “psychological gesture”
exercises in his book To the Actor (1953). Chekhov encouraged
his students to approach the role they were working on
by assuming a pose that, in their view, expressed the gist
of the character’s affects and attitudes. He believed that
starting from such a single large gesture or pose, involving
the whole body, was an effective way for the actor to
coax his or her imagination, discover additional nuances
of the character’s mindset, and, in the process, attain an
emotional state relevant for the role (Chekhov, 1953, p. 63).
This pathway simultaneously allowed for launching a chain
of psychophysiological reactions relevant for the role and
preventing these processes from spinning out of control
(compared, for example, to Konstantin Stanislavsky’s and Lee
Strasberg’s method of emotional recall, where the actor had to
dwell on personal memories reminiscent of the situation in the
dramatic script). Chekhov described his training technique as
learning to manipulate the inner “energy” in tandem with the
physical expressions of the body, so as to adopt the character’s
internal state and render it communicable. What he called
“psychological gesture” was a means to “influence, stir, mold and
attune your whole inner life to its artistic aims and purposes
(Chekhov, 1953, p. 71).”
Like many early 20th-century theorists of performance,
Chekhov conceived of human behavior in terms of the
dichotomy between willful and subconscious processes, and
emphasized movement and posture exercises as a way of
initiating autonomous psychophysiological responses that are
not subject to the immediate willful command (Sofia, 2014;
Lutterbie, 2015). To help actors temporarily merge with the
characters they sought to portray, Chekhov laid emphasis on
gesture and pose as a foundational stepping stone for developing
the contour of the role. The “psychological gestures” used
by Chekhov in training actors were symbolic archetypes, or
condensed sketches of various characters’ most salient attitudes.
Although “psychological gestures” begin as willfully induced,
symbolic movements, Chekhov argued that dwelling on the
somaesthetic experiences induced by these motor actions leads
the actors to embrace the character’s mood and attitudes as
their own:
So we may say that the strength of the movement stirs our
will power in general; the kind of movement awakens in us
a definite corresponding desire, and the quality of the same
movement conjures up our feelings (Chekhov, 1953, p. 65).
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Embodied Cognition in Performance
Chekhov’s technique, then, aims to provide a physical
approach to uncovering a character’s emotional state. The
text of the play provides the given circumstances, dialogue,
relationships, and action of the character that guide the actor to
create an appropriate “psychological gesture.” Using the text as a
template, Chekhov directed actors to create bold gestures as the
first step toward inhabiting the character’s inner life.
In this study, we were not guided by a dramatic text; rather, we
appealed to the participants’ imagination to provide motivations
for the movement. In this respect, we took inspiration from
Chekhov’s stand-alone exercises, not tied to any play (Chekhov,
1953, pp. 63–84), in which various gestures and poses were
combined with verbal prompts relevant to the character’s
temperament and attitudes. For example, Chekhov associated
an energetic thrust of one’s arms upward and a wide stance
with a prophet-like figure, characterized by “a fanatical, fiery
will,” who is “open to influences from above,” but at the same
time “stands firmly on the ground and receives equally strong
inspirations from the earthly world” (Chekhov, 1953, p. 68). To
create an opposite effect, Chekhov (1953) asked his students to
inhabit a character who is “entirely introspective, with no desire
to come into contact either with the world above or below, but
not necessarily weak” (p. 68). This “brooding” persona prone
to self-isolation was portrayed by the bent head, clenched fists,
arms pressed close to the body, and unstable, contorted posture
suggesting withdrawal and avoidance (Chekhov, 1953, p. 68).
It is important to note that Chekhov did not provide precise
instructions on the actual movements and poses to be performed:
he presented his students only with character traits and some
general guidelines on gestures, leaving it up to each person to
discover the expression they thought most appropriate. In our
experiment, we designed exercises that are closely aligned with
Chekhov’s principles, although we modified the wording of the
verbal cues as described in the “Materials and Methods” section.
Our verbal prompts served to create an interpretative context for
the movements and stimulate the participants’ imagination.
Chekhov’s method is routinely used by both professional
actors working on new roles, and by novices taking their first
steps in acting training. Our study focused on the core principle
underlying the creative process of the actor in Chekhov’s
system – the possibility of psychological transformation through
guided exercise.
Overview
The present study investigated whether movement exercises,
foundational for actors’ training based on Michael Chekhov’s
system, impact subjects’ emotional state and perception of their
own height. Participants in this experiment performed three sets
of exercises based on Chekhov (1953): neutral, expanding, and
contracting. A set of neutral exercises, performed at the beginning
of the experiment, emphasized natural, relaxed postures and
served as a baseline condition. Expanding exercises emphasized
outward movement of the limbs and energetic, assertive posture
in an imaginary supportive environment while contracting
exercises encouraged curling up, withdrawal, and hiding from
imagined oppression. Immediately after performing each set
of exercises, participants reported their mood and perceived
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Olenina et al.
height. Consistent with the idea that psychological states are
simultaneously bodily states, we expected to find systematic
changes in mood and perceived height following the exercises.
Such a demonstration would support the theoretical basis of
Chekhov’s method and open the door to further exploration of
the actor’s creative process based on modern findings regarding
embodied cognition.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants
Twenty-nine undergraduate students (20 female, 9 male) at
the Arizona State University participated in this experiment.
We have not collected data on their previous experience with
acting and various formal techniques of bodily mastery, such as
dance, martial arts, or yoga, because Chekhov’s method of actors’
training does not distinguish between professional practitioners
and novices (i.e., both beginners and professionals are expected
to cultivate proprioceptive awareness and explore new poses that
are not tied to codified movement protocols). Each participant
was paid $10 upon arrival. Participants ranged in age from 18 to
49 years old (mean = 25.9 years; standard deviation = 7.5 years).
The mean height of the participants was 172.8 cm (standard
deviation = 10.6 cm; range from 158 to 198 cm).
Design
In groups of 5–10 (4 groups total), participants were led
through three sets of exercises based on Chekhov (1953):
neutral, expanding, and contracting. For two of the groups,
the sequence was neutral, expanding, contracting, and for the
other two, neutral, contracting, expanding. After each set of
exercises, participants completed a survey of affect using an
Affect Grid (Russell et al., 1989; see Figure 1) and reported
their self-perception of height (Perceived Height) using a line
projected on a wall. The Affect Grid provided separate measures
of arousal and pleasantness, each on a 9-point scale. Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate whether mood (arousal
and pleasantness) and perceived height changed as a function
of exercise. Multiple regression was used to identify whether
variations in arousal and pleasantness could predict variations in
perceived height.
Apparatus
The experiment was run in a large room typically used for theater
and dance rehearsals. A curtain hung through the middle of
the room so that the exercises were done on one side of the
curtain and the measurements of mood and perceived height
were done on the other. Mood was measured using an Affect Grid
(Russell et al., 1989). An Affect Grid (Figure 1) is a 9 ⇥ 9 grid of
boxes with pleasantness labeled along the horizontal dimension
(from unpleasant on the left to pleasant on the right) and arousal
labeled on the vertical dimension (from sleepiness on the bottom
to aroused on the top). In the four corners of the Grid, the
dimensions of pleasantness and arousal intersect, producing four
affective states: stress, excitement, depression, and relaxation.
The Affect Grid is commonly used to gather reports of mood
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Embodied Cognition in Performance
FIGURE 1 | Affect Grid (Russell et al., 1989) used to report Mood. Participants
placed an X in the box that corresponded to their current experience of
arousal (vertical dimension) and pleasantness (horizontal dimension).
for self (Cain et al., 2019; Emmerdinger and Kuhbandner, 2019;
Finisguerra et al., 2019; Ogawa and Nittono, 2019) and others
(Cain et al., 2019; Chen and Whitney, 2019). The advantage for
the present experiment is that it allowed for rapid and repeated
measures of mood while the participant is engaged in other
tasks. Grids were preprinted on individual sheets of paper so
that participants would make each report on a clean grid, with
no information about their previous responses. Participants were
instructed to place a mark in the square that corresponded to
their combined experience of arousal and pleasantness at that
moment. Perceived height was measured using an electronic
version of the methods used by Warren and Whang (1987) and
Mark (1987). Participants stood 6.1 m from a wall and matched
a line projected onto the wall to their self-perception of height.
A projector connected to a computer was used to project a
horizontal white line on a black wall. There were no marks on
the wall to provide feedback about actual height and all furniture
was moved away from the wall. Using a handheld remote, each
participant was able to move the line up and down until it
matched their self-perception of height. Two measures of height
(one with the line starting at the top of the range, 223 cm, and
one starting at the bottom, 136 cm) were taken after each set
of exercises; the two measures were averaged and used as the
perceived height for that condition.
Procedure
Upon entering the room, the participants’ actual height was
measured using a tape measure. For the experiment, participants
were led through three sets of exercises, adapted from Chekhov
(1953, pp. 62–84). Each set of exercises began by adopting a
posture, followed by a set of movements derived from that
posture, and finished with movements through the room. The
first set, serving as a baseline, was always the Neutral exercises.
We started with it in an effort to focus the participants’ attention
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Olenina et al. Embodied Cognition in Performance

on the present moment and the inception of the experiment. TABLE 1 | Actual and perceived height in cm.
This set began by standing in a relaxed posture with the feet
Participant Actual height Neutral Expanding Contracting
directly under the hips and arms and hands relaxed by the sides.
Then participants were instructed to imagine that the head is a 1 172 177.2 180.8 178.1
balloon, floating up and lengthening the spine. They then walked 2 171 173.7 168.8 157.3
around the room in a relaxed and neutral posture. The second 3 164 167.1 167.4 168.1
and third sets of exercises (expanding and contracting) were 4 168 178.4 168.3 165.2
performed in a randomized order: in two groups, the sequence 5 167 181.6 183.5 184.7
was neutral, expanding, contracting, and in the other two, 6 198 193.3 195.3 198.4
neutral, contracting, expanding. The expanding exercises began 7 164 178.4 172.3 172.8
by standing in a comfortable posture while imagining a source 8 179 179.4 175.0 180.1
of energy “radiating” from inside their torso, or an “internal 9 168 173.7 173.5 175.9
center.” Then participants were instructed to raise their arms, 10 182 177.4 185.7 176.4
widen their stance, expand their torso, and lengthen their reach 11 171 182.5 182.5 179.8
and body. They finished this set of exercises by lunging forward 12 186 193.1 199.4 187.4
in different directions and moving through the room in a way 13 185 179.1 183.3 182.3
that filled as much space as possible. In the contracting exercise, 14 159 175.4 176.9 165.7
participants were asked to imagine that the space outside of them 15 162 164.4 167.9 161.5
was shrinking, and some imaginary outside force was closing in 16 171 176.7 174.5 171.8
around them. Participants were verbally prompted to push away 17 172 174.2 177.6 189.9
or retreat from these external energies. The contracting exercises 18 162 170.5 159.3 162.2
began by adopting a contracted posture in which they made 19 171 178.6 178.1 180.1
themselves as small as possible while imagining an external force 20 182 194.5 205.0 200.4
acting upon them. Then participants were instructed to make 21 165 167.4 162.5 155.6
retreating movements intended to resist or avoid this external 22 162 178.4 165.4 164.4
force. They finished this set of exercises by moving through 23 198 192.8 198.7 195.5

the room as if this external force was compressing and slowing 24 158 177.4 177.2 180.6

them. In each set of exercises, the instructions were general, 25 169 178.6 181.3 183.0

and participants were encouraged to be creative in how they 26 188 179.8 171.8 176.4

expressed their movements. Participants were also free to open 27 175 194.8 209.0 196.2

or close their eyes. 28 176 183.0 190.6 188.2

Each set of exercises lasted 15 min. At the end of each 15-min 29 167 179.1 180.3 176.4

set, an experimenter tapped participants randomly one-by-one Mean 172.8 179.3 179.7 177.7

to perform the measurements of mood and perceived height. Standard error 2.0 1.5 2.3 2.3

Each of the three times (i.e., after the neutral exercise, after the
contracting, and after the expanding exercise), the participants
picked up a new, clean Affect Grid to report mood and then
moved on to report perceived height. After making these two
reports, participants returned to the group exercises and were
Perceived height was measured after each of three sets of exercise. All participants
performed the neutral exercises first. Participants 1–15 performed the expanding
exercises next while participants 16–29 performed the contracting exercises next.
TABLE 2 | Analysis of variance results for perceived height.

instructed to continue the exercises until the new set began. Source df Mean square F p !2p
The entire procedure lasted approximately 1 h. The Institutional
Review Board at Arizona State University approved all elements Exercise 2 31.96 1.53 0.225 0.05
of the procedure. 56 20.84

RESULTS
Actual and Perceived Height
Actual and perceived height data are reported for all participants
in Table 1. The mean height of the participants was 172.8 cm
(SD = 10.6 cm; range = 159–198 cm). The mean perceived height
across all experimental conditions was 178.9 cm (SD = 10.4 cm;
range = 161.8–200 cm). Actual and perceived height were
significantly correlated, r(27) = 0.7, p < 0.01.
The ANOVA of perceived height as a function of exercise
is reported in Table 2. The main effect of exercise on
perceived height was not significant, F(2,56) = 1.53, p = 0.23,
!2p = 0.052. Mean perceived height (and standard error) was
179.3 cm (1.4 cm) following the neutral exercise; 177.7 cm
(2.3 cm) following the contracting exercise; and 179.7 cm
(2.3 cm) following the expanding exercise. Although the effect
was not significant, 17 out of the 29 participants reported
feeling shorter after the contracting exercises, compared to the
expanding exercises.
Affect
Reported arousal and pleasantness as a function of exercise
for all participants are reported in Table 3. Violin plots in
Figure 2 show the probability density correlating changes

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Olenina et al. Embodied Cognition in Performance

TABLE 3 | Reports of arousal and pleasantness following each set of exercises.

Neutral Expanding Contracting

Participant Arousal Pleasantness Arousal Pleasantness Arousal Pleasantness

1 5 8 8 8 8 7
2 7 6 4 7 8 3
3 4 5 6 3 6 2
4 7 3 3 8 2 2
5 3 8 4 7 7 7
6 3 9 4 6 7 4
7 5 3 4 7 6 7
8 3 6 2 6 6 6
9 8 4 3 5 4 5
10 6 4 5 4 4 4
11 4 6 4 6 4 5
12 2 7 7 8 8 2
13 7 6 3 8 3 5
14 3 4 6 8 9 2
15 2 8 8 7 8 4
16 2 7 6 8 4 2
17 3 4 7 7 6 2
18 7 3 4 6 3 6
19 3 7 2 6 7 7
20 3 6 7 9 8 3
21 8 4 4 6 6 4
22 4 7 8 7 7 3
23 2 7 4 8 4 3
24 1 9 6 8 8 9
25 3 8 7 9 7 7
26 4 7 7 5 7 6
27 4 7 8 8 7 5
28 4 3 6 7 7 7
29 4 7 6 7 7 3
Mean 4.2 6.0 5.3 6.9 6.1 4.6
Standard error 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4

All participants performed the neutral exercises first. Participants 1–15 performed the expanding exercises next while participants 16–29 performed the
contracting exercises next.

in the reported arousal and pleasantness with each type
of exercise. The ANOVA results are presented in Table 4.
Overall, participants felt more pleasant than aroused, F(1,
28) = 4.83, p = 0.036, !2p = 0.15. There was also a
main effect of exercise, in which the combined arousal
and pleasantness were greater in the expanding condition,
F(2, 56) = 5.61, p = 0.006, !2p = 0.17. However, these
main effects were superseded by the significant interaction
between mood and exercise, F(2, 56) = 13.17, p < 0.001,
!2p = 0.32. The data in Figure 2 suggests that this interaction
resulted from the expanding and contracting exercises having
different effects on each measure of affect. Pairwise t-tests
comparing arousal and pleasantness across the expanding and
contracting exercise conditions revealed significant effects for
each. Arousal was greater after performing the contracting
exercises, compared to the expanding exercises, t(28) = 2.60,
p = 0.015; pleasantness was greater after performing the
expanding exercises, compared to the contracting exercises,
t(28) = 5.08, p < 0.001. Figure 3 visualizes the correlations
between the self-perceived height, arousal, and pleasantness as a
3D linear regression plot.
Perceived Height as a Function of Affect
Because there was variability in each measure not attributable
to conditions, we sought a direct effect of mood on perceived
height. To normalize the data to reflect changes within a
participant and not across participants, the value of each measure
(perceived height, arousal, and pleasantness) after the neutral
exercises was subtracted from the values after the expanding and
contracting exercises. These data (1Perceived Height, 1Arousal,
and 1Pleasantness), then, indicate how much each measure
changed relative to neutral. A multiple regression analysis (see
Tables 5, 6) revealed a significant effect of 1Arousal and
1Pleasantness on 1Perceived Height, R = 0.403, F(2, 57) = 5.321,
p = 0.008. The coefficients on both predictors were significant:
1Arousal, b = 0.79, t = 2.65, p = 0.011; 1Pleasantness, b = 0.68,

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Olenina et al. Embodied Cognition in Performance

FIGURE 2 | Arousal and pleasantness as a function of exercise.

TABLE 4 | Analysis of variance results for affect. enactive perspective on psychology (Thompson and Varela,
2001; Chemero, 2009; Clark, 2011; Varela et al., 2017).
Source df Mean square F p !2p
Participants in this experiment performed three sets of
Exercise 2 15.47 5.61 0.006 0.17 exercises adapted from Chekhov (1953): neutral, expanding,
56 2.76 and contracting. Following each set of exercises, participants
Mood 1 15.54 4.83 0.036 0.15 reported their perceived height and affect. Consistent with
28 3.22 expectations, these exercises induced changes in affective states.
Exercise ⇥ mood 2 52.02 13.17 0.000 0.32 In comparison to their self-evaluations after the neutral exercises,
56 3.95 the participants reported feeling more positive and aroused
after the expanding exercises and more negative and aroused
after the contracting exercises. It was possible to note that
t = 2.58, p = 0.013. The resulting regression equation is, overall, the expanding and contracting exercises we observed
1Perceived Height = 1.22 + 0.79 ⇥ 1Arousal + 0.68 tended to shift the participants’ affect up and down along
the diagonal running from “relaxation” (low arousal, high
⇥1Pleasantness (1) pleasure) to “stress” (high arousal, low pleasure) on the
Equation 1 reveals that increases in both arousal and pleasantness Affect Grid. On the other hand, the results for the self-
were associated with increases in perceived height. As perception of height did not reveal a statistically significant
participants felt more aroused and more pleasant, they felt change after either of the three interventions. However, we
taller. The reason that that there was no significant effect of have observed a strong correlation between a taller perception
exercise on perceived height, therefore, may have been that each of height and increased arousal and pleasantness. The latter
exercise condition produced an increase in one dimension of finding opens up a pathway for future research by suggesting
mood and a decrease in the other, possibly canceling out the that a more likely potential for shifting the subjects’ self-
mean changes in perceived height. perception of height could be found in experiments, capable
of manipulating the participants’ mood along the diagonal
running from “depression” (low arousal and low pleasantness)
DISCUSSION to “excitement” (high arousal and high pleasantness) on
the Affect Grid.
The present study investigated whether the movement exercises Very few previous studies have examined the effect of
used in Michael Chekhov’s method produce noticeable effects embodied or situated cognition on the perception of one’s
on the participants’ psychological experience, specifically, on own height. Duguid and Goncalo (2012) established a positive
their affective state and their perception of their own height. correlation between the individuals’ experience of power and
Chekhov’s method for training actors was predicated on the self-perceived height, suggesting a general connection between
assumption that movement influenced psychological experience, perceived height and mood. In the present experiment,
attuning the subject to the role. The present study was despite the lack of significant differences in perceived height
motivated to test for the specific psychological effects based across conditions, we found a significant relation between
on recent research supporting an embodied, situated, and perceived height and the two dimensions of affect (arousal and

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Olenina et al. Embodied Cognition in Performance

FIGURE 3 | A 3D linear regression plot, showing correlations between self-perceived height, pleasantness, and arousal.

pleasantness). Increases in both arousal and pleasantness were TABLE 5 | Analysis of variance results for the multiple regression of 1Perceived
Heaviness on 1Arousal and 1Pleasantness.
associated with increases in perceived height.
Taken together, our results suggest that the contracting Model df Mean square R F p
and expanding acting exercises developed by Chekhov (1953)
Regression 2 176.65 0.403 5.32 0.008
produce systematic changes in the psychological experience,
Residual 55 33.20
specifically insofar as the practitioners’ self-perceived arousal vs.
Total 57
sluggishness, and pleasant vs. unpleasant feelings are concerned.
These results provide preliminary support to Chekhov’s intuition
that physically performing specific “psychological gestures” TABLE 6 | Coefficients for the multiple regression of 1Perceived Heaviness on
triggers specific inner responses from the practitioners. 1Arousal and 1Pleasantness.
In reporting these preliminary results, this study’s limitations Model b Standard error b t p
must be acknowledged, so as to mark the specificity of our
findings and point to future studies that may help further Constant 1.22 0.80 1.53 0.132
elucidate the factors shaping the subjects’ experience during 1Arousal 0.79 0.30 0.34 2.65 0.011
Chekhov’s “psychological gesture” exercises. We have used the 1Pleasantness 0.68 0.26 0.33 2.58 0.013
neutral exercises as our base condition for our comparisons,
with no measurements of affect taken prior to the beginning
of the experiment. Our study also did not involve a control some situational circumstances. Michael Chekhov designed his
group. Objections may be raised as to whether any form exercises to help actors discover embodied nuances of their
of physio-mental exercise could produce the same effects as roles within a specific dramatic text. In fact, the purpose of
the contracting and expanding exercises we have adapted Chekhov’s “psychological gesture” was to help actors capture
from Chekhov. In anticipating this objection, we point to the complex context with simple archetypal gestures. Although we
opposite trends in self-reported mood that we found after the stripped the exercises of a specific narrative or character, verbal
expanding and contracting exercises, which suggests that specific instructions allowed participants to generate their own imagined
types of movement routines, coupled with appropriate verbal context. Thus, our verbal prompts, such as a request to imagine
instructions, tend to evoke specific inner experiences. Future interacting with an “external force” while doing the exercises,
studies may compare the subjects’ self-perceptions of mood and could be considered situational circumstances. It is essential,
height after Chekhov’s acting exercises and after purely physical therefore, to consider the role of context when evaluating the
exercises, not accompanied by verbal prompts that endow actions individuals’ psychological experiences occurring in tandem with
with semantic connotations. their physical performances.
A seminal study on the “power poses” by Carney et al. (2010)
Movement and Affect in Context has linked open, expansive postures (expressions of power)
An important feature of artistic performance is that it typically and closed, contractive postures (expressions of powerlessness)
occurs within the context of a character, a narrative, or to specific neuroendocrine changes, further implying that

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2277

Olenina et al.
a given set of poses will consistently produce the same
psychological effect. The exercises used in the present study
bear resemblance to dominant and submissive poses in Carney
et al. (2010). In a critical review, Bavel (2013) pointed out
that the linking of “power poses” to the increased self-
confidence may not be as context-free as Carney et al.
(2010) suggest. Other studies, according to Bavel (2013),
demonstrate the importance of social context in which the
experimental manipulations are taking place. Thus, Cesario and
McDonald (2013) showed that the experience of dominance
and submissiveness induced by expansive and constrictive poses
occurred only within an interpersonal context, which endowed
gestures with specific meanings. For example, holding an
expansive pose while imagining being frisked by police resulted
in less powerful behavior (Cesario and McDonald, 2013). As
Laird and Bresler (1992) explain, the individual’s self-perception
is influenced both by the proprioceptive signals of posture and
situational awareness.
Although the present study assessed the participants’ self-
perception of mood and height in subjective, ego-centric terms,
we do not want to conclude that the psychological effects
we observed are context-free. While the verbal instructions
accompanying the exercises did not cue the participants to
pay attention to their standing vis-à-vis others, they involved
abstract metaphors of “supportive energy” in case of expansive
gestures and “oppressing energy” in case of contracting ones.
We found that in these circumstances, the expanding exercises
produced a positive and relaxed mood, as they were coupled
with verbal prompts to imagine “supportive energy” spreading
out from the torso and filling up the body. However, it is
possible to imagine a different scenario, in which the actor
were performing expanding exercised to inhabit a character
who is asserting his victory over an opponent. In this case,
it is likely that the actor would follow up with a primal
scream, suggesting an aroused rather than relaxed mood.
This counterexample, however, does not diminish the value of
research on the role of proprioceptive sensations of posture
and gestures in mood regulation. Rather, it prompts us to
acknowledge the role of situational circumstances, which impose
an interpretative framework on the person’s perceptions of their
own bodily state.
Conclusion: Acting as Embodiment.
Chekhov’s Theory in Light of the Present
Study
Chekhov’s exploration of the “psychological gesture” anticipated
modern embodied, situated, and enactive approaches to
psychology. Whether he worked with beginner actors or
seasoned professionals, Chekhov encouraged his students to
enact their character’s state of mind and attitudes in a specific
scene through large gestures involving the entire body. By
concentrating on the proprioceptive sensations of this pose,
Chekhov’s actor achieved the psychological state useful for
approximating the character’s internal emotional landscape.
Our study confirms Chekhov’s predictions about the interplay
between the sensations of bodily pose and affective state.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org
Embodied Cognition in Performance
We demonstrated that expanding and contracting gestures
and postures, coupled with verbal metaphors describing the
situation, produce systematic effects on the subjects’ mood:
expansive movements result in higher pleasure, while closing
in on oneself brings about higher arousal. Neither type of
exercise appeared to significantly impact the subjects’ self-
perception of height. However, a correlation between the
increased sense of tallness and rises in the self-estimates of
arousal and pleasantness that we have observed opens up a
potentially productive new research pathway, by suggesting
a hypothesis that exercises inducing low arousal and low
pleasantness (i.e., the state of depression as defined by the
Affect Grid) would more likely bring about lowered estimates of
one’s own height.
Key aspects of Chekhov’s training method were thus
transformed in our study into testable hypotheses with the aim
of deriving conclusions about general psychological mechanisms,
relevant both inside and outside the actors’ studio. We
believe that a quantificational inquiry of this kind does not
undermine the artistic dimension of Chekhov’s legacy; nor
does our study exhaust the full implications of Chekhov’s
exploration of embodiment. We share the performance theorist
John Lutterbie’s sense that cognitive psychology helps reveal
the significance of Chekhov’s “psychological gesture” in the
creative process and provide a stronger foundation for this
method of actor training without reducing the full spectrum
of the artist’s insights and observations to one rigid formula
(Lutterbie, 2015, p. 96).
Acting in general remains an underexplored area for
psychology, compared to music and visual arts (Goldstein,
2009). This relative scarcity of scientific studies is surprising,
given the fact that many prominent 20th-century directors,
whose work stands at the foundation of contemporary theater,
have explicitly drawn on various trends of psychological and
neurophysiological research (Roach, 1985; Pitches, 2005; Sofia,
2014; Sirotkina and Smith, 2017). Recent scientific studies have
considered professional performance longitudinally, from the
point of view of personal psychology in its developmental
and social dimensions. Thus Goldstein (2009) has pointed
out that empathy and emotional adaptability are childhood
precursors of acting talent, which get mobilized in theater work
in adulthood, while Thomson and Jaque (2011, 2012) have
revealed potentially pathological tendencies of fantasy proneness,
dissociation, and emotional vulnerability in professional actors.
The immediate experience of acting – the process of imaginary
transformation, which simultaneously involves the actor’s body
and mind – has been studied much less, but this is precisely the
area where the cross-disciplinary dialogue between performers
and cognitive psychologists has the greatest promise of
illuminating the general human mechanisms of perception and
mood regulation.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All datasets generated for this study are included in the
manuscript/supplementary files.
9 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2277
Olenina et al.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The studies involving human participants were reviewed
and approved by the IRB, Arizona State University
(exemption granted; case no. STUDY00005403). The
patients/participants provided their written informed consent
to participate in this study.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
AO conceptualized the overall approach of the study, did
bibliographic research, and wrote the Introduction, Discussion,
and Conclusion sections of the manuscript. EA carried out the
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Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
potential conflict of interest.
Copyright © 2019 Olenina, Amazeen, Eckard and Papenfuss. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided
the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original
publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No
use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
11 October 2019 | Volume 10 | Article 2277
5/10/2018 Mediating Gesture in Theory and Practice | Hedberg Olenina | Apparatus. Film, Media and Digital Cultures of Central and Eastern E…

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Home > No 5 (2017) > Hedberg Olenina

Mediating Gesture in Theory and Practice

Editorial Article

Ana Hedberg Olenina and Irina Schulzki

Keywords
lm theory; media; gesture; mise en geste; mediation; movement; body; language montage; dialectics; ethics; pure
gesture; apparatus; technology; deformation; physiognomy; anaphora; carpalistics; revolution; spectacle; power;
image; political art; stasis.

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Gestures:Theories
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Bodily
BodilyStatements
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Statementsbeyond
beyond
beyondthe
the
theSign
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Eisenstein’s
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Béla
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BélaBalázs:
Balázs:
Balázs:Physiognomy
Physiognomy
Physiognomy

Julia
Julia
JuliaKristeva:
Kristeva:
Kristeva:Anaphora
Anaphora
Anaphora

Mikhail
Mikhail
MikhailIampolski:
Iampolski:
Iampolski:Deformations
Deformations
Deformations

Oksana
Oksana
OksanaBulgakowa:
Bulgakowa:
Bulgakowa:The
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ofGestures
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Giorgio
Giorgio
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Agamben:
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Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
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Bios
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Bibliography
Bibliography
Bibliography

Filmography
Filmography
Filmography

Suggested
Suggested
SuggestedCitation
Citation
Citation

“Criticism is the reduction of works

to the sphere of pure gesture”

Giorgio Agamben in Kommerell, or On Gesture (1999a: 80

http://www.apparatusjournal.net/index.php/apparatus/article/view/100/138 1/29
5/10/2018 Mediating Gesture in Theory and Practice | Hedberg Olenina | Apparatus. Film, Media and Digital Cultures of Central and Eastern E…

Gesture as a Figure of Speech. About this Issue

Gesture seems to be a rather convenient catch-all concept in a wide range of interdisciplinary discussions that
probe the expressive acts of the body from the standpoints of iconography, semiotics, anthropology, kinesics,
neurophysiology, phenomenology, a ect theory, ethics, anthropology, and political philosophy. Elements of these
perspectives trickle into cinema and media studies, where the concept of gesture tends to be most frequently
evoked for the sake of non-logocentric recuperation of the body, for exploring the limits of agency and rational
meaning, and for the assessment of dramatic deeds with cultural and political repercussions. The key questions
that gave rise to this collection of essays revolve around methodologies of gestural analysis and the avenues that
this path of inquiry opens. How can the notion of gesture, although di use and elusive, be formulated as a source
of theoretical re ection on cinema and an eligible tool of lm and media analysis? What is cinematic gesture in
both historical and theoretical perspectives? How does gesture relate to such concurrent concepts as movement,
a ect, and the body as a whole? How does it surpass this – however evident – relation to the body (above all, the
hand, the face, the eye) and become subsumed under the categories of lm apparatus (camera movement,
perspective, framing, montage, colour, sound)? Where is gesture to be placed between the visible and the
enunciable? How does the moving image mediate corporeal performance, both aesthetically and ethically? In what
ways do cinematic gestures a ect and move the audience? Finally, how does gesture negotiate corporeality, lm
techniques, and modes of thinking?

Owing to gesture’s “muteness”, any inquiry into the nature of the gestural faces a twofold challenge: the
encumbrance of utterance leading to gesticulation on the one hand, and the methodological problem of
adequately representing all nuances of the bodily act on the other. How should we capture, verbalise, and analyse
the unspeakable beyond mere description and ekphrasis, when all language appears inadequate or
overabundant? For good reason, Giorgio Agamben (who forefronts the theoretical premises of this issue) chose a
pointed metaphor for gesture: a “gag” in the literal sense of the word – as “something that could be put in your
mouth to hinder speech” (2000: 59). To overcome such an “incurable speech defect” (ibid.), intrinsic to every
gesture, one needs to adopt an almost impossible posture: to transcend the logocentric system by means of
language. To put it di erently, one has to traverse the path not from words to deeds, but the other way round:
from deeds, actions, and movements, from bodies and their actions and passions, to words.

Indeed, one tends to resort to more eloquent, albeit opaque, means – silence and gesture – when confronting the
boundaries of language and thought. “Silence is the artist’s ultimate other-worldly gesture: by silence, he frees
himself from servile bondage to the world [...] ”, remarks Susan Sontag astutely in her 1967 essay “The Aesthetics
of Silence” (2013: 4). 1 She continues: “One use for silence: certifying the absence or renunciation of thought [...]
Another, apparently opposed, use for silence: certifying the completion of thought” (ibid.: 17). Indeed, is gesture a
surplus of communication or its loss? For e ect, we pigeonhole most general phenomena and acts under the
category of gesture and expect this terse expression to be grasped in a ash (and we usually do) – gesture is a
perfect gure of speech in the generalising (and undi erentiated) rhetoric of politics, ethics, and art (artistic, social
political gesture, grand gesture, beau geste and alike). What is more, it appears to be a perfectly unspeakable
gure of speech. The theory is equally a ected by this holistic impulse to conceptualise gesture as an overarching
“receptacle” which can artfully enclose both form and content and render them indistinguishable. This is manifest
in numerous theoretical works, from Bertolt Brecht’s renowned notions of “gest” (Gestus) and “basic gest”
(Grundgestus), to Jan Mukařovský’s “semantic gesture” (sémantické gesto) as a dynamic unity emerging in the
process of uni cation of meaning (významová jednotnost) in a work of art (1942), to Vilém Flusser’s attempts at a
gestural phenomenology, in which gesture is elevated to a universal, interdisciplinary, and anti-ideological
category capable of overcoming the disconnection between the natural sciences and the humanities (1991), etc.

With a nod to Sergei Eisenstein, we have chosen the term “mise en geste” for the collection’s title – not only as a
way of underscoring, as the Soviet avant-garde director once did, the performative and enactive dimension of
cinema, but to point more broadly to a productive constellation of ideas which emerge when key disciplinary
debates in lm and media studies are recast in terms of gesture. In a narrow sense, Eisenstein’s term “mise en
geste” is de ned in his 1948 notes on directing, completed a few months before his death, where he describes the
actor’s quest for a precise gesture to convey the subtext of a narrative situation and suggests that the actor gives a
scene its dramatic charge by embodying – in the literal sense of the word – the con icting motives driving the
character (Eizenshtein 2004: 393). However, Eisenstein’s interest in gesture went far beyond highlighting the
narrative function of the actor’s trajectory within the mise en scene. Time and again throughout his career, he
would return to the notion of the moving body, placing it at the very center of the aesthetic process – both for the
creator of an artwork and for the spectator. Eisenstein’s gesturology was premised on the conception of the body
as a site of intersecting forces – internal and external pressures which give shape to actions and reactions from a
mechanical, biological, psychological, social, and political standpoint.
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Extrapolating from this broader philosophical concern with gesture, the present issue of Apparatus aims to provide
a platform for contemporary research that focuses on corporeal acts as a way of reframing some of the central
concerns in lm and media scholarship, as well as in cultural theory more broadly. One such concern is the
relationship between the moving image and the viewer, both in terms of semiotic production of meaning and the
phenomenological, as well as political potency of lm. Gesture o ers a valuable lens to address the processes that
have been described under the categories of projection, mimesis, empathy, sensory engagement, and innervation
A second, related topic taken up by the articles in this volume is the problem of mediation: the question of how
visual media capture, modify, transmit, and disseminate movement and thereby contribute to historical
transformations.

Thus, Oksana Bulgakowa builds upon her earlier seminal project The Factory of Gestures to outline the role of
cinema in re ecting and fashioning bodily comportment. Presenting cinema as a veritable document of somatic
history, she investigates the materialisation of cultural and ideological imperatives in the bodily techniques in
postwar European lm. Eric Rauth proposes the term “cine-kinesis” to address the workings of the lmic medium
in his re ned and far-reaching interpretation of F. W. Murnau’s horror classic Nosferatu. Irina Sirotkina’s historical
study shows the way in which Wassily Kandinsky’s e ort to launch a universal science of movement, or
“kinemology”, inspired researchers at the Russian Academy of Artistic Sciences in the 1920s to record and analyse
movements of dancers, workers, and athletes in a variety of media. Drawing on studies of iconography (Aby
Warburg, Erwin Panofsky, André Chastel), Ivan Pintor Iranzo traces the enigmatic “gesture of silence” in the oeuvre
of Aleksandr Sokurov, arguing that this motif, intertwined with Sokurov’s poetic depiction of liminal spatialities,
serves to redirect the spectator’s gaze inward and initiate a re ection on historical memory. In his analysis of
Yorgos Lanthimos’s provocative lms, Carlo Comanducci proposes the notion of “empty gestures” to describe the
mechanical movements that characters are coerced to reproduce in a futile attempt to reinstate lost emotional
connections; the performed subjection in Lanthimos inevitably leads to problematisation of subjectivity.

Altogether, theses essays o er a portfolio of historical and theoretical approaches to the study of mediated
gesture in cinema, dance, literature, theatre, and visual arts from Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. In
the next chapter, we set o for a parcours over some theories of gesture, relevant both in the trans-medial and
trans-cultural approaches of the articles presented in this issue and essential in our own understanding of gesture
as a mediating term (with the full awareness that any kind of such an overview cannot avoid certain limitations or
reductions). The concluding chapter o ers an extended commentary on Petr Pavlenskii’s latest performance by
considering it as a compelling manifestation of pan-European political and artistic gesturology.

1. From the collection Styles of Radical Will (1969). Relevant to our discussion of gesture, the German translation of Sontag’s book reads
as Gesten radikalen Willens (2003).

Liberated Gestures: Theories of Bodily Statements Beyond the Sign

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Fig. 1: Sergei Eisenstein’s hand drawing Zdanie kinoteorii [The Building of Film Theory], 10 March 1939. Reproduced
from Naum Kleiman’s 2004 edition of Neravnodushnaia priroda 1 (Eizenshtein 2004: 2).

Sergei Eisenstein: The Underlying Gesture

Within the context of lm theory, Sergei Eisenstein stands out as a thinker who elevated gesture to the status of a
fundamental aesthetic category. It is no accident that in his famous sketch The Building to be Built: the Method of
Cinema (1939), the basis of the edi ce rests on two core elements: “the method of dialectics” and “expressivity of
man”. The rst refers to a series of dramatic qualitative transformations, as well as the Marxist-Hegelian principle
of logical inquiry that identi es con icting stages of evolution, while the second encapsulates Eisenstein’s long-
standing belief that gesture, or corporeal movement, is an elemental force that gives structure to the work of art
and shapes the audience’s experience. “Dialectics” comes prior to the “expressivity of man”, because it o ers a
conceptual prism through which Eisenstein tends to analyse corporeal movement: the principle of segmentation
and the foregrounding of violent contrast between separate stages permeate all of Eisenstein’s conceptions of
bodily expressivity – from “bi-mechanics” in the early 1920s (his take on Meyerhold’s biomechanics) to “ex-stasis”
later in his career. It is out of this foundation that the columns making up the notion of “image” emerge in the
acropolis of Eisenstein’s lm theory, rearing up towards the portico, which bears the inscription “philosophy of art”
and is framed by “sensory thinking”, “sociology”, and “technique” (Fig. 1). “Image” for Eisenstein is thus grounded in
gesture, a category that he places at the juncture of the psycho-physiological and the socio-cultural. While
acknowledging the importance of the audience’s background for its ability to relate to the image, Eisenstein has
always sought to explore the mechanisms of visceral response, emphasising, in particular, the role that motor
sensations play for emotions, memory, and cognition (cognition, most evidently, on the “pre-logical level”, but also
on a higher intellectual level of impulse control and problem-solving within the physical environment). 2 Hence
Eisenstein’s interest in biomedical and psychological discourse, both historical and contemporary (Ernst
Kretschmer, Sigmund Freud, Ivan Pavlov, Vladimir Bekhterev, Aleksandr Luria, Lev Vygotsky, Kurt Lewin, and Jean-
Martin Charcot among others), as well as his quest for insights in areas distant from hard science: anthropology,
performance theory (notably, biomechanics, Ausdruckstanz, and East Asian theatre), and even physiognomy and
chiromancy (Bulgakowa 1988; Bulgakowa 2014; Law and Gordon 1996; Moore 2006; Tikka 2010; Vassilieva 2013).

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The director’s persistent interest in gesture stemmed from his belief in kinesthetic empathy as a key element of
spectatorial involvement. One of his earliest theoretical essays, The Montage of Film Attractions (1924), postulates:
“emotional perception is achieved through the motor reproduction of the movements of the actor by the
perceiver” (2010: 48). By the mid 1930s, he would expand his de nition of movement and argue that not only the
actors’ gestures delineate the audience’s experience, but also the “pathway” implied in the compositional structure
of images, the running course of the unfolding mise-en-scene, the twists of the plotline, and the shot-to-shot jolts
of montage (Eizenshtein 1996:126). Comparing these movement programs to drawing or dancing, he would argue
that the lm’s impact “to a large degree rests on the fact that the spectator recreates the gesticulatory process at
the core of the design” (ibid.). 3

Dictating the compositional core of the artwork, gesture for Eisenstein was an imprint of the author’s physical
intention and also a trigger of the audience’s experience – an idea that the director sought to substantiate through
analysis of multiple media. Vincent Van Gogh’s and Edgar Degas’ paintings, as well as Auguste Rodin’s and
Michelangelo’s sculptures, he argued, make the structuring work of brushstrokes and chisel palpable. The stroke
represents the “retention of the artist’s gestural path inside the work of art, that is, a dynamic self-portrait of the
artist [...]. It is a means for the artist to trace oneself into the fabric of one’s own work of art” (Eizenshtein 2002:
338). Likewise, in literature, as Andrei Belyi apparently confessed to Eisenstein, “the only way to fully comprehend
what he writes is to recreate by one’s own gait the kind of leaps he [the writer] takes across the room, while
charting the novel’s movement on the pages of his manuscript with his own motions” (ibid.).

Establishing a connection between cinema and other arts, Eisenstein placed gesture at the center of synaesthetic
unity, when he conceptualised it as “the cradle of all kinds of imagery” in his un nished essay of 1939-40, titled
Opredeliaiushchii zhest [The Underlying Gesture] (1942) (Eizenshtein 2004: 177). 4 This yet untranslated essay
presents the thesis that gesture, language, music, and colour co-exist in the form of “layers”, commensurate
“voices” in our sensorium and our cognitive apparatus (ibid.: 165f.). One of the focal theoretical sources that
provoked Eisenstein to formulate this claim was the monograph L’art et le geste [Art and Gesture] (1910) by Jean
d’Udine 5 (Fig. 2). This was, in the spirit of modernism, a monistic study of the origins of art (painting, music,
architecture, and literature), which propounded an “extraordinary unity” and an “intimate correspondence” of all
senses, i.e., synaesthesia (Udine 1910: xxi). D’Udine argued that at the core of synesthetic association stands the
intermediation function of haptics, because all human senses may ultimately be traced back to a “plastic re ex”
(ibid.: 82). Eisenstein (2004: 176) expands d’Udine’s line of thought by suggesting that “proto-gestures” underlie
both our emotions and body movement and provide a structure to compositions of artworks (in music, poetry,
painting, lm montage, etc.) and even philosophical systems. Ultimately, for Eisenstein, gesture was, on the one
hand, a syncretic impulse, “an initial act that determines the plastic formulation of images in any artistic sphere”
(2004: 179), or a gure of potentiality, “an embryo” [embrion] that could be actualised in the “audio-visual image”
[zvuko-zritel’nyi obraz] (ibid.: 175). On the other hand, gesture was the contour, or a graphic tendency of the
image, a “geometric ourish” [geometricheskii roscherk] (ibid.: 183) that the recipient was bound to retrace and
decipher in a piece of art. 6

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Fig. 2: The title page of L’art et le geste (1910) by Jean d’Udine (Albert Cozanet).

2. Eisenstein’s term “pre-logical thinking”(“pra-logicheskoe myshlenie”) is borrowed from Lucien Lévy-Bruhl’s controversial
anthropological studies of “primitive” societies, and denotes, for Eisenstein, an “archaic” layer of consciousness that is not subject to
the censoring work of reason (Eisenstein 2002:167; Somaini 2016:31).

3. On Eisenstein’s approaches to dance and drawing, see Michelson (2001) and Frank (2017).

4. This essay was intended to be part of a chapter called Vertikal’nyi montazh in Eisenstein’s book Neravnodushnaia priroda [Non-
Indi erent Nature], parts of which were published in English under the title The Film Sense. The essay rst appeared in Russian in
2004 in the rst volume of Neravnodushnaia priroda edited by Naum Kleiman. The same text was considered for publication in The
Film Sense as part of the chapter “Synchronization of Senses”, but was ultimately not included in the nal version of the book,
despite the fact that the notion of “opredeliaiushchii zhest” clari es the central ideas of Eisenstein’s method of vertical montage. Fo
a commentary on the history of this text, see Naum Kleiman’s notes (Eizenshtein 2004: 614, 633).

5. “Jean d’Udin” was the pseudonym of the music theorist Albert Cozanet (1870-1938).

6. Tsivian addresses Eisenstein’s concept of gesture in the context of the lmmaker’s drawings and lm aesthetics, as well as d’Udine’s
study of gesture in his book on carpalistics (2010: 40-44). D’Udine’s book on gesture was rst translated into Russian in 1912 by
Sergei Volkonskii, a populariser of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze’s eurythmics and François Delsarte’s system of expressive movement.
Regarding the role of Volkonskii’s teaching for acting in the early Soviet lm see Iampolski (1991); Olenina (2012).

In Eisenstein’s Footsteps: Yuri Tsivian’s Carpalistics and Pia Tikka’s Enactive Cinema
During his lifetime, Eisenstein’s vision of gesture as a structuring undercurrent of artwork in di erent media and a
conduit of kinesthetic empathy did not produce the resonance it deserved. He did not publish a large part of his
writings, and indeed, most of his ideas could not appear in print in Stalinist Russia. His essays that came out

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abroad covered only the tip of the iceberg, resulting in misunderstandings and downright dismissal. Theodor
Adorno and Hanns Eisler rejected Eisenstein’s e orts to describe musical score on the basis of gesture as “vague”
in their 1947 book Komposition für den Film (Composing for the Films 2005: 68), a critique that the Russian director
took close to heart. 7 Some of Eisenstein’s colleagues, such as Mikhail Romm (1981: 35), did try to make use of the
term “mise en geste” in their own teaching; however, such references were cursory at best, and the riches of
Eisenstein’s gesturology did not nd an adequate following for many decades. 8

Today, one of the most interesting projects inspired by Eisenstein on a methodological level is Yuri Tsivian’s
“carpalistics” – an erudite historical study of gestural structures in multiple media. One of the world’s foremost
experts on Eisenstein’s work and the Soviet avant-garde more broadly, Tsivian replicates his subject’s fascinating
ability to detect composition-de ning gestures in literature, cinema, and other visual arts. However, in contrast to
Eisenstein, Tsivian does not lay claim to the discovery of any kind of universal aesthetic mechanisms, nor is he
concerned with kinesthetic empathy, a crucial component of the Soviet lmmaker’s gestural research. Tsivian’s
term “carpalistics” is borrowed, not without irony, from Vladimir Nabokov’s novel Pnin (1957), where the
neologism, based on the Latin word for “hand” (carpus), denoted a ctional discipline of philosophical kinesics
(Tsivian 2010: 14). Tsivian presents his own focus on gesture as a “device, a way of treating the material” (2013:
time code 00:04:06), which permits him to bring together, in a montage-like exposition, a great variety of
heterogeneous sources. “Carpalistcs,” he writes (2010: 80), “is a science of the contingent,” which deals with
“phonetic and kinetic coincidences, such as the similarity of a stick [palka] and a nger [palets], which not only
resemble each other by sound, but also by the character of movement.” To be distinguished from iconography,
semiotics, and narratology, “carpalistics deals with gestures that do not express, signify, or characterise, but which
draw attention to themselves as gestures” (Tsivian 2013: time code 00:05:21). If kinesics studies communication,
carpalistics studies the interferences occasioning moments of self-re exivity within the medium (Tsivian 2010: 77).
While the author purports to “stake a claim” to a new branch of visual studies (Tsivian 2010: 7), he focuses on
concrete case analyses, treating them with playful defamiliarisation reminiscent of Viktor Shklovskii’s prose. 9

Whereas Tsivian’s carpalistics has little room for the psychophysiological dimension of Eisenstein’s gesturology,
other scholars of the Soviet lmmaker’s writings have made it central to their own projects. For instance, the
Finnish media theorist and artist Pia Tikka, who devoted her meticulously researched dissertation to historicising
the “enactive” aspect of Eisenstein’s lms, is currently exploring the frontiers of “neurocinema”, analysing lm
spectatorship from the point of view of cognitive neuroscience (Tikka 2010; Tikka et al. 2012). 10

7. Adorno and Eisler in Komposition für den Film (1947) criticised Eisenstein for what they saw as a blunt comparison of the melodic line
with a sketch. Commenting on these incidents, Iampolski describes Eisenstein’s reaction to the critique: “Two months before his
death, after reading the previous hit Adorno next hit-Eisler critique, Eisenstein made the following note: ‘Eisler believes that there is
no commensurability, like a pair of galoshes and a drum (although even here, in plastic terms, it is possible) [...] The image passes
into a gesture that underlies both. Then we can construct any kind of counterpoint.’ The linking of galoshes and a drum, a cli edge
and musical notation, is possible because what is being linked is not their external appearance but their images, the linear traces
that organize them as gestures” (Iampolski 1998: 229f.; for further analysis of Adorno’s and Eisler’s critique see Kleiman 2004: 23).

8. That is not to say that Eisenstein’s gesturology lacked scholarly attention. His ideas on corporeal expression and the de nitive role
of gesture in art are evoked in multiple historical and theoretical studies (to name but a few, Iampolski 1998: 226 ; Michelson 2001;
Ivanov 2009:88; Kleiman 2004:9; Nesbet 2009; Law and Gordon 2012; Norshtein 2012; Somaini 2016; Didi-Huberman 2016; Geil,
2016; Frank 2017).

9. A collective tribute to Tsivian’s approach to carpalistics appeared as a volume on gesture in the interdisciplinary context (Lavrov,
Ospovat, Timenchik 2010).

10. In the 1970’s, Viacheslav Ivanov pioneered an analysis on Eisenstein’s theory from the point of view of brain science, semiotics,
anthropology, and cybernetics (Ivanov 1978).

Béla Balázs: Physiognomy

Eisenstein’s exploration of gesture as the source of art’s potency recalls some of the theoretical propositions
developed independently by his contemporary Béla Balázs. In Visible Man (1924), Balázs proclaimed that “in lm
the basic material, its poetic substance, is the visible gesture” (Balázs 2010: 18).

Today, mention of these two theorists’ names side by side immediately brings to mind their heated polemics in the
1920s. However, it would be misleading to judge the relationship between the maître of the Soviet avant-garde

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and the renowned Hungarian-Jewish intellectual solely on the basis of their mutual attacks, such as Eisenstein’s
“Béla Forgets the Scissors” (1926), an invective against Balázs’s alleged inability to recognise the powers of
montage and the collectivist nature of lmmaking, and Balázs’s retaliation ridiculing Eisenstein’s experiments with
lm “ideograms” as rebuses in The Spirit of Film of 1930 (Balázs 2010: 128, 149-151). The clash between the two
authors may seem at rst sight like a confrontation of irreconcilable perspectives, one rooted in constructivism,
re exology, and Marxism, and another – in Georg Simmel’s phenomenology of culture, Bergsonism, and Romantic
idealism. For the historian of Weimar cinema Erica Carter, the incompatibility of the two authors’ viewpoints is
epitomised in their diverging emphases when conceptualising cinema’s means of impact and its relationship with
language (2010: xxxiii; xxxvi). Whereas Eisenstein prioritised a series of discrete, calculated shocks (“montage of
attractions”), Balázs spoke of the “close-up” as cinema’s most entrancing device, which bares the uid, indivisible
“polyphony” of facial expressions as it transports the viewer into the realm of emotion, imagination, and memory
(ibid., xxxvi). Whereas Eisenstein attempted to describe the process of meaning-formation in cinema through
comparisons with language, Balázs proceeded from the premise that the di erences between “the gestural
language” of lm and “analytical” verbal structures are insurmountable (ibid.).

It is worthwhile, however, to probe the two theorists’ standpoints beyond their mutual overt rejections. There is a
level where their ultimate concerns converge, and their di erences appear to be more in the placement of
accents, rather than in conceptual fundamentals. Carter herself (ibid., xxxvi) repudiates the unfair characterisation
of Balázs as a theorist who ignored montage (although the way in which he approached editing, in contrast to
Eisenstein, laid emphasis on cinema’s ability to evoke intuitions of organic unity and simultaneity of distinct
events). Both authors, however, seemed to believe that 11 sequences of images direct the viewer’s gaze, with
each new shot contributing to the a ective pressure on our consciousness (it is just that Balázs was interested in
the cumulative e ect, and Eisenstein in а step-by-step transformation of mental states leading to some ecstatic
epiphany). In thinking about editing, both authors foregrounded the function of rhythm in structuring and
intensifying the viewers’ a ective experience (Carter ibid., xxxvi; Vogman 2016). Generally speaking, rhythm may
be regarded both as a ow, creating a sense of momentum and forward movement, and as an orderly pattern
made up of discrete units. Balázs, under the in uence of Bergson, embraced the rst de nition, while Eisenstein
concentrated on the dialectic, dynamic relations between distinct elements. The Janus-faced nature of rhythm,
however, makes it impossible to separate one aspect from the other. Regarding the second area of disagreement
between Balázs and Eisenstein, identi ed by Carter – cinema’s relation to language – it is important to bear in
mind that the Soviet lmmaker had an embodied perspective on verbal expression, which tends to be neglected
whenever he is “credited” with inventing the syntax and grammar of the moving image. As Naum Kleiman reminds
us (2004: 9), Eisenstein’s favoring of the “pre-logical” dimension of cognition placed gesture at the source of the
mind’s metaphoric operations. The whole body is involved when our consciousness is working towards articulating
its dispositions. This sensory-motor foundation of gurative “image” (obraz) is rendered palpable in cinema
through the “movement (of montage, drama, plot line, construction, tone, and rhythm” (Eisenstein cited in Kleiman
2004: 9).

It is not coincidental that a plane of convergence is detectable between the two lm theorists. Both were
in uenced by the German philosophical tradition of Lebensphilosophie, which was in vogue in Balázs’s intellectual
milieu (Koch 1987: 174) and which Eisenstein imbibed from Ludwig Klages and Rudolf Bode (Bochow 2000;
Bulgakowa 2014). Lebensphilosophie, as a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment, privileged
intuitive knowledge of the body over the positivist constructs of science, and immediacy of experience over
abstract, theoretical afterthought. In Eisenstein’s case, this philosophical undercurrent, with which he became
acquainted in the early 1920s, came to full fruition in his later writings on the “pre-logical” layer of consciousness,
which resurrects the “animistic”, “associative”, and “magical” beliefs discredited by rational civilization (Kleiman
2004: 9). In the case of Balázs, as Gertrud Koch (1987: 170) has argued, Lebensphilosophie underpins his
discussion of the “physiognomy” of the landscape and inanimate objects, which we tend to dismiss as rational
adults and which lm redeems for our gaze. In Visible Man, Balázs wrote:

Every child knows that things have a face, and he walks with a beating heart through the half-darkened room
where tables, cupboards and sofas pull strange faces at him and try to say something to him with their curious
expressions. [...] Children have no di culty understanding these physiognomies. [...] For objects, like modest
women, mostly hide their face behind a veil. The veil of our traditional, abstract way of seeing (2010: 46).

Implicit in this passage is the anti-logocentric impulse shared by many Modernist authors, who came to view
corporeal expression as a Nietzschean liberation from the columbarium of cultural clichés and prejudices. The
crux of Balázs’s proposition that cinema stages our encounter with the “faces of things” rests on highlighting the
defamiliarising, revelatory potential of this medium. He suggests that cinema creates opportunities for an intimate
connection with the depicted objects, places, and persons: they appear to look back at us from the screen (Koch

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1987: 170). Because of his validation of the viewer’s subjective, contemplative relationship to the expressions on
screen, Balázs’s concept of physiognomy is far removed from the 18th-century pseudoscience that this term
usually refers to. Rather, the deciphering of physiognomies of lmed objects is, for Balázs, an exercise in
phenomenological hermeneutics. As Erica Carter notes (2010: xxvi):

[W]hat becomes apparent as lm technology interacts with objects, bodies, or spaces to produce lmic realities
within the mise-en-scene, is what Balázs variously calls “mood,” the “atmosphere,” the “microphysiognomy” or
the “instinctive sensibility” that reveals itself in the interaction between the spectator and lm. Physiognomy is
distinguished from realism and empiricism, then, through its status as a mode of aesthetic as opposed to
crudely empirical knowing: a mode in which cognition occurs within the context of a perpetual ux of aesthetic
value and a ect.

For Balázs, contemplating the shapes of gestures and facial expression does not lead to categorical labels
summing up the subject’s inner essence. Rather, what interests him is the beholder’s mental space in which the
polyphony of visible expressions triggers intuitive emotional responses. The knowledge o ered by cinema, as a
modern medium, is eeting and inconclusive, garnered from surface impressions – even though these
impressions trigger powerful a ects and aesthetic pleasure. In fact, cinema renders the dichotomies of surface
and depth, inside and outside, irrelevant. Wrote Balázs:

[Film] no more has content than does a painting, a piece of music, or indeed – a facial expression. It is a surface
art and in it whatever is inside is outside. [...] This psychology and this meaning, however, are not a “deeper
meaning,” residing in some “idea” or other; they dwell entirely on the surface, as phenomena accessible to
sensory perception. (Balázs 2010: 19).

According to the contemporary lm philosopher Giuliana Bruno (2015: 4), Balázs’s discussion of “surface” (which
she spells, evocatively, as “sur-face”) anticipated Gilles Deleuze’s understanding of immanence, which emphasises
the materiality of a ects produced by lm within the spectator’s sensorium.

11. For Balázs, rhythm was essential to lm’s nature as a temporal art, as an unfolding. His conception of rhythm comes close to Henri
Bergson’s description of melody, which our consciousness synthesises out disparate notes, anticipating what is to come based on
the resonant trace of the past.

Julia Kristeva: Anaphora

The Nietzschean rebellion against the oppressive dogmas of rationalism, which was crucial for Balázs, was further
taken up in the 1960’s by the French post-structuralist philosophers. In her 1968 essay on gesture, Julia Kristeva
took issue with the tenets of structural linguistics and anthropology, which analysed corporeal expressions by
analogy with verbal signs. In her e ort to disentangle gesture from its frequent equation with the sign, the French-
Bulgarian theorist noted the negative connotations of this approach: gesture, as a rule, had been dismissed as a
redundant or inferior communicative instrument compared to verbal language. Whereas the Western
philosophical tradition since Plato privileged sound as the principal conveyer of ideas and reduced gesture to the
status of pictorial embellishment, Kristeva shifted scholarly attention to the very condition of gestural semiosis,
which she considered, in a post-structuralist vein, outside the teleological framework of meaning transmission
from a concrete author to a concrete addressee. Drawing on Karl Marx’s insight into the functioning of impersonal
socio-economic mechanisms involved in the production of meaning and value in the capitalist regime, Kristeva
proposed to free gesture from its problematic association with signi cation and consider it, rst and foremost, as
a corporeal practice, a process:

Gesturality, more than phonetic discourse or the visual image, can be studied as an activity in the sense of a
spending, of a productivity anterior to the product, and so anterior to the representation of a phenomenon of
signi cance in the circuit of communication. (Kristeva 1978: 267).

In this model, gesture is the work that makes the constitution of a sign possible; and as such, it exceeds the sign.
Gesture does not represent, or signify, but points out, demonstrates, or indicates, thereby englobing the subject,
objects, and practice into one semantic eld (ibid.: 269). Being primarily “indicative, relational, [and] empty,”
gesture for Kristeva resembles the grammatical principle of anaphora (from ancient Greek ἀναφορά, “carrying
back”), which serves as a placeholder pointing in the direction of a syntactic antecedent or postcedent. What is
more, “the dichotomies of idea-word, signi ed-signi er” do not apply to corporeal acts (ibid.: 269). Gesture resists
being broken down into discrete units, analogous to phonemes or morphemes in structural linguistics – a quality

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which underscores, for Kristeva, its fundamental di erence from verbal language. Similarly to Michel Foucault’s
and Jacques Derrida’s dismissal of the notion of authorship in favour of more abstract textuality, Kristeva de-
individualises gesture and foregrounds the workings of the socio-cultural regime.

Mikhail Iampolski: Deformations

Post-structuralist philosophy gave impetus to productive elaborations of the concepts of gesture and body in
Russian critical theory of the 1990s and early 2000s, particularly in the works of Mikhail Iampolski, Valerii
Podoroga, Mikhail Ryklin, Mikhail Epstein, and Oleg Aronson. Iampolski’s essays devoted to cinema, appearing in
monographs such as Vidimyi mir: Ocherki rannei kinofenomenologii [The Visible World: Sketches of Early Film
Phenomenology] (1993), Pamiat’ Tiresiia (1993) / The Memory of Tiresias (1998), Demon i labirint: diagrammy,
deformatsii, mimesis [Demon and Labyrinth: Diagrams, Deformations, Mimesis] (1996) and others, are especially
noteworthy for articulating a compelling approach to corporeality (telesnost’), which bridges phenomenology,
Deleuzian and Foucauldian in uences, and native Russian traditions of formalism and semiotics (cf. Olenina 2005)

Iampolski’s concept of corporeality is developed most extensively in Demon i labyrint, where he focuses on what he
calls “deformations of the body” (1996: 4). A “deformation” is a “certain dynamic process or a trace of dynamics
inscribed into the body”, that is, a change of shape, a movement, or, in fact, “any kind of violation of the primary
stasis – from grimaces, to laughter, to dance, to groping for one’s way in the dark” (ibid.). Such deformations are
understood in purely mechanistic terms – these are distortions that occur under the in uence of forces acting
upon the body. As Iampolski puts it, the body is deformed in response to “the demon”, that is, it starts mirroring
another body that possesses or inhabits it. A spatial equivalent of a demon is a labyrinth, which imposes external
limits on the body’s trajectory. Psychological motivations are deliberately excluded from Iampolski’s analysis:

From the very beginning, it was clear to me that deformations of this kind [antics and convulsions] could not be
explained in terms of psychology, that the body functioned here like a machine, beyond conscious psychological
motivations. An explanation within the framework of mimesis seemed much more adequate. The body appears
to mime the behaviour of another body (ibid.: 5).

Refusing to search for psychological motivations behind characters’ actions and focusing instead on the
mechanistic, physiological, gesticulatory aspects of their corporeality, Mikhail Iampolski displays an approach to
literary and cinema criticism that returns to the strategies of early twentieth century Russian formalism (such as,
for example, Boris Eikhenbaum’s discussion of bodily mannerisms in Nikolai Gogol’s novella The Overcoat), as well
as the Moscow-Tartu semiology of behavior developed by Iurii Lotman in the 1960s-70s. However, Iampolski
revises the key principles of structuralism. If structuralist analysis presupposes a certain privileged point of view in
relation to the particular cultural formation it scrutinises, the “continualist” method promoted by Iampolski implies
a relation to the “body-text” not from above – the “omniscient” point of view – but from within, or, to be more
precise, from within the same plane where one or another cultural phenomenon unfolds. They analyse what may
be called areas of strain and tension, deformations and ssures, as well as threads of acupunctural resonance
within the body-text itself.

Iampolski’s expansion of the boundaries of semiology by rejecting its assumption of the rational outsider’s
viewpoint undeniably resembles Gilles Deleuze’s major counterproposition to structuralism, namely his concept of
immanence. Perhaps the most beautiful way to describe this ontological concept presupposing only one
substance, an immanent plane which is “not de ned by a Subject or an Object” (Deleuze 2002: 171), would be to
compare it with a spider’s web, as Deleuze did in his study of Proust. For Deleuze, such a web is “a body without
organs, a pure sensory surface, perceiving nothing but degrees of intensities of vibrations corresponding to no
particular sense organ and thus to no exterior quality,” the web, which is the “search in the process of being made”
(Khalfa, 2002: 77). Premising the plane of immanence entails operating with “machinistic assemblages that go
beyond any systems of semiology, linguistics, or logics” (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 148), with “diagrams” which
have “neither substance nor form, neither content nor expression” but only “matter and functions”,

a matter-content having only degrees of intensity, resistance, conductivity, heating, stretching, speed, or
tardiness; and a function-expression having only “tensors”, as in systems of mathematical, or musical, writing
(ibid.: 141).

The tracing of such diagrams lies at the core of Iampolski’s “continualist” approach to cultural phenomena. Rather
than analysing the structure of discourses conditioning representations of the body in a given society or “the ways
in which real human bodies adapt to the requirements of a particular culture”, Iampolski concerns himself with
“the proper life of the body – as it reveals itself in the construction (stroenie) of culture, in one or another form of
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corporeality (isolated or collective, resting or ecstatic, etc.) that dominates at a given moment” (Zenkin 2001b).
Bearing the somatic continuity in mind, Iampolski’s treatment of cultural phenomena resists a structuralist
decomposition into bits, as well as a rigid division into historical periods, because the very act of dissection
presupposes having a certain a priori plan according to which the body will be “cut”. The imposition of a
preconceived idea might run counter to the internal logics of the body, instead of helping to intuit it. Besides, any
attempt to create an “elegant”, “systematic” theory that would “explain everything” is doomed to produce only a
“fragmentary re ection” (Iampolskii 1996: 16). A strategy of approximating the totality of the text-body that
Iampolski employs in Demon i labyrint can be described as neo-hermeneutic (except that it has no exegetic
agenda). This model envisages placing oneself within the heart of the text that is “in nitely rich with internal
meanings and – something that, in the nal count, is actually the same – external links and associations” (Zenkin
2001a). In a way, Iampolski’s own description of his approach – “free movement of thought within the text” (quoted
in Tokarev 2002) – resembles Jacques Derrida’s account of a reader being “guided by the contours” of the text he is
exploring (Wolfreys 1998: 53).

Oksana Bulgakowa: The Factory of Gestures

Theodor Adorno describes in Minima Moralia (1951) how technologies condition our gestures and how their
functionality makes our movements “precise and brutal”, by the same token limiting our freedom: “The new
human type cannot be properly understood without awareness of what he is continuously exposed to from the
world of things about him, even in his most secret innervations.” (Adorno 2005: 40). Carrie Noland expands
Adorno’s argument by adding that adopting gestures from other cultures might produce new innervations and
senses as well (Noland/Ness 2008: x). This “afterlife” of “migrating gestures”, their circulation, their inevitable
transformation and, to the fear of most theoreticians, their unpreventable loss, is registered and stored in moving
images. Therefore, for thinkers such as Agamben, lm is indeed an optimal medium, more e ective than Aby
Warburg’s Mnemosyne Atlas could ever be, to xate both the obsession with and the loss of gestures – a powerful
archive of human presence in the world.

Oksana Bulgakowa’s long-term project of a “factory of gestures”, launched with her monograph Fabrika zhestov in
2005, develops a distinct outlook on the archival potential of cinema and its aptness in shaping new patterns of
body language both in real life and on-screen. Anchored in Marcel Mauss’s anthropological concept of “techniques
of the body” on the one hand, and in Foucault’s critique of disciplined bodies on the other, Bulgakowa furnishes a
wide-ranging study of culturally speci c and universal somatic codes, documented in Russian and Soviet lm from
the beginning of cinema to the early 1950s (with a cursory overview reaching up to the 1990s). 12 Her goal is to
trace social transformations and dystopian projects realised – plastically [plastichno] (Bulgakova 2005: 7) – in the
actor’s body, as it incorporates an ideal model of the societal Imaginary. The concise title of her book alludes to the
classical vision of cinema as a dream factory and ironically frames the idea of the cinematic apparatus as a system
of production, distribution, re-production, and recycling. Bulgakowa thus o ers a memorable metaphor and a
model of cinema as such, which can reference the technological, sociological, and philosophical premises of the
moving image.

What is particularly valuable about Bulgakowa’s approach is that instead of symbolic or emblematic gestures, she
focuses on “insigni cant” bodily movements: the way people walk, sit, lie, stand, drink, move, communicate with
each other (talking, irting, kissing). Such habitual, banal gestures and semi-conscious body postures usually
remain left out of studies of iconology, yet they build the basis of our everyday experience. It is through such
“insigni cant” gestures that we can perceive the process of signi cation in a palpable manner. By means of lm,
these pre-signs can realise their potentiality to unfold into signs, acquiring, during this process, particular aesthetic
and ethical values within a society. Although there is always a gap between bodily comportments in real life and
on screen, these two patterns constantly interact and interfere, forming new somatic canons and deforming the
old. Bulgakowa calls the object of her examination “techniques of lmbodies” (“tekhniki kinotela”; ibid.: 8), which
she conceptualises using a comprehensive corpus of visual materials (feature and documentary lms,
photography, theatre, sculpture, painting, propaganda posters, etc.).

Based on the assumption that cinema caters to spectators’ imitative abilities and impacts their kinesic behaviour,
Bulgakowa demonstrates the migration of gestures not only from screen to real life and vice versa, but also from
one culture to another. The concept of “the body of the Other” (chuzhoe telo), treated through the prism of cross-
cultural gestural transfer, is the focal point of Oksana Bulgakowa’s article in the present issue. Now she develops
her ideas using a broad material of American, Soviet, Italian, French, German – East and West – cinema of the late
1940-1960s. Increased international lm distribution and circulation during the postwar period showed this
mimetic potential of cinema and simultaneously facilitated a “liberation” of gestures.

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The new young actors copied the relaxed bodily gestures of Hollywood and European stars: the loose hips of
Elvis Presley, the bare feet of Brigitte Bardot, James Dean’s slouch. In Soviet cinema of the sixties, tense back
muscles are relaxed to show the body as liberated; slouched postures become a sign of antiauthority and
nonconformity; there is a “liberation of legs and hips,” “a new impetuousness” as protagonists y up and down
stairs, exhibiting the freedom of the youthful body (Kaganovsky 2012: 170)

Taking cinema as the site that reveals the malleability of body language in response to cultural and ideological
moldings, Bulgakowa unpacks the cinema’s dynamic embodiment of cultural scripts. The multiple “techniques of
the lm-body” are traced on a rami ed map: from decadent and theatrical expressions of pre-revolutionary
Russia, to proletarian, mechanised, urbanised and naturalised bodies of the 1920s, to the disciplined, civilised or
progressive bodies of the the period 1931-1951 (just to name a few). Further, she turns her attention to the social
strati cation enacted in gesture (what is a gesture of a servant? of a political leader?), national and gender
distinctions (what is a Russian or an American gesture? what is a su ragist gesture? what is female gesturality at
all?). It is hardly possible to summarise all issues raised in this book and its accompanying DVD, yet what becomes
abundantly clear is that Bulgakowa’s mapping of gestural representations has paved the way for a Russo-Soviet
counter-history and, to some extent, a counter-discourse to the traditional historiography of cinema.

12. The book is accompanied by a DVD representing Oksana Bulgakowa’s audio-visual research project in collaboration with Dietmar
Hochmuth and Gregor Hochmuth throughout 2003-2008 in Stanford (Bulgakowa 2008 in the Filmography).

Giorgio Agamben: Pure Gesture

The “gestural turn” in contemporary lm theory is largely triggered by Giorgio Agamben’s recurrent re ections in a
series of works, speci cally in his essay of 1992 Note sul gesto / Notes on Gesture (2000: 49-60). Agamben’s
prominent position (approaching Deleuze’s impact on cinema studies) has been recognised in a number of
publications on gesture in the last decade. In this section we do not intend to reiterate the tenets of Agamben’s
philosophy, which have been discussed in the fast-growing scholarship on a broad spectrum of subjects, including
cinema. 13 Instead, we would like to outline the key areas where Agamben’s ideas intersect with the gestural
theories we have touched upon in this introduction, as well as the theoretical platforms of the articles presented in
this issue.

Gesture is one of the key notions in Agamben’s writings, reaching beyond cinema to art, language, literature, and
ethics. Working in these multiple contexts, he models and re nes his perspective on gesture, without ever o ering
a uni ed de nition. A crucial in uence for his conception of gesture as “pure praxis” is Walter Benjamin’s notion of
“pure means” developed in Zur Kritik der Gewalt (1921) and his other works on technology and mediality. 14
Agamben’s aspiration is to refute the representational character of the image, or, as he succinctly puts it, to initiate
a “liberation of the image into gesture” (Agamben 2000: 55). Asbjørn Grønstad and Henrik Gustafsson note that his
“post-representational” philosophy is a method, a praxis for releasing images from their “spectral destiny” directed
towards “the unfolding of appearance” (2014: loc. 227). “Pure gesture” also bespeaks Agamben’s doing away with
language as a system of communication and representation and underpins his liberation of gesture from the
sphere of aesthetics in favour of ethics. He writes:

Gesture is the name of this intersection between life and art, act and power, general and particular, text and
execution. It is a moment of life subtracted from the context of individual biography as well as a moment of art
subtracted from the neutrality of aesthetics: it is pure praxis. (ibid.: 80)

Agamben theorises pure gesture as non-linguistic, yet intrinsically intertwined with the functioning of language in
his 1991 essay on the German literary scholar and translator Max Kommerell (Agamben 1999a). The expression
“pure gesture” is borrowed from Kommerell’s Geist und Buchstabe der Dichtung. Goethe – Schiller – Kleist – Hölderlin
(1940), where it is articulated as a possibility (or potentiality) to speak:

Beyond the gestures of the soul and the gestures of nature there is a third sphere, which one may call pure
gestures. Its temporality is the eternity […] the pure possibility of speaking itself […] These “pure gestures” have
given up all claim to reality […] Consumed in themselves, the soul paints itself with its own luminous shades
(Kommerell 1964: 47; cit. in Agamben 1999a: 79-78).

It is hard to overlook the cinematic imagery of Kommerell’s poetic wording, which evokes Plato’s cave metaphor
and, to a certain extent, anticipates Agamben’s inquiry into cinema. Drawing on the criticism of Kommerell , whom
he highly esteemed, Agamben envisions a methodology that would resolve “the work’s intention into a gesture (or

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into a constellation of gestures)” (ibid.: 77) – the path he has been successfully pursuing himself. In the same text
Agamben advances his catchy metaphor of gesture as a “gag” – which he simultaneously develops in Notes on
Gesture and the essay Marginal Notes on Commentaries on the Society of the Spectacle of 1990 (Agamben 2000: 73-
89) to stress muteness as the other side of speaking and gesture as our human condition – “speechless dwelling in
language” (1999a: 78). Gesture permits the experience of “communication of communicability” (2000: 59) and
facilitates entrance into the sphere of political action against the outright in ation of images and words in the
contemporary era of the triumphant “spectacular-democratic regime” (ibid.: 85).

Apparently, the idea of disappearance of gestures at the end of the 19th century that Agamben mourns (2000: 40f.
1999a: 83) is inspired by Kommerell as well: “At the end of his book on Jean Paul, Kommerell speaks of modern
man as a man who has lost his gestures” (1999a: 83). This loss – however imagined a deprivation may be – leads,
as Agamben claims, to an unprecedented obsession with gestures at the turn of the last century. Gesture as a
medium of cultural and historical memory was recapitulated in Serge Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes, Aby Warburg’s
Mnemosyne Atlas, Isadora Duncan’s free movement dance, Friedrich Nietzsche’s concept of the eternal return,
Marcel Proust’s prose, Rainer Maria Rilke’s poetry, and, above all, cinema, “the homeland of gesture” (2000: 55).

Ernst H. Gombrich, exploring visual representations of gestural expression, which, he argues, come into art in
ritualised forms, favours painting as a comprehensive source of information and a means of preserving gestures,
because, as he puts it, “art arrests movement” (1982: 71). Agamben, speaking of Western visual culture, argues
that this is “not an immovable repertoire of images but rather a representation in virtual movement of Western
humanity’s gestures” (2000: 53). For him, all art originates from sheer “antinomic polarity: on the one hand, images
are the rei cation and obliteration of a gesture [...]; on the other hand, they preserve the dynamis intact” (ibid.: 54)
Agamben extends Deleuze’s argument regarding the key element of cinema without making a strict opposition
between image and gesture. He seeks instead to “substrate” the latter from the former (an operation reminiscent
of Eisenstein’s search for the underlying gesture); in other words, he inscribes gesture into image as an innate
potentiality of movement, as in legends about statues coming alive. In another essay, he maintains that “paintings
are not immobile images, but stills charged with movement, stills from a lm that is missing” (2004: 314). From
Agamben’s point of view visual art has been, from the outset, cinematic and only through lm the immobile
images “would regain their true meaning. And that is so because a certain kind of litigatio [sic!], a paralyzing power
whose spell we need to break, is continuously at work in every image” (2000: 56). 15 Agamben uses, as a matter of
fact, “ligatio” in his original essay in Italian (1996: 30), which is the past participle stem of “ligare” [to bind]. This root
can be found in such words as “ligation”, “ligature”, and the musical term “legato”. This provides new prospects for
how ligatio (a captured trace of movement) can be extracted from within images: for instance, in
chronophotography, revealing gestural ligation with help of long exposure (Fig. 3), or in lmic special e ects
achieved through hyper-slow-motion (so-called “bullet time”).

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Fig. 3: Étienne-Jules Marey. Chronophotography Homme qui marche / Man walking (1890–91). Public domain. Wikimedia
Commons.

Agamben separates cinema from mass media by attacking the latter for its tyranny of facts devoid of possibilities
of repetition (2014: loc. 606) and privileging (certain types of) cinema for its potential to salvage gestures in
liberating them as pure praxis. In claiming this, he rehabilitates the Warburgian idea of “gesture as the crystal of
historical memory and gesture in its petrifaction as destiny” (Agamben 1999a: 83) and assigns this veritably
messianic mission to cinema. Both Guy Debord and Jean-Luc Godard have endeavoured, according to Agamben,
to imagine (to put in images) a salvation of history, and, in so doing, opened up the absolute and complete
gesturality of human beings – the sphere of pure means, or politics. Thus, Godard’s Histoire(s) du cinema (1998,
France) yields a lm apocalypse, a catastrophe of the optic regime, but also a revelation: “Godard’s work functions
as an unveiling of the cinema by the cinema” (2014: loc. 599). Godard continues the process initiated in “Debord’s
cinematic practice [which] dismantles the image to reveal the gesture” (ibid.: loc. 633). 16 In the question of how
the exhibition of mediality of images (and gestures) and their resurrection are achieved, Agamben arrives at the
conclusion that it occurs in the process of montage. Both Debord and Godard exemplify what Agamben calls two
transcendental conditions of lm montage: repetition and stoppage. These show the image as such (he does not
use the word “gesture”, although it would seem appropriate here). In a paradoxical manner, repetition, which is
never a return of the identical, “restores” the possibility of what was, i.e., makes the past possible anew, and
resembles, therefore, the working of memory: “Memory is [...] the organ of reality’s modalization: it is that which
can transform the real into the possible and the possible into the real [...] that is also the de nition of cinema”
(Agamben 2004: 316). As for the stoppage, it is “the power to interrupt, the ‘revolutionary interruption’ of which
Benjamin spoke” (ibid.: 317). Agamben resorts, for comparison, to the only possible (in his view) distinction
between prose and poetry – the caesura and enjambment – devices which enable the interruption of the ow of
words and make the word appear as such. Rephrasing Paul Valéry’s de nition of poetry, Agamben suggests an
elegant metaphor for cinema: “a prolonged hesitation between image and meaning” (2004: 317). 17 Thus,

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Agamben, adopting Deleuze’s reformulation of cinematic image as a “mobile section” (Deleuze 1986: 22) and
Warburg’s “iconology of the interval” (Agamben 1999b: 100), pleads for rethinking of the status of (any) image: it is
by repetition and stoppage that the “mobile section” and the interval can be exposed as a gesture.

13. See, for example, Noys (2004); Noland, Ness (2008); Görling, Skrandies, Trinkaus (2009); Richtmeyer, Goppelsröder, Hildebrandt
(2014); Gal, Friedbander, Wulf, Zuckerman (2014); Chare, Watkins (2015, 2017); and, especially, Gustafsson, Grønstad (2014). This lis
provides only a cursory overview of relevant literature and by no means claims to be exhaustive.

14. From Benjamin comes, besides, the embedding of “pure gesture” into the eld of the political and the ethical, as well as the notions
of “standstill” (Stillstand) and “stoppage” (Unterbrechung). See Schumacher-Chilla (2008: 126).

15. The English translation contains a mistake or a typo: the juridical term “litigatio” (from “litigare” [to dispute, go to court]) instead of
“ligatio”.

16. This goes so far that Debord entirely refutes creating images and pleads for “imagelessness” (Agamben 2004: 319; Williams 2014),
as he successively implemented in Hurlements en faveur de Sade (1952), the 80-minute “anti- lm” consisting entirely of white frames
with a soundtrack while black images with no sound (see Rasmussen 2003).

17. We can add to this Viktor Shkovskii’s shrewd remark from the short text Poeziia i proza v kinematogra i [Poetry and Prose in Cinema
(1927), where he tacitly ridicules a blunt comparison of cinema and poetry and says that cinema can be both poetic and prosaic
(1985: 38).

Vilém Flusser: The Gesture of Filming

The idea of transcendentals of lm montage formulated by Agamben as “pure means”, reverberates in the
monograph Gesten. Versuch einer Phänomenologie / Gestures (1991 and 2014 respectively) by the phenomenologist
and media theorist Vilém Flusser. Published during approximately the same period, this clearcut collection of shor
essays conceptualises sixteen gestures (from making, to loving, to smoking a pipe, etc.), and among them, the
gesture of lming. Like Agamben, Flusser regards montage as the actual gesture of lming – “the gesture that
makes strips intended to represent historical time” (Flusser 2014: 87). Unlike Agamben, he interprets it as a pure
mechanical process of “cutting and pasting” (ibid.) and the authorial power behind it, that constitutes the historical
impetus of cinema. Through a purely manipulative, technical operation, “with scissors and glue” (ibid.: 88), this
gesture releases radically new possibilities of treating time, telling and making the (hi)story [Geschichte]:

The lmmaker stands apart from the material strips and composes, from this transcendent position, things that
will appear [...] he can reorder single phases of the process [...], speed up or slow down [...], let phases or the
whole process run backward, even make the whole process dissolve in eternal return as a circular loop. (ibid.).

Film thus reveals its innate engagement with history, because if history is res gestae (things done), “in the lmic
gesture, history is made from above and beyond itself. It is therefore [...] ‘things in progress’.” (ibid.: 89). More
precisely, while “making” history, cinema “imagines events and makes them imaginable” (ibid.: 90). Flusser’s vision
of lm’s historicity once again resonates with Agamben, who de nes cinema as “the memory of that which was
not” (2004: loc. 605). Flusser seems to remain wary of this exceptional power of lm, which is for him a sign of our
reaching a post-historical era of overall apparatisation (in the sense of technological totality). On the other hand,
as he mentions, post-history requires a new theory, a meta-theory. Similar to Agamben, who has advocated the
Warburgian “nameless science”, 18 Flusser, too, at the end of his book, advances a general theory of gestures,
which would be interdisciplinary, antiacademic, and anti-ideological (ibid.: 161). This eld would bridge di erent
disciplines (communication theory, anthropology, cultural studies, physiology, kinesics, economics, etc.), since
gestures cannot be explained in a satisfying way using the methodology of any existing science. If gestures are
movements necessitated by inwardness [Innerlichkeit], which is, for Flusser, synonymous with freedom (ibid.: 163)
what would it take to explain such an expression of freedom as human active-being-in-the-world? Due to their
epistemological overdetermination, Flusser argues, gestures need to become the subject of a meta-theory – not
abstract, but rather instrumental, combining theory and practice – to adequately address their emancipatory
potential and the issues of agency arising thereof.

We are probably in a revolutionary situation […] [which] manifests itself as [...] a sense of having to reorient
ourselves to be able to act at all, as a sense of needing to develop new kinds of theories. The suggestion of a
general theory of gestures came from such feelings: of gestures, because they concern the concrete
phenomenon of our active being-in-the-world, and of revolution, because a revolution is always, in the end,
about freedom. (Flusser 2014: 176).

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18. Such science, Agamben suggests, would overcome the opposition between history and anthropology and converge “philology,
ethnology, and history would converge with an ‘iconology of the interval,’ a study of the Zwischenraum in which the incessant
symbolic work of social memory is carried out. There is no need to underline the urgency of such a science for an epoch [...]. We wil
be truly faithful to Warburg’s teaching if we learn to see the contemplative gaze of the god in the nymph’s dancing gesture and if we
succeed in understanding that the word that sings also remembers and the one that remembers also sings. The science that will
then take hold of the liberating knowledge of the human will fully deserve to be called by the Greek name of Mnemosyne.”
(Agamben 1999b: 100).

Gesturology of Revolution: Petr Pavlenskii’s Mise en geste

Tsivian devotes three chapters of his book on carpalistics to “gestures of revolution” (2010: 147-221), which he
illustrates with an insightful and humorous analysis of Viktor Shklovskii’s theoretical writings, a fragment from
Dziga Vertov’s lm Kino-Glaz / Kino-Eye (1924, USSR), and Aleksandr Rodchenko’s photography. 19 Tsivian points
out that all three examples share the same underlying “gesture of turning” (“zhest povorota”; ibid.: 158),
accountable for the new vision achieved through either the techniques of “ostranenie” (defamiliarisation), the
renowned montage artistry of the Russian avant-garde, and the revolutionary implications of constructivism.
Following Eisenstein’s logic, Tsivian foregrounds the etymology of the word “revolution” – “revolutio” – which
discloses the initial movement: the gesture of overturning, of upheaval, and, nally, of rotation and reversal. A
comparable search for the basic movement underlying cultural and historical phenomena is deployed by another
contemporary thinker of gesture, Georges Didi-Huberman, in his presentation of the transdisciplinary exhibition
Soulèvement [Uprising], which took place from October 8, 2016 to January 1, 2017 in the Paris gallery Jeu de
Paume. 20 Grappling with collective emotions and mass movements, as the title suggests (including various public
disorders, political agitations, upheavals, riots, and, of course, revolutions), Didi-Huberman muses: “What makes
us rise up? It is forces: mental, physical, and social forces. Through these forces we transform immobility into
movement, burden into energy, submission into revolt, renunciation into expansive joy. Uprisings occur as
gestures” (2016). 21

An uprising of a special kind, staged during the night of October 16, 2017, again in Paris, serves as a case study of a
spectacular mise en geste. That night the Russian actionist Petr Pavlenskii and his partner Oksana Shalygina
torched the o ce of Banque de France on the Place de la Bastille. By standing still in front of the entrance door,
between blazing latticed windows, and looking straight forward without a hint of any emotion on his face,
Pavlenskii completed the symmetry of his incendiary mise en scene (Fig. 4). This perfectly aligned scene of action
rapidly turned into a crime scene when two French policemen arrived. After Pavlenskii ignored their verbal
address, the policemen, perplexed by his reluctance either to ee or even to interact, timidly approached, and one
of them tried to break the man’s impassive posture by apprehensively touching his arm. Since no resistance was
o ered, the still hesitant policemen forced down his rigid body, handcu ed him, and took him away (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 4: Petr Pavlenskii in front of the the entrance of the Banque de France. Éclairage (October 16, 2017). © Capucine
HENRY. Image courtesy of the author.

Fig. 5: Éclairage (2017). The arrest of Pavlenskii. © Capucine HENRY. Image courtesy of the author.

The details of Pavlenskii’s amboyant action, including photographs and videos, were immediately reported,
streamed, and disseminated in various mass and social media (journalists and photographers had been informed
beforehand and arrived at the location in time to witness and document the event). It is from the media coverage
that we found out that the Paris action was an act of protest against the power of banks which had appropriated
the symbolic cradle of revolution – the Bastille. Pavlenskii’s act of rebellion was named Éclairage / Osveshchenie /
[Illumination], ironically alluding to the Siècle des Lumières that brought about the French Revolution, which, in

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turn, inspired the October Revolution of 1917, the centennial of which we are commemorating this year. What
does the gesture that Pavlenskii performed on the Place de la Bastille actually illuminate? The gleam of the “ re of
the revolution”? A reversion of the progressive “Russian light” – the rst electric lamps introduced in the 1870s, by
happenstance, in Paris as well (cf. Drubek 2012: 9f.) – a “barbaric” intrusion and destructivity, taunting and
exposing the layman’s inner fears of the Other? The irony of the laconic title is discarded in Pavlenskii’s o cial
statement, which, on the contrary, seems utterly candid in the reconstruction of Russia’s and France’s political and
historical kinship. This unequivocal message reads as an expression of utmost earnestness if not naïveté: 22

To set re to the Bank of France means to illuminate the truth that the authorities forced us to forget. The
Bastille was destroyed by a revolting people; the people destroyed it for being a symbol of despotism and
power. On this same place, a new home of slavery was built: the bank, which betrayed the revolutionaries and
sponsored the criminal Versailles. The Bank of France has taken the place of the Bastille, bankers have taken the
place of monarchs. The great French Revolution made France a symbol of freedom for the rest of the world. In
1917, thanks to this symbol, the Russian set out for freedom. But a hundred years later, tyranny is reigning
everywhere again. The renaissance of revolutionary France will trigger the world re of revolutions. In this re,
Russia will begin its liberation. 23

The success of Pavlenskii’s act of revolt against the power of capital can neither be acclaimed nor contested before
it is completed. The full extent of his project must be considered against the backdrop of legal persecution and its
media coverage, which extends Pavlenskii’s artistic and political gesture to courtrooms and mental institutions, as
was the case with his homeland actions. The day after Éclairage, it was reported that Pavlenskii and his partner
Shalygina were put in pre-trial detention, accused of “destruction of the property of others by means dangerous to
other people” (Vitkine 2017). Pavlenskii, just as after his actions in Russia, had to undergo a psychiatric evaluation.
Although later the bank dropped the charges, both still remain under arrest, and Pavlenskii is being kept in solitary
con nement. 24 In protest against the closed hearings announced by the court, Pavlenskii went on a dry hunger
strike. His handwritten letter from the prison, expressing criticism of the French judicial system, has been
circulating in the form of a photographed image in social media. All this provoked a wave of mockery and veritable
schadenfreude in certain Russian mass and social media, especially because Pavlenskii and Shalygina had been
granted political asylum in France earlier this year, exactly, it would seem, thanks to their protest art in Russia.

Through mediatisation of his provocative performances (in mass and social media, both hostile and sympathetic)
Pavlenskii productively exploits their proper, mediating function He calls attention to the workings of the media as
the Fourth Estate, exposing its paradoxical ability to record and disseminate his artistic statement, while at the
same time pro ting from the hype and reasserting itself as a socio-political power. Whether as a passive,
voyeuristic audience or as active participants, media become entangled in the framework of his performances and
thus turn into allies of the system of surveillance and punishment. In 2014 Pavlenski claimed that

political art deals with [...] actual apparatuses of power, that is, with the instruments of power [...] – these are
media, through which propaganda is articulated, ideology, the law enforcement system, the judicial system, fear.
And the challenge [...] is to make these instruments work for the destruction of the stage set [dekoratsiia]
behind which [...] the regime conceals what it actually is. [...] Usually power is an apparatus of violence, it
constantly builds, restores, and completes this stage set [...] What I am precisely interested in is producing
ruptures in this decoration. 25

What Pavlenkskii’s “political art” explicitly aims at is to unearth the extended network of impersonal branches of
the state apparatus and their coordinated reproduction of scenes of subjection. “Why does the government call its
agencies ‘law enforcement bodies’ [organy], ‘legislative bodies’? The government speaks of the state like a body”,
queries Pavlenskii (cit. in Pomerantsev 2015). In an interview from 2013, he admits his eagerness to construct
situations on the territory of power that would confuse, disrupt, and, ultimately, cause a deadlock within the state
apparatus. 26

In this constructed scene, it is the artist’s “docile” body that occupies the site of undecidability between coercion
and self-determination, that “rupture in the decoration”. In an outwardly (post-)Foucauldian sense, he reverses the
practices of discipline and punishment by transforming “docility” into a willful act of de ance. Whereas the system
turned subjects into objects, with their bodies “manipulated, shaped, trained”, “subjected, used, transformed, and
improved” (Foucault 1995: 136), Pavlenskii’s art demonstrates how the body is manipulated, coerced, even
mutilated by the subject himself. In other words, through a radical self-desubjectivisation producing a state of
uncertainty (how to punish this docile, yet unbending body?), the artist demonstrates a “becoming-limb” of the
state apparatus and thus undermines its awless functioning.

All Pavlenskii’s previous actions rely on this same tactic of re-enacted subjection, conveying a rather unambiguous
message, while repeatedly returning to some basic aesthetic strategies (for instance, graphic postures, alignment
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of the action’s elements). He sewed his lips together in support of Pussy Riot (action Shov / Stich, 2012, St.
Petersburg). His naked body was wrapped in barbed wire and left in front of the Legislative Assembly as protest
against infringements upon civil rights and in support of political prisoners (Tusha [Carcass], 2013, St. Petersburg).
During his action against political apathy in Russia, sitting naked on the Red Square, he nailed his scrotum to the
cobblestones (Fiksatsiia / [Fixation], 2013, Moscow) – replicating an actual radical practice among Russian prisoners
of nailing parts of their bodies to their prison beds in protest against the arbitrariness of administration (cf.
Pavlenskii 2013). Again naked, this time sitting on the entrance gate of the Serbskii Center for Psychiatry, he cut o
a piece of his earlobe in protest against punitive psychiatry (Otdelenie / [Section], 2014, Moscow). The
appropriation of the body by the state is turned around: “a policy of coercions that act upon the body, a calculated
manipulation of its elements, its gestures, its behaviour” (Foucault 1995: 138) is undermined from within when the
artist willingly lends his own biological body to the collective, social body in an act of humility and humiliation. 27
As Dmitrii Volchek ironically observes (2013), “Political art can barely stay serious, modest, edifying. It is much
easier to become ridiculous [...] or recklessly vulgar.” Yet Pavlenskii’s deliberate self-coercion, self-abasement, and
self-harm trans gures into a powerful social gesture of resistance and revolt. “I show these processes on my own
body, for my body is a part of the large social body”, he con rms (cit. in Volchek 2013).

Éclairage quite obviously echoes Pavlenskii’s action in his homeland in 2015, titled Ugroza [Threat], when he set re
to the entrance door of the headquarters of the FSB (Federal security service, the successor of the KGB) on the
Lubianka Square in Moscow, another place of power. In his Bastille-performance, Pavlenskii seems to purposely
mirror the geometry of Ugroza – the static posture, aloof gaze, ames in the background (Fig. 6). Hence the two
performances can and probably should be read as complementary. Both state authoritarianism, or, as one calls
today’s Russia, the “guided democracy” (upravliaemaia demokratiia), and the European liberal democracy are for
Pavlenskii of the same oppressive nature. 28 While the former relies on images in the execution of power, the
latter testi es to “the commodity’s last metamorphosis” – “the ‘becoming-image’ of capital” (Agamben 2000: 75).

Fig. 6: Petr Pavlenskii at the burning door of the FSB. Ugroza (2015, Moscow). Photographer: Il’a Valamov. Source:
http://varlamov.ru/1507107.html

Although neither Ugroza nor the latest action involved any self-harm or mutilation, Pavlenskii’s signature style is
recognisable: when the representatives of state power appear, the artist freezes in a static pose, and his immobile
stance attests to resistance all the more powerfully the more impassive his posture is. In this regard, his most
famed performance Fiksatsiia begets an ideal model for the radical nihilist gesture of political actionism
orchestrated around immobility. While in Fiksatsiia the body is crouched in a xed pose, in Éclairage, it straightens
up along a vertical axis yielding the action’s mise en geste, taken literally: staged, or placed (mise) in gesture (en
geste). “Staging” derives from the Latin “stare” (to stand). Thus, standing, ironically enough, reveals itself as the
underlying gesture of mise en geste itself. In addition, standing (stoianie) certainly alludes to the Russian Orthodox
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theological doctrine prescribing standing as a statutory “technique of the body” in liturgy (worshipers must remain
standing), as well as in praxes of monastic austerity. Profoundly symbolic, this bodily stance acquires a
metaphysical dimension: from a dramatic posture of stoic endurance, mirroring the Passion Christi, to the spiritua
standing before God – “predstoianie”, which, ultimately, de nes the eschatological temporality of Eastern
Christianity. 29

Agamben challenges Aristotle’s distinction between “poiesis” (production) and “praxis” (action), enlists the Roman
scholar Varro who suggested a third type of action and inscribed gesture in it. Varro argued that gesture can be
neither “acting” (agere), nor “producing” (facere), but “carrying” (gerere). An actor acts but does not produce, while
a poet produces without acting; and “carrying (on)” is reserved for sovereigns and for mimes. Agamben concludes:
“nothing is being produced or acted, but rather something is being endured and supported” (2000: 56). That is to
say: action is understood neither as a mechanical-manual activity nor as artistic-aesthetic praxis, but as the
exhibition of endless possibilities – gesture as action can never be accomplished, it can only be sustained and
incurred. Agamben tacitly implies the derivation of the “gesture” from the same Latin origin (gero) that produced
in Roman languages a word family semantically linked to management and government (e.g. “gérer” and “gestion”
in French, “gestire” in Italian, etc.) – to the concepts of politics and ethics. This alone automatically renders gesture
political, and politics entails an art of making gestures as “the sphere of a pure and endless mediality” (ibid.: 59). If
gesture is “the endurance and the exhibition of the media character of corporal movements” (ibid.: 69), Pavlenskii’s
gesture of simply standing amid two res, eloquent and spectacular on its own, o ers a “point of ight from
aesthetics into ethics and politics” (Gustafsson, Grønstad 2014: loc. 259), where the gesture of standing arises as
pure being-means, and where possibility and execution are not yet di erentiated. 30

Eisenstein and, subsequently, Tsivian, drawing on the idea of rotation and reversion at the bottom of “revolutio”,
grasped revolution as an utterly dynamic concept. 31 Following the tenets of dialectics, it presupposes a
qualitative change, a transition to an entirely di erent state. This is how Eisenstein explains “ekstaz” (ecstasy)
delving habitually into the origins of the word: ex-stasis – “standing outside oneself”, out-of-stasis (Eizenshtein
1964: 61). His famous series of sketches Ex-stasis visualise the idea of explosion and rotations in every ecstatic
movement from simple gestures to uprisings and revolutions (Fig. 7). “Stasis” (στάσις), in turn, essentially means
“standing” in Old Greek. 32 Conversely, Pavlenskii’s revolutionary gesture is grounded in the idea of stasis, and, to
some extent, seems to be closer to Didi-Huberman’s notion of uprising (vos-stanie). This is to say, that “stoianie”
underlies the strategy of resistance (“protivo-stoianie”, counter-standing). Each confrontation with power produces
a paralysing e ect, immobilises the body, disables the will – and this pillar-like posture, a minimalist yet pointed
whole-body gesture, brings to light the inaction (stasis) at the core of action and attests to “stoianie” as a “pure
gesture” in Pavlenskii’s actionism.

Fig. 7: Sergei Eisenstein. Ex-stasis. (1932). Source: Neravnodusnaia priroda. Tom 2. O stroenii veshchei, ed. by Naum
Kleiman (Eizenshtein 2006: 2).

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However, Pavlenskii’s gesture of resistance against the power of capital seems to have failed to resonate in France
The reaction to it has been rather reserved even among the French intelligentsia, historically prone to leftist radica
mindsets; public enthusiasm has been scarce; information has been limited to neutral newspaper reports and
Twitter entries. The closed court hearings have diminished the public attention Pavlenskii and Shalygina would
otherwise receive. Even the current London exhibition Art Riot: Post-Soviet Actionism presenting post-communist
contemporary conceptual and political art (among others Oleg Kulik, Pussy Riot, Blue Noses and Petr Pavlenskii
himself) has not (yet) had any signi cant e ect. 33 It seems as if more urgent issues and concerns have
overwhelmed the media in France and, by extension, Europe (the migrant crisis, Brexit, the crisis in Catalonia, the
rise of right-wing populism at the federal elections in Germany, and, generally, the advance of nationalist rhetoric,
the radicalisation of society, and the threat of terrorism). Leaving aside the current geopolitical predicament, a
Marxist-like critique of the fetish character of the commodity and the socio-economic power has been considered
passé in the global European scene since the end of the 1960s.

The closest analogy to Pavlenskii’s protest art that comes to mind is the praxis of the Situationist International (SI),
whose programme he seems to consciously implement. This applies, rst, to the cornerstone of the SI’s artistic
and political strategies – the creation of “situations” that expose societal relations as conditioned and mediated by
images (cf. Debord 1967: thesis 4). Secondly, Pavlenskii makes use of the SI’s speci c collage method, in which
“preexisting artistic elements [are reused] in a new ensemble” (Debord 1959) for propaganda purposes. The
strategy, labelled “détournement” (Debord 1956, 1959, 1967: theses 206-209), is unquestionably revolutionary: it
gestures towards turning the hegemony of any (also theoretical and artistic) ideology against itself by means of
that very ideology. Literally meaning “turnabout”, “reversal”, or “diversion”, détournement doubtlessly belongs to
the gestural vocabulary of revolution. Pavlenskii is acutely aware of the representative (secondary, if one will)
character of his art and his appropriation of the strategies of détournement. Thus, in Stich he “detourned” religious
dogmatism by holding a poster with the following text: “The performance of Pussy Riot was a replay of Jesus
Christ’s famous action (Matt. 21:12-13)”. In both of his arsonist actions, he explores the body language clichés of
Hollywood blockbusters. “It is obviously in the realm of the cinema that détournement can attain its greatest
e cacity, and undoubtedly, for those concerned with this aspect, its greatest beauty”, writes Debord (1956).
Pavlenskii’s tranquil, “cool” stance in front of the raging res, imitating cinematic heroic postures, unveils the
inevitable commodi cation and iterability of every picturesque gesture: “The externality of the spectacle in relation
to the active man appears in the fact that his own gestures are no longer his but those of another who represents
them to him. This is why the spectator feels at home nowhere, because the spectacle is everywhere” (Debord
1967: thesis 30).

However unoriginal and trivial Pavlenskii’s latest action might appear at rst sight, it succeeds in creating a
provocative situation (that deadlock he spoke of) in which the state apparatus risks falling victim to a performative
contradiction: should Pavlenskii be found guilty of incendiarism – which would automatically mean the non-
recognition of his action as an artistic gesture – then he can either face a long term in prison or be deported from
the country exactly for the same reasons he was granted political asylum in the rst place. Then his lurid act may
gain a more profound dimension – namely to be seen as symptomatic of the impaired mechanisms of European
migrant politics. Furthermore, Éclairage succeeds in revealing the triumph of the society of the spectacle – its
totalising realisation both in East and West according to the scenario in which “the spectacular-democratic regime”
“constitutes the completion of the state-form” (Agamben 2000: 85). As early as 1990, in Marginal Notes on
Commentaries on the Society of the Spectacle, Agamben rightly observes that the “substantial uni cation of the
concentrated spectacle (the Eastern people’s democracies) and of the di used spectacle (the Western
democracies) into an integrated spectacle is, by now, trivial evidence” (2000: 79). The power of images can be
fought only through and by images. 34

In Gesten, Vilém Flusser speculates about the gesture of destroying (Geste des Zerstörens) in its direct relation to
ethics. Although he disapproves of such anti-creative gestures as evincing “a super cial, un-radical ‘disingenuous’
existence [unechtes Dasein]” (2014: 59) – and we must remember that gesture for Flusser is an “active being-in-the
world” – he recognises in destruction a “frustrated revolution” and “frustrated search for freedom” (ibid.: 59, 60). A
few years later, Flusser indirectly touches on a related topic, when he conceptualises his version of posthistoire
(1997, 2013). 35 He de nes the condition of modern society, incidentally, as “apparatus” (reminiscent of Foucault’s
and Agamben’s eponymous notions). Flusser criticises the apparatic model of society as dehumanising, destined
to ful l impersonal “programmes” restricting the expression of free will (Flusser’s focal concern throughout his
writings). The only escape from the omnipotence of mechanical programmes would consist in strategies of
sabotage, in absurd games with apparatuses – “the overturning the chessboard” (1997: 85) or “throwing sand into
the mechanisms” (ibid.: 100). We can no longer be revolutionaries but only “saboteurs”, and every emancipatory
movement can only move forward through sabotage, Flusser argues (ibid.). In his belief system, sabotage is the
last refuge of human agency, and gesture is the ultimate residuum of freedom.
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Pavlenskii, too, through his disturbing actions, sabotages the public discourse that draws a distinct line between
reputedly authoritarian Russia and allegedly democratic France (and Western Europe in general). His action
spotlights both their common revolutionary and ideological genealogy, as well as the shared mechanisms through
which the individuum is destined to be entangled in the dispositif. To put it di erently, Éclairage, a gesture of
destruction and of “frustrated search for freedom”, is simultaneously a gesture of exhibiting cultural and political
blind spots characteristic of the newly revived antagonism between West and East. One of these blind spots is the
oft-ignored limitations of agency and problems of self-determination in a world governed by images.

Irina Schulzki

Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich

Ana Hedberg Olenina

Arizona State University

19. In this part of the book, Tsivian discusses several related topics: from Eisenstein’s montage to the concept “mirskontsa”
(worldbackwards) of Russian futurist poetry. He also reminds that rst mention of the expression “zhest revolutsii” belongs to
Aleksei N. Tolstoi in his essay Vozmozhnosti kino [Potentials of Cinema] (1924) (Tsivian 2010: 147-150).

20. http://soulevements.jeudepaume.org/

21. http://www.jeudepaume.org/pdf/PetitJournal_Soulevements.pdf

22. On the discourse of sincerity in Russian culture after communism, see Rutten (2017).

23. Reconstructed from French and Russian. For the Russian version, see Sulim 2017; the French original was tweeted by the FEMEN-
activist Inna Shevchenko (@feminnin, October, 16, 2017, 1:05 AM ), two hours before the action began: « Mettre le feu dans [sic!] la
Banque de France c’est mettre l’éclairage sur la vérité que les autorités nous ont forcé à oublier. La Bastille a été détruite par le
peuple révolté ; le peuple l’a détruite comme symbole du despotisme et du pouvoir. Sur ce même lieu un nouveau foyer d’esclavage
a été bâti, la banque, qui trahit les révolutionnaires et qui sponsorisa le Versailles criminel. La Banque de France a pris la place de la
Bastille, les banquiers ont pris la place des monarques. La grande Révolution Française a fait de la France un symbole de liberté
pour le monde entier. En 1917, grâce à ce symbole, la Russie s’est élancée vers la liberté. Mais cent ans plus tard la tyrannie règne
de nouveau, partout. La renaissance de la France révolutionnaire déclenchera l’incendie mondial des révolutions. Dans ce feu la
Russie commencera sa libération. »

24. As his attorney stated at the beginning of December 2017, Pavlenskii and Shalygina are being kept in prison because they did not
have a permanent residence in France. In the most recent interviews (Pavlenskii 2017a, 2017b), Pavlenskii confesses to have
rejected social bene ts and housing and to be squatting with his family. Now he is accused of “destructions, dégradations et
détériorations dangereuses pour les personnes” [destruction, defacement, and damage dangerous to other people] according to
Article 322-5 of the French Code Pénal, and thus faces ten years in prison. On this and other details of Pavlenskii’s and Shalygina’s
incarceration, see Borodikhin, Pestova (2017).

25. The transcription of Pavlenskii’s speech in Kharkiv National University, cit. in Pomerantsev (2015): «[...] политическое искусство
работает [...] с самими аппаратами власти, то есть с тем, что является инструментами власти [...] – это СМИ, через которые
идет пропаганда, это идеология, это правоохранительная система, судебная система, это страх. И задача в этом случае
заставить эти инструменты работать на разрушение декорации, за которой власть, за которой режим скрывает то, чем она
является, а как правило, власть – это аппарат насилия, она постоянно строит, реставрирует и достраивает эту декорацию
[...] Я заинтересован в том, чтобы делать разрывы в декорации как раз».

26. «Было любопытно построить какую-то конструкцию на территории власти, которая бы ей не нравилась, но при этом власть
не знала бы, что с тобой делать. А насчет власти – мне интересно, как она отреагирует, потому что мне важно создать
ситуацию, при которой она бы оказалась в тупике» (Pavlenskii 2013).

27. For an analysis of Pavlenskii’s actionism in terms of the holy fool tradition, see Filippova (2016).

28. Interestingly, because of Ugroza Pavlenskii was, too, subsequently convicted in “destruction or or damage of cultural heritage or
cultural valuables” according to the Criminal Code of Russian Federation (see Demchenko et al. 2017).

29. Natascha Drubek explores the meaning of the word “predstoianie” in her analysis of Nikita Mikhalkov’s lm Utomlennye solntsem 2 /
Burnt by the Sun 2 (2010, Russia), particularly in its rst part, titled Predstoianie / Exodus. She reads “predstoianie” in light of the
iconological implications of deisis, the three-part icon composition (with Jesus as the central gure, and the Virgin Mary and St. John
the Baptist at his sides) which conveys the mediating function of supplication (the actual etymological meaning of “deisis”). She

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observes: “In the two forms of the word predstoyat’ two semantical cores (leading and praying) are present – both dissolving in the
verbal noun predstoyanie which in this context has the meaning of ‘mediating’. The priest has special qualities (which place him high
up in the hierarchy) and therefore he is able to be a mediator between God and man [...] The pred-stoyatel’ stands before the people
and at the same time in front of /under the Saints and God, praying for the people.” (Drubek 2013: 88).

30. Doris Schuhmacher-Chilla summarises pointedly Agamben’s ontological query about the relation of possibility and reality: his
concept of “potentiation” permits thinking of possibility as a possibility “not to do”: “Das Nicht-Tun erscheint als Fähigkeit, als
Vermögen” (2008: 121).

31. See Tsivian’s discussion of “reversed time” in early cinematography both as a regime of demonstration (reverse lm projection
utilised for comical e ects in cinema theatres) and as an avangardist montage technique rooted in the philosophical and cultural
debates on relativity of time characteristic of that epoch (Tsivian 2010: 164f.).

32. On the concept of revolution in Eisenstein and its philosophical and scienti c implications, among others, “stasis”, see Drubek
(2017), Manuscript, courtesy of the author.

33. The exhibition is curated by Marat Gelman and can be seen in Saatchi Gallery (16 November – 31 December 2017).
http://www.saatchigallery.com/art/art-riot.php

34. Benjamin Noys elucidates “the deadly fusion” Agamben is trying to unpack “between Debord’s analysis of ‘the society of the
spectacle’ and Foucault’s counter-proposal of ‘the society of surveillance,’ in which capitalism becomes an immense machine for the
capture of life by images and the reduction of life to images.” (Noys 2014: loc. 2056-2064). Noys indicates in Agamben strategies of
resistance the philosopher demarcates: “we have to perform an ambiguous un-working on the image, an act of profanation [...] If
we are creatures of the image then it is only in the traversal of the image that we can release the eeting potential of resistance”
(ibid.: loc. 2071). On gesture of profanation in Agamben, see Schuhmacher-Chilla (2008).

35. The rst version of the book was published as early as in 1983 in São Paulo, Brazil, under the title Pós-história: vinte instantâneos e
um modo de usar.

Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the editorial team of Apparatus for their generous support throughout the publication
process, in particular the editor-in-chief Natascha Drubek for the opportunity to guest-edit this issue and for her
expert advice and encouragement.

Bios
Irina Schulzki studied Russian literature, linguistics, ethnology, and intercultural communication at Perm State
University (Russia) and at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich. She is an editor of Apparatus and a Ph.D.
candidate of the Graduate School of Language & Literature at the LMU Munich (doctoral thesis: Kira Muratova: A
Cinema of Gesture). She co-edited the collection of papers Fictions / Realities. New Forms and Interactions (2011),
authored book chapters on lm in the intersection with fan ction, literature, theories of the comical,
phenomenology and media, and on contemporary Russian literature.

Ana Hedberg Olenina is an Assistant Professor of Comparative Literature and Media Studies at Arizona State
University. Though her main research focus is the Soviet avant-garde, her broader interests lie at the juncture of
early lm history and media theory, with an emphasis on historical con gurations of sensory experience,
emotional response, embodiment, and immersive environments. Dr. Hedberg Olenina is currently nalising her
monograph, entitled Psychomotor Aesthetics: Movement and A ect in Russian and American Modernity. Her essays
have appeared in Film History, Discourse, Kinovedcheskie zapiski, and several anthologies in Russia and the USA. She
holds a PhD. from Harvard, and an M.Phil. from Cambridge University.

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Suggested Citation
Hedberg Olenina, Ana, and Irina Schulzki. 2017. Editorial article: “Mediating Gesture in Theory and Practice”. Mise
en geste. Studies of Gesture in Cinema (ed. by Ana Hedberg Olenina and Irina Schulzki). Special issue of Apparatus.
Film, Media and Digital Cultures in Central and Eastern Europe 5. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.17892/app.2017.0005.100
http://dx.doi.org/10.17892/app.2017.0005.100
http://dx.doi.org/10.17892/app.2017.0005.100

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