 Vibration

Due to the various moving parts and rotor system stress during operation,
helicopters have a high level of vibrations, which left unchecked will cause machine
failure or other serious damage to the aircraft in a short amount of time.

 Low to High Frequency

One type of helicopter vibration is a frequency vibration. This type of vibration may
occur as a low, medium or high frequency. A low frequency vibration typically occurs
when the revolution of the rotor is disturbed. A medium frequency vibration is a common
rotor system vibration that occurs due to lose components of the aircraft. A high
frequency vibration typically occurs when the tail rotor gears, tail drive wire and shaft or
the tail rotor engine; fan or shaft assembly vibrates or rotates at an equal or greater speed
than the tail rotor.
 Ground Resonance
Ground resonance is a type of vibration that is the most destructive and dangerous of the
vibrations and can destroy a helicopter within seconds. Ground resonance never occurs
during flight and only affects grounded helicopters with turning rotors. Grand resonance
is often the result of unbalanced forces in a rotor system that causes an aircraft to rock on
the landing gear when the helicopter is at or near its natural frequency. Other causes of
ground resonance are incorrect tire pressure, defective rotor blade lag dampeners and
incorrect adjustments to landing gear shock struts.
 Lateral and Vertical
Lateral and vertical vibrations are also a type of vibration that can affect a helicopter.
Lateral vibrations are often the result of worn, loose or cracked parts or a lateral
imbalance such as a span-wise imbalance, a chord-wise imbalance or a combination of
both. Vertical vibrations typically occur when a rotor blade is out of track.

 Helicopter rotor balancing

Most helicopter operators think only of Rotor Track & Balancing (RTB) or
Dynamic Balancing when blade balancing is considered.
When thinking about Blade Balancing, we need to think in terms of
both Static and Dynamic Balance. These two elements of Blade Balancing must be
bought together under a complete – but simple blade management plan.
In order to understand the ENTIRE Balance problem, we need to look at the Rotor Blade
Adjustments that are available and the Blade Manufacturing Process.
Blade Manufacturing Process
A rotor blade is normally manufactured around a spar surrounded by some
composite material or “filler” to provide the aerofoil shape. In modern blades this is
normally either a metal or nomex honeycomb or a foam cell filler material.
This is then protected by a hard skin made of either aluminium,fibreglass or carbon fibre
with protective metal abrasion strips bonded to the leading edges to provide protection
from particle erosion.
Typical Rotor Blade Construction
 These blades for reason of lightweight construction have many “air cells” inside
the blade which can give rise to trapped water problems. This can be particularly
common in some blades more than others depending upon skin porosity, particularly
when the blade is at rest for extended periods and subjected to daily environmental
changes. The stretching and contraction of the blade’s skin (particularly woven reinforced
composite skins) due to the flex in the blade caused by gravity while at rest, can
exacerbate water ingress into blade cores. Trapped Water has the potential to
dramatically alter the RTB characteristics of a blade – particularly those that are
susceptible to the trapped water phenomenon.
The nature of the construction requires a large element of hand made content. As
much as tolerances are adhered to, there will inevitably be variations in weight and
distribution of that weight across the blade – i.e. variations in C of G –
both chord and span wise.
The composite nature of construction has also greatly increased the tolerance and
capability to repair a wide range of damage to rotor blades. This increased ability to
repair blades at operator level has also increased the need for maintaining the static
balance – but in particular the Span Moment Arm. Up until now there has not been a tool
which could accurately re-reference rotor blades back to OEM specifications efficiently
at operator level.
Blade Adjustments

Dynamic Blade Adjustments

In simplistic terms, the following are blade adjustments which operator’s can
currently use…..
PCL – Pitch Change Link or Rods.
TAB – Tab is generally used to correct for track splits or 1:1 vertical vibration
which increases with IAS.
WEIGHT – Stations located normally close to or on the hub itself.
Product Weight in SOME Helicopters – can be used to alter climb/dive tendencies.
It is adjustment of the DYNAMIC Chord CofG or Moment Arm
Static/OEM Blade Adjustments
Traditionally the Static Chord and Span weight adjustments have only been able
to be adjusted by OEMs or approved blade repair facilities as these facilities were the
holders of the “Master Blades”.
These adjustments are primarily used to adjust the rotor blade and set the Static
Span and Chord Moment Arms/ CofG to that of the original design specifications. This
gives the blade a good “start” point for the Dynamic balance and ensures the RTB has
every chance of success in the quickest possible time. It ensures that the Dynamic
Balance only has to correct for engineering tolerances, wear & tear in the dynamic
components of the rotor system (mast, transmission, head, pitch change mechanism, etc)
and any small aerodynamic variations.

Static Span Adjustment

Static Span moment is critical to maintain close specifications if fleet wide blade
Interchangeability is desired to be maintained. If Span Moment arm is NOT maintained
within close tolerances, Span Moment Arm migration will occur. If the Span CofG
differs significantly between individual blades, the Angular Momentum will vary with
the distance from the mast for the same given localized change in mass (e.g. a repair,
extra paint or trapped water). A mismatch of blade CofG (Span Moment Arm) will
produce a significant lateral vibration which under our current blade management
practices, can only be corrected by adjustment of DYNAMIC weight adjustments by the
operator while conducting a RTB. If this difference in Span CofG (Span Turning Moment
or moment Arm) is corrected by adjusting the tip weights, this frees up the DYNAMIC
weight adjustment for use by the Dynamic RTB process.
Span moments are normally adjusted by weights located in the tip of the Blade.

Static Chord Adjustment

The purpose of Static Chord adjustment is to balance the blade in the chord wise
direction. If the CofG is located aft of ideal, the rotor blade would tend to climb since the
turning moment that the aft located CofG would produce would tend to make the nose
climb.
If the CofG is forward of the ideal CofG, the turning force created by the blade
mass distribution about the chord would be a nose down tendency, making the blade dive.
 The static chord moment is done either at the hub or root end of the blade (UH1,
B206, B412/212,) or by changing the distribution of span adjustment weights together
with Chord weights located out at either the tip or the hub end (CH47, UH60) or
combination of both methods.

Dynamic Chord Adjustment

Dynamic Chord Adjustment is used to control blade track should blades split as
pitch (via the collective) is varied.
To take into account these variations and changes to climbing/diving tendencies with
increasing RPM or pitch changes, the distribution of the Static Chord weights will be
done to try and achieve blades which will fly the same track.
Reason for Restricting Adjustment
Download our .PDF Document Blade Adjustments.
Most operators could not afford the capital cost of a dedicated room, set of scales and
master blades for the occasional static balance.
Now with the availability of accurate, portable digital weighing systems, there is no
reason that the static balance and adjustment of rotor blades should not return back to
the operator – just as he has been doing with the Dynamic balance solution. This
capability will result in significant reduction in current cost of maintenance
directly related to Rotor Track and Balance.
Static Balancing
The successful Static Balance consists of the ability to accurately
measure and adjust any a rotor blade by comparison to the OEM design specifications
for any particular blade for both mass, Span and Chord CofG & Moment Arm ie mass
distribution.
This is done by using manufacturer’s Static Span Adjustment and Static Chord
Adjustment.
A static balance is rarely done by most helicopter operators. This is because
blades can only be successfully statically balanced to obtain interchangeability by
comparing them to a Master Blade normally only held by certified blade overhaul
facilities and OEMs. This methodology has its own limitations as revealed in AMCOM
Report.
The traditional “see-saw” Picture of UH1 balance or pivot balance of a teetering
head done on the hanger floor has significant limitations. The main one being it only
compares one operational blade with another operational blade i.e. one blade of unknown
characteristics to another unknown blade. It does not compare an operational blade with a
“master” blade or OEM specifications. Therefore it cannot provide fleetwide
interchangeability of blades – only match “sets” of blades.
There is a widespread lack of understanding of WHAT is important in the static
balance. Most assume it is the equalization of mass – it is really the equalization of mass
DISTRIBUTION – in particular the control of the Span CofG or the control of SPAN
MOMENT ARM within reasonable limits to ensure maximum dynamic adjustment
remains for the dynamic RTB.
There is now sufficient evidence to suggest that the industry has neglected this
misunderstood area at great cost to itself in terms of high Direct Operating Costs. These
excessive DOC’s are created wasted man hours, flight hours and aircraft downtime
bought about by trouble shooting RTB problems and attempting to match “sets” of blades
caused by Span Moment Arm migration.
To assist in understanding the importance of the Static Balancing process, it is
important to understand the Blade Manufacturing process and what Blade
Adjustments are available, the purpose of these adjustments and who traditionally has
been responsible to do these adjustments.
Master Blades
The “golden’ master blade is simply a physical representation of the mathematical
ideal rotor blade i.e. ideal mass, Span CofG/Moment Arm(mass x Length) and ideal
Chord CofG/Moment Arm(mass x Length) – nothing more.

How is a Master Blade made?

Master blades are hand made blades or sometimes even metal beams which have
the same mathematical key features (within certain tolerances) of the original engineering
specifications. These key features being Mass, Span CofG/Moment Arm and ideal Chord
CofG/Moment Arm. The Master blade does not have to by aerodynamically perfect or
capable of flying on a rotor head. The Master Blade is simply a Reference device by
which operational blades may be compared with to determine variation from the design
specification. It’s purpose is similar to that of the steel or brass counterweight used in the
old style “scales-of-justice” style of balance systems.
Master Blade Deviation
A study has been conducted into Master blade deviation with surprising results.
This study was carried out as a joint civil and US Army study. The results of this in itself
should be sufficient reason for the helicopter industry to seek and insist for an urgent
alternative to replace the current static blade balance methodology. Master Blade
Calibration
“Master” blades must be returned to the OEM periodically (every 2 years is
common) for “calibration” – at a commensurate cost of course. The idea of the static
balance is to get the production blade as close to the original design specifications of
Mass, Span CofG/Moment Arm and Chord CofG/Moment Arm. Mass can easily be
measured by load cells and compared to the ideal specifications. The Moment Arm (Span
or Chord) is simply the Centre of Gravity (distance) x blade mass. These are all
mathematical quantities and can easily be done by any basic PC and accurate load
sensing device with the appropriate software. After all, this is how most aircraft have
been weighed and fore/aft & lateral CofG determined for some time.
Dynamic Chord Moment Adjustment
Once a static balance is completed at the factory, the blade is then put on the whirl
tower and spun against a whirl tower master blade. The whirl tower master blade and the
production blade are spun up to operating RPM and pitch applied. Track is monitored for
splits. If the production blade flies higher than the “master”, the static chord weights are
adjusted forward to provide more nose-down moment of inertia to keep the blades flying
in similar track.
Ideal Dynamic Chord C of G – Track remains relatively constant as collective is
increased i.e. angle of incidence increased.

Aft Dynamic Chord C of G – Nose climb tendency as collective is increased. Corrected
by moving some of the Chord C of G weights forward to move the C of G more forward.
This reduces the climbing tendency.
Forward Dynamic Chord C of G – Nose dive tendency as collective is increased.
Corrected by moving some of the Chord C of G weights rearward to move the C of G
more aft. This reduces the diving tendency.

Span Moment Arm Control

Span Moment Arm Control is the periodic monitoring and correction when
required, of the Static Span CofG of a rotor blade to ensure that maximum Dynamic
weight adjustment is made available to correct for any Dynamic 1 /rev vibration which
may reasonably develop during any one RTB exercise.
Span Moment Arm Control is essential if fleet wide interchangeable rotor blades are
desired with the minimum of time wasted on RTB. The importance of Span Moment arm
control has been known for some time.
Unfortunately, the importance of SPAN MOMENT ARM control has either been lost or
neglected over the years.

SPAN Moment
“Spanwise balance is adjusted during manufacture by balancing individual trailing edge
skin section and by balance weights fitted at the outboard end of the spar. The strict
weight control and static and dynamic balancing which the blades receive during
manufacture permit interchangeability of individual blades”.
Span Moment Arm Migration
What causes Span Moment Arm Migration? Span Moment Arm Migration occurs
on EVERY rotor blade during its operational life. It commences as soon a the blade is put
onto the rotor head and is exposed to everyday operational environment including
abrasive leading edge erosion, leading edge pitting (from salt water and rain exposure),
trapped moisture from rain and condensation, blade painting or touchups, repairs to dents
or damage and unauthorized tampering or incorrect adjustment of the static balance
weights.
Many of these factors are beyond the control of the everyday operator. Till now,
the operator would simply use the Dynamic Balance (RTB) procedure to try and correct
for any vibration or blade balance problem. The RTB would be repeated until either it
 was deemed acceptably smooth ride (often only marginally serviceable) or as a last resort
would pick a blade to swap out in an effort to try and get a “matched set” of blades which
would fly smoothly together. If the swapped out blade could not be balanced on another
head, it would be sent to the OEM or blade repair venue for repair. Here, the
OEM/repairer more often than not would simply rub the blade back to skin (since it had
probably received several coats of paint in its life time), repaint it, then statically balance
it. The effective part of the entire process being simply the static balance.
Now with the advent of digital static balancing, the operator can STATICALLY balance
the blades at his level without sending the blades to the OEM or costly repair venue.

Causes of Span Moment Arm Migration

 Master Blade Reference(Link to Norms paper) system variations as described
below
 Field or Unit Painting/Surface Finish
 Field Repairs/Unauthorised Adjustments on Blades
 Blade wear/erosion
 Water Ingress, Trapped water

 Field Repairs/Unauthorised Adjustments on Blades

o Small mass change along the chord makes much less change in Chord moment
arm than does the same mass change if made along the span.

 Moment of Inertia/Angular momentum is related to the distance out from the hub

(Span) that the Span CofG is considered to act – chord has very little moment arm. By
comparison, the distance along the Span from the hub has a far greater effect on Moment
of Inertia and Angular Momentum than any repair or change across the chord. The
distance from the Chord CogG to any change in mass is far smaller than any changes in
the Span.
Blade wear/ erosion
Salt Water and heavy rain pitting on Bell blades, Sand and hard particle erosion in
dry desert environments.
Water Ingress, Trapped water
Through leaks and condensation. CH47 very susceptible due to surface finish.
Has a similar effect as a blade repair. This topic is worthy of further discussion and will
be elaborated on at a future time.
Operational Span Moment/Dynamic Authority
Below is the typical life cycle of in-service rotor blades demonstrating the gradual
Span Moment Arm Migration which the typical rotor blade will be subjected to during its
in-service use. It is divided into a teetering and articulated/semi or rigid head.
TEETERING Heads:
  See-Saw Balance of Hub PLUS blades
 Static Span Correction using DYNAMIC Adjustment
 LESS Dynamic Lateral adjustment for RTB
 Blades may not fly together
 In-service migration of Span Moment Arm
 RTB tries to compensate
 Ultimately blades will not fly together
When blades are statically balanced on the hanger floor using a pivot or ball
balance, the correction weight is added to the DYNAMIC lateral weight adjustment
station. This reduces the Dynamic weight adjustment available for legitimate Dynamic
lateral unbalance. Reduced Dynamic Weight capability increases likelihood of
mismatched blades – i.e. insufficient authority remaining to correct dynamic in-balance.
Undetected Span CofG migration since accurate measurement of Span Moment not done
at operator level.
Blades fleetwide will ultimately end up being quite diverse in Span Moment arm
and therefore not interchangeable from one aircraft to another – they MAY fly as sets –
BUT definitely will not be interchangeable fleetwide.
ARTICULATED/RIGID/SEMI-RIGID Heads
 Initial Static Balance against “Master” at factory or overhaul facility
 Undetected in-service Span Moment migration
 RTB tries to compensate using Dynamic Lateral adjustment (Hub weight)
 RTB continues to compensate until insufficient Lateral adjustment
remaining to smooth the aircraft
 Blades will not fly together
Static Span BalanceWeights:
Till Now – only OEM or Depot adustable.
Small weight change – has big effect on Span Moment arm.

Span imbalance across a head if individual blade Span CofG migrates inward (eg
blade repair performed on the inboard section of blade).

Same imbalance if corrected by using the DYNAMIC adjustment stations at the

hub requires a lot of added mass to correct the STATIC imbalance.
 Same imbalance if corrected by using the Static Span Adjustment stations or Tip
weights requires far less weight, is more effective, and ensures 100% authority remains
at the DYNAMIC hub weight adjustment stations to correct for any Dynamic Lateral
imbalance which may arise during RTB.
Very accurate means of maintaining blade within original design specs:
 Span Moment
 Chord Moment
 Mass – not a big issue

 
MASTER BLADE Comparative Balanced Blades
Sampling was done on UH60 blades which had all been either freshly overhauled
or brand new blades. They therefore had all been weighed against various “Master”
blades at either approved overhaul venues or at the Manufacturer.
 Problem – UH60
o New Blade 35,361 in-lbs
o IAI Overhauled 35,345 in-lbs
o IAI Overhauled 35,361 in-lbs
o CCAD Overhauled 35,442 in-lbs
 Manufacture’s Specification for Span Moment Arm 35,418 in-lbs
 It can be seen from even this small sampling, that the largest deviation between the
“lightest” and “heaviest” blade is some 97 in-lbs.
 UH60 – has only 117in/lbs of dynamic adjustment available i.e. if one blade had no hub
weight on the Lateral weight adjustment station and the blade directly opposite had
maximum weight installed, the maximum change would only be to correct for a 117 in-lb
imbalance.
 Therefore under our current Blade management practices, we would have consumed most
of the DYNAMIC Lateral weight adjustment (97 in-lbs worth) to correct for a STATIC
problem (which the tip weights are designed to do). Leaving only 20 in-lbs remaining to
correct for any true DYNAMIC imbalance of the rotor system.
 The blades will NOT fly together as a set until this Static Span imbalance is corrected.
The UH60 has potentially 85% of authority consumed between “new” blades straight out
of the box on the same head.
Blades tend to get heavier in service. Therefore the real problem arises when a New blade
out of the box is put against an existing blade which was known to be flying on the same
head before matched with the new blade.
Span Moment arm differences are manifested in the Dynamic balance when the lateral
(and often the vertical) vibration has a large amplitude and cannot be reduced to an
acceptable level. This is caused by the older “heavier” blade trying to be flown with a
New, spec blade.