ManufacturingTechnology 15ME202

Manufacturing
Technology
15ME202
Unit I-Casting
Dr. S. Murali Dr. Manidipto Mukherjee

Research Asst. Professor
Assistant Professor
Room ME-C 206
Room ME-C 205
Mechanical Engg. Dept.
SRM University
SRM University Email. m.mukherjee.ju@gmail.com /
Email. murali.subramaniyam@gmail.com /
manidiptomukherjee.s@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
murali.su@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
Mob: 9831349152
Unit-I
Text books:
Mikell P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing Materials,

Processes, and Systems”,4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010
Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid “Manufacturing Engineering and

Technology” Pearson India, 6th Edition, 2009
2
Introduction - Manufacturing
What is Manufacturing?
 Manufacturing
 Latin: manus (hand) + factus (make)
 Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into
useful/valuable products.
Two ways to define manufacturing: (a) as a technical process, and (b) as an economic process.
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Introduction - Manufacturing
 Manufacturing Includes
i) Design of the product
ii) Selection of raw materials and
iii) The sequence of processes through which the product will be
manufactured.
 Any Product in the engineering industry will be manufactured in the below
methods
1. By totally deforming the metal to the required shape. (Casting /Forming)
2. By joining two metals. (Welding)
3. By removing the excess material from the raw stock.(Machining)

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Product Life Cycle
5
Classification of the four engineering materials
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Classification of manufacturing processes.
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Engineering stress–strain plot
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Classification of solidification processes.
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What is Casting?
 Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is
usually poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
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Introduction - Casting
 Casting process is one of the earliest metal shaping techniques
known to human being.
 The casting process was discovered probably around 3500 BC in
Mesopotamia.
 Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is
usually poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
 The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or
broken out of the mould to complete the process.

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Casting terms?
 Flask or mould box (cope & drag)
 Pattern
 Parting line
 Bottom board
 Facing sand
 Moulding sand
 Parting sand
 Pouring basin
 Gate
 Riser
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Introduction - Pattern
 In casting, a pattern is a replica of the
object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity
into which molten material will be poured
during the casting process.
 The quality of the casting produced depends
upon the material of the pattern, its design,
and construction.
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What is Pattern?
 In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to
prepare the cavity into which molten material will be poured during
the casting process.
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Introduction – Pattern Material
 Patterns may be constructed from the following materials:
wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and
rubbers, wax, and resins.
 Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of
application.
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 Wood
 Easily available, Low weight, Low cost
 It absorbs moisture and hence dimensions will change
 Lower life
 Suitable for small quantity production and very large size castings
 Metal
 Used for mass production
 For maintaining closer dimensional tolerances on casting
 More life when compared to wooden patterns
 Few of the material used include CI, Al, Fe, Brass etc.
 Al is widely used
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 Polystyrene
 Used for prototype (single piece) castings
 Also known as Disposable patterns
 Plastic
 Low weight
 Easier formability
 Do not absorb moisture
 Good corrosion resistance
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 The pattern material should be
 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard and durable
 Resistant to wear and abrasion
 Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
 Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and
humidity
 Available at low cost

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Introduction – Types of Pattern
 Single piece pattern
 Split piece pattern
 Loose piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Gated pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Cope and Drag pattern
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 Single piece pattern
 Split piece pattern
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 Loose piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
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 Sweep pattern
 Gated pattern
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 Skeleton pattern
 Cope and Drag pattern
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Pattern Allowance
 Why are allowances necessary?
 Final dimensions of casting are different from pattern because of
various reasons….
 Types of allowances
 Shrinkage Allowance
 Machining Allowance
 Draft (or) Taper Allowance
 Distortion Allowance
 Rapping (or) Shake Allowance

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Types of Pattern Allowance
 Shrinkage Allowance
 Liquid shrinkage refers to reduction in volume when metal changes
from liquid to solid state. Riser are used to compensate this.
 Solid shrinkage refers to reduction in volume when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To compensate this shrinkage allowance is
used.
 Pattern is made slightly bigger. This difference in size of the pattern is
called shrinkage allowance.
 Amount of allowance depends upon type of material, its composition,
pouring temperature etc. 27

 Shrinkage Allowance
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 Machining Allowance
 It’s given to get better surface finish.
 Provided to compensate for machining on casting.
 Pattern is made slightly bigger is size.
 Amount of allowance depends upon size and shape of casting, type of
material, machining process to be used, degree of accuracy and surface
finish required etc.
 A layer of 1.5–2.5 mm thick material has to be provided all round the
casting
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 Machining Allowance (example)
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a system for defining and

communicating engineering tolerances. It uses a symbolic language on engineering
drawings and computer-generated three-dimensional solid models that explicitly
describes nominal geometry and its allowable variation.
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 Machining Allowance
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 Draft (or) Taper Allowance
 Provided to facilitate easy withdrawal of the pattern.
 Typically it ranges from 1 degree to 3 degree for wooden patterns.
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 Draft (or) Taper Allowance
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 Distortion Allowance
 A U-shaped casting will be distorted during cooling with the legs
diverging, instead of parallel.
 To compensate, the pattern is made with legs converged but, as the
casting cools, the legs straighten and remain parallel.
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 Rapped (or) Shake Allowance
 To remove the pattern out of mould cavity, it is slightly rapped or
shaked to detach it from the mould cavity.
 To compensate, negative allowance – subtracted from pattern
dimension.
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Moulding
 A mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid like metal,
plastic, …. A mould is the counterpart to a Cast.
 Types of moulding
 According to the method used
1. Floor moulding
2. Bench moulding
3. Pit moulding
4. Machine moulding
 According to the mould materials
1. Green sand moulding
2. Dry sand moulding
3. Loam sand moulding
4. Core sand moulding
 Other moulding processes
1. Shell moulding
2. Permanent mould casting
3. Carbon dioxide moulding
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Types of Moulding - According to the method used (1/4)
1. Floor moulding
 Used for preparing the mould of heavy and large size of jobs
 Floor itself acts as a drag
 It is preferred for such rough type of casting where the upper surface
finish has no importance.
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2. Bench moulding
 It is done on a work bench of a height convenient to the moulder.
 Best suited to the mould of small and light items which are to be
casted by non-ferrous metals.
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3. Pit moulding
 Large sizes of jobs which cannot be accommodated in moulding boxes
are frequently moulded in pits.
 Here, the pit acts as a drag. Generally, one box, i.e. cope is sufficient to
complete the mould.
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4. Machine moulding
 It is preferred for mass production of identical casting as most of the
moulding operations such as ramming of sand, rolling over the
mould, and gate cutting etc. are performed by moulding machine.
 Therefore, this method of moulding is more efficient and economical in
comparison to hand moulding.
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Types of Moulding - According to the mould materials
 Types of moulding
 According to the mould materials
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Types of Moulding - According to the mould materials (1/4)
 Suitable proportions of silica sand (85 - 92 %), bentonite binder (6-12
%), water (3-5 %) and additives are mixed together to prepare the
green sand mixture.
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 Advantages
 Green sand moulding is adaptable to machine moulding.
 No mould baking or drying is required.
 There is less mould distortion than in dry sand moulding.
 Time and cost associated with mould baking or drying is eliminated.
 Green sand moulding provides good dimensional accuracy across
the parting line.
 Disadvantages
 Green sand moulds possess lower strengths.
 They are less permeable.
 There are more chances of defects (like blow holes etc.) occurring in
castings made by green sand moulding.
 Surface finish deteriorates as the weight of the casting increases.
 Dimensional accuracy of the castings decreases as their weight
increases.
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 Here, in the preparation of the mixture for dry sand moulding, special
binding material such as resin, molasses, flour, or clay are mixed to
give strong bond to the sand.
 All parts of mould are completely dried before casting.
 Dry sand moulding is widely used for large size of work such as parts
of engine, large size of fly wheel and rolls for rolling mill.
 This process is costlier than green sand moulding but much superior
in quality.
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 Loam sand moulding are prepared with coarse grained silica sand,
clay, coke, horse manure and water.
 Sand containing up to 50% clay is used.
 Used for very heavy casting.
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 For core sand moulding, mixture is prepared with silica sand, olivine,
carbon and chamotte sands.
 Sand that contains more than 5% clay may not be used as core sand.
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Types of Moulding – Other moulding process (1/3)
1. Shell moulding
 It is an efficient and economical method for producing steel castings.
 The process was developed by Herr Croning in Germany during World War-II and is
sometimes referred to as the Croning shell process
 Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3–6%) thermosetting phenolic resin and
liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern.
 The pattern is usually made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 °C (450 to 600 °F).
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Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and coated
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(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed,
(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it solidifies.
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3. Carbon dioxide moulding
 Carbon dioxide moulding also known as sodium silicate process is one
of the widely used process for preparing moulds and cores.
 In this process, sodium silicate is used as the binder. But sodium
silicate activates or tend to bind the sand particles only in the
presence of carbon dioxide gas. For this reason, the process is
commonly known as CO2 process.
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Moulding Sand
 It is used to prepare mould cavities
 Moulding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic
 The common sources of moulding sands available in India are as
follows:
1. Batala sand ( Punjab)
2. Ganges sand (Uttar Pradesh)
3. Oyaria sand (Bihar)
4. Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
5. Londha sand (Bombay)
6. Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
7. Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
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Properties of Moulding Sand (1/2)
 Refractoriness - It is the ability of the moulding material to resist the
temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused
with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
 Permeability - The grain size, shape and distribution of the foundry sand,
the type and quantity of bonding materials, the density to which the sand is
rammed, and the percentage of moisture used for tempering the sand are
important factors in regulating the degree of permeability
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Properties of Moulding Sand (2/2)
 Cohesiveness is defined as the ability to retain a given shape. Thus due to
cohesiveness, rammed moulding sand particles are bonded together once
the pattern is withdrawn from mould.
 Green strength - Green means containing water while strength refers to
the compressive strength of moulding sand. Therefore, the property of the
green sand to retain the shape of the mould.
 Dry strength - Ability of the dry sand to retain the shape of mould cavity
 Adhesiveness – property of the moulding sand by which it is capable to
adhere to the surface of the moulding flask.
 Flowability or plasticity and Collapsibility

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Types of Moulding Sand
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 Green sand
 Silica sand + Clay 18 – 30 % + Moisture 6 to 8 %
 Moulds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing
 Employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
 Dry sand
 Green sad that has been baked in suitable oven after the making mould
and cores
 Suitable for larger casting
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 Facing sand
 It is sprinkled on the inner surface of the moulding cavity to give better
castings
 Backing sand
 Used to back up the facing sad and is used to fill the whole volume of
the moulding flask or box
 Parting Sand
 This is clean-clay free silica sand
 Between cope and drag box
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Gate and Riser
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Core
 A core is a device used in casting process to produce internal cavities and
re-entrant angles.
 Most commonly used in sand casting.
 Cores are made of sand.
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Core
 A core consists of two portions:
 The body of the core and
 One or more extensions called prints
Prints
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Core prints
 The core prints are necessary to support the core in the mould.
 The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in
the mould on which the sand core rests during pouring of the mould.
 The core print must of the adequate shape and the size so that it can
support the weight of the core during the casting operation.
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Core, Core Print & Core Box
 Core
 Core print
 Core box: the mould or die
used to produce casting cores
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Characteristics of Core
 Green strength – sufficient strength to hold up its shape till it is backed
 Dry strength – sufficient strength to resist bending forces due to
hydrostatic pressure from the liquid (molten metal), when core is placed
inside the mould
 Refractoriness – core is surrounded on all sides by molten metal and
should have high refractoriness.
 Permeability – gases evolved may pass through the core to escape and
should posses sufficient permeability.
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Characteristics of Core
 Collapsibility – should shrink as molten metal shrinks during solidification
 Friability – should get dismantled easily once the casting is completely
cooled.
 Smoothness – surface of core should be smooth to have better surface
finish.
 Low gas emission – emission of gases from core should be as low as
possible to avoid voids formed inside core
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Chaplets
 Cores are usually supported by two core prints in the mould.
 Cantilevered core??
 Small metal support that bridge the gap between the mould surface and
the core.
 Chaplets are used to give support for cantilevered core.
 The caplets must be of the same or similar material as the metal being
cast.
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Core sand
 Core sand must be stronger than moulding sand
Core sand = Sand grains + Binders + Additives
 Sand grains containing more than 5% clay is not used to make core
 Excessive clay reduces the permeability and collapsibility of the core
 Binders
 Organic binders tend to burn away under the heat of molten metal and
hence increases the collapsibility of the core.
 Binders: linseed oil, dextrin, molasses, resins, etc
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Types of Cores
 The selection of the correct type of core depends on production quantity,
production rate, required precision, required surface finish, and the type of
metal being used.
 Types
 Based on material used for making cores
 Sand cores
 Metal cores
 Based on nature of use
 Dispensable (in sand casting)
 Permanent (in die casting)
 Based on shapes and positions of the cores in prepared moulds
 Horizontal cores
 Vertical cores
 Balanced cores
 Hanging cores
 Cover cores
 Wing cores
 Kiss cores
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Types of Cores
 Horizontal cores
 This core is usually in cylindrically form
 Held horizontally along the parting line of the mould
 Ends of core rests in the seats provided by the core prints in the
pattern
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Types of Cores
 Vertical cores
 Similar to a horizontal core except that it is fitted in the mould with its
vertical axis
 Two ends of the mould sits on the cope and drag portion of the mould.
 Amount of taper on the top is more than the taper at the bottom of
the core.
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Types of Cores
 Balanced cores
 It is suitable when the casting has an opening only on one side and
only one core print is available on the pattern.
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Types of Cores
 Cover core
 It is used when the entire pattern is rammed in the drag and the core is
required to be suspended from the top of the mould.
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Types of Cores
 Wing core
 It is used when hole or recess is to be obtained in casting.
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Types of Cores
 Hanging core
 If the core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at the
bottom in the drag, it is referred to as a hanging core.
 In this case, it may be necessary to fasten the core with a wire or rod,
which extends through the cope to a fastening on the top side of the
cope.
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Types of Cores
 Kiss cores
 When the pattern is not provided with core prints and no seat is
available for resting the core, the core is held in position between the
cope and drag simply by the pressure of the cope.
 They are useful when a number of holes are required in casting
 Dimensional accuracy with regard to the relative location of the holes is
not important
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Core making
 Cores for sand casting are manufactured by packing specially prepared sand
in core boxes.
 Core making: sand preparation  core shooting  coating/treatment 
placement in mould.
 The cavity in a core box is a negative replica of the corresponding part
feature.
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Core boxes
 Core boxes are used for making cores.
 Made up of wood or metal
 Types
 Half core box
 Spilt core box
 Dump core box
 Loose piece core box
 Strickle type core box
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Shell Casting
 It is a process in which the sand mixed with a thermosetting resin is
allowed to come into contact with a heated metallic-pattern plate, so that a
thin and strong shell of mould is formed around the pattern.
 The strong shell of mould act as a mould cavity.
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Shell Casting
 Pattern made of a ferrous metal or aluminum
 Heated to a range of 175 to 370 degree Celsius
 Coated with a parting agent (silicone)
 Clamped to a box or chamber
 Dump box fine sand, 2.5 to 4 % thermosetting resin binder (phenol-
formaldehyde)
 Shell usually 5 to 10 mm
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Shell Casting
 Advantage
 Very suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder
 Excellent surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm
 Mass production.
 Disadvantage
 Initial cost is high.
 Specialized equipment is required.
 Resin binder is an expensive material.
 Limited for small size.
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Shell Casting
 Application
 Suitable for production of Al, Cu and ferrous metals
 Cylinder heads for air cooled IC engines
 Automobile transmission parts
 Chain seat bracket
 Refrigerator valve plate etc.
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Shell Casting <Video>
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Investment Casting
 Investment casting uses a piece of ceramic mould. The mould is prepared
by surrounding the ceramic material over the wax or plastic pattern. Once
the ceramic material solidifies, the wax replica is melted and drained out
from the mould and the metal is poured into the mould cavity.
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Investment Casting
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Investment Casting <Video>
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Investment Casting
 Advantages
 Complex shapes can be produced
 Very thin sections can be produced
 Because of using fine grain sand products with good surface finish can be
produced
 Little or no machining is required
 Controlled mechanical properties
 Disadvantages
 Limited to size and mass of casting
 More expensive
 Application
 Jewellery, surgical instruments, vanes and blades of a gas turbine
 Fire arms, Steel valve bodies and impellers for turbo chargers, etc.
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Die Casting
 It is a moulding process in which the molten metal is injected under high
pressure and velocity into a split mould die.
 It is also called pressure die casting.
 The pressure is generally created by compressed air or hydraulic
 The pressure varies from 70 to 5000 kg/cm2 and is maintained while the
casting solidifies.
 Types: hot and cold chamber
 Any narrow sections, complex shapes can be easily produced.
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Die Casting <Video>
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Die Casting (Hot Chamber)
 Metals like Zinc, tin and lead alloys are casted in hot chamber die casting having
melting point below 390°C

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Die Casting (Cold Chamber)
 Aluminium alloys are casted in cold chamber die casting machine.
 Aluminium dissolves ferrous parts in the die chamber and hence preferred
to be used in cold chamber die casting.
 Continuous contact of molten metal is avoided by using a ladle for
introducing molten metal directly to the machine.
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Die Casting
 Advantages
 High production rate.
 High accuracy in part dimensions.
 Smooth surface finish for minimum mechanical finishing.
 Ability to make many intricate parts such as hole opening slot trademark number
etc.
 Much thinner wall sections can be produced which can’t be produced by other
casting methods.
 Varieties of alloys can be used as per design requirements. For example zinc can
be used for intricate forms and plasticity, aluminum for higher structural strength,
rigidity and light weight.
 Ability to cast inserts such as pins studs shafts, fasteners etc.
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Die Casting
 Disadvantages
 Micro porosity in the die casting products is a common problem because of
faster solidification, trapped air and vaporized die lubricants.
 Undercuts cannot be found in simple two piece dies.
 Hollow shapes are not readily casted because of the high metal pressure.
 Limited sizes of the products can be produced based on the availability of the
equipment.
 High melting temperature alloys are practically not die casted.
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Die Casting
 Applications
 Die casting process is preferred for nonferrous metal parts of intricate shapes.
 Examples are automobiles appliances, hand tools, computer peripherals, toys,
optical and photographic equipment etc
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Centrifugal Casting
 Producing casting by pouring the molten metal into a rapidly rotating
mould.
 The metal is thrown out towards the mould face by the centrifugal force
under considerable pressure.
 The results in better mould filling and a casting with dencer grain structure,
which is virtually free of porosity
 The mould is rotated at high speed (300 to 3000 rpm) so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die cavity.
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Centrifugal Casting
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Centrifugal Casting
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Centrifugal Casting
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Centrifugal Casting <Video>
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Centrifugal Casting
 Types of centrifugal casting
 True centrifugal casting
 Semi-centrifugal casting
 Centrifuging
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Centrifugal Casting
 True centrifugal casting
 Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part
 In some operations, mould rotation commences after pouring
rather than before.
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal hexagonal, etc.
but inside shape is perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces.
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Centrifugal Casting
 True centrifugal casting
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Centrifugal Casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular
parts.
 Moulds use risers at center to supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at
center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away,
thus eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
o Examples: wheels and pulleys
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Centrifugal Casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
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Centrifugal Casting
 Centrifuged casting
 Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation,
so molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal
casting methods.
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Centrifugal Casting
 Centrifuged casting
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Defects in Castings
 Types of defects
 Inspection methods
 Moulding related defects
 Filling related defects
 Solidification related defects
 Defects analysis
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Types of Defects
 Based on location  Based on Cause
 External  Raw materials

 Product design
 Internal
 Tooling design
 Based on Type
 Process parameters
 Geometric
 Process control
 Integrity
 Based on Stage
 Based on size/severity  Casting
 Small/Minor  Rough machining
 Large/Major  Finish machining
 Based on Process  Service
 Moulding-related  Based on Reparability

 Repairable
 Filling-related
 Irreparable
 Solidification-related
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Inspection Methods (Defects)
 Destructive
 Sectioning, Machining
 Mechanical testing
 Chemical testing
 Non-Destructive
 Visual: large external defects
 Dimensional: size defects
 Pressure testing: leakage
 Radiography: internal holes
 Ultrasound: internal discontinuities
 Eddy current: hardness, structure
 Magnetic particle: sub-surface discontinuities
 Dye Penetrant: defects with opening to surface.
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Defects in Casting, Causes and Remedies
 Misruns
 Causes
 Low pouring temperature
 Low fluidity
 Slow pouring
 Cross section of the mold cavity is too thin
 Very high moisture content
 Remedies
 Provide hotter metal at cupola spout, reduce heat losses in ladles by using
flux coverings
 Increase carbon and phosphorous
 Reduce moisture content
 Keep runner bush full of metal during pouring
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 Cold shut
 Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion due to
premature freezing
 Causes and Remedies are similar like misruns
108
 Cold shot
 Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become entrapped
 Causes
 Wrong pouring procedures
 Improper gating system designs
 Remedies
 Proper gating system design
109
 Blowholes
 Causes
 Low vent on moulding or core sands
 Hard ramming
 High moisture content
 Very hard cores
 Insufficient venting in cores
 Remedies
 Increase vent by use of vent wire
 Avoid excess ramming
 Reduce moisture to minimum
 Reduce oil in sand
 Ensure vents are clear
110
 Micro porosity
 It is generally present in fine grain alloy castings when the solidification is too
rapid for the micro voids to segregate to the liquid pool.
 The porosity is in the form of small, irregular voids.
 Causes
 Rapid solidification if the mold or casting temperature is too low.
111
 Shrinkage cavity
 Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that
restricts amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze
 Causes
 Lack of molten metal
 Missing riser / Improper riser design
 Improper design of pattern
 Remedies
 Proper design of riser
 Proper design of pattern
112
 Pin holes
 Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting.
 Caused by release of gas during pouring of molten metal.
 To avoid improve permeability & venting in mould.
113
Moulding-related Defects
 Improper Closure
 Across parting plane: flash
 Along parting line: mismatch
114
Filling-related Defects
 Incomplete filling: cold shut, misrun
 Gaseous entrapments: blow hole, gas porosity
 Solid inclusions: sand inclusion, slag inclusion
115
Solidification related defects
 Solidification shrinkage: Cavity, porosity
 Hindered cooling contraction: hot tear, crack
116
Defects analysis
 Individual Defect
 Defect identification
 Cause identification
 Remedy specification
 Defects over a batch/period
 Quality control charts
 Defect frequency (histogram)
 Defect spectrum (pattern over time)
 Expert Systems for Defects Analysis
 Knowledge base (IF-THEN rules with confidence)
 Inference Engine
117
Furnaces for Casting Process
 Cupolas
 Crucible furnaces
 Electric-arc furnaces
 Induction furnaces
118
Engineering Analysis of Pouring
Bernoulli’s theorem:
The sum of the energies (head, pressure, kinetic, and friction) at any two
points in a flowing liquid are equal. This can be written in the following
form:
Where,
h=head or height, cm (in),
p=pressure on the liquid, N/cm2 (lb/in2);
ρ= density; g/cm3 (lbm/in3);
v = flow velocity; cm/s (in/sec);
g = gravitational acceleration constant, 981 cm/s2 (386 in/sec2; and
F= head losses due to friction, cm (in).
Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate any two locations in the liquid flow.
119
If we ignore friction losses (to be sure, friction will affect the liquid flow
through a sand mold), and assume that the system remains at atmospheric
pressure throughout, then the equation can be reduced to
Let us define point 1 at the top of the sprue and point 2 at its base. If point 2 is
used as the reference plane, then the head at that point is zero (h2 = 0) and h1
is the height (length) of the sprue. When the metal is poured into the pouring
cup and overflows down the sprue, its initial velocity at the top is zero (v1 = 0).
Hence, the Equation further simplifies to
Or
120
Mass Continuity law:

The volume rate of flow remains constant throughout the liquid. The
volume flow rate is equal to the velocity multiplied by the cross-sectional
area of the flowing liquid.
Where, Q = volumetric flow rate, cm3/s (in3/sec); v = velocity as before; A =

cross-sectional area of the liquid, cm2 (in2); and the subscripts refer to any
two points in the flow system.
Using the previous equation of flow velocity, the continuity law can be written as
Q  A1 2gh1  A2 2gh2
121
Mold filling time, TMF
Considering horizontal runner
where, TMF = mold filling time, s (sec); V=volume of mold cavity, cm3 (in3);
and Q= volume flow rate.
Mold filling time can be different for different gating system:
V
TMF  For top gating system
Ag 2 ght
TMF 
2 Am
Ag 2 g
h
t ht  hm  For bottom gating system
122
Gating Systems
123
Gating Ratios
Gating ratio: Sprue area : Runner area : Gate area
Non-pressurized:
has choke at the bottom of the sprue base, has total runner area and gate areas higher
than the sprue area. No pressure is present in the system and hence no turbulence. But
chances of air aspiration is possible. Suitable for Al and Mg alloys.
In this, Gating ratio = 1 : 4 : 4
Pressurized:
Here gate area is smallest, thus maintaining the back pressure throughout the gating
system. This backpressure generates turbulence and thereby minimizes the air aspiration
even when straight sprue is used. Not good for light alloys, but good for ferrous castings.
In this, Gating ratio = 2 : 2 : 1 or 1 : 2 : 1
124
Pouring Time
 Purpose of Gating System
 To fill the mould in the smallest time into the cavity
 The time for complete filling of a mould referred as Pouring Time.
 Too long pouring time requires a higher pouring temperature.

 Too less a pouring time means turbulent flow in the mould, which makes
the casting defect-prone.
 There is an optimum pouring time for any given casting.
 Pouring time depends on casting materials, complexity of the casting,

section thickness, and casting size.
125
Problem of Pouring
A mold sprue is 20 cm long, and the cross-sectional area at
its base is 2.5 cm2. The sprue feeds a horizontal runner
leading into a mold cavity whose volume is 1560 cm3.
Determine: (a) velocity of the molten metal at the base of
the sprue, (b) volume rate of flow, and (c) time to fill the
mold.
Ans: 198.1 cm/s; 495 cm2/s; 3.2s
126
Solidification
Pure metal
Alloy
127
Solidification Time
The total solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify
after pouring. This time is dependent on the size and shape of the casting
by an empirical relationship known as Chvorinov’s rule.
n
 Vc 
Ts  k  
 SAc 
Where, TS=total solidification time, min; VC = volume of the casting, cm3
(in3); SAC=surface area of the casting, cm2 (in2); n is an exponent usually
taken to have a value = 2; and k is the mold constant.
128
129
Problem of Solidification Time
Three metal pieces being cast have the same volume, but
different shapes: One is a sphere, one a cube, and the other
a cylinder with its height equal to its diameter. Which piece
will solidify the fastest, and which one the slowest? Assume
that n = 2.
130
Caine’s Method
 The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from Pouring to Freezing
temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing to room
temperature
 The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing shrinkage
allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage during stages 1 and 2 are
compensated by providing risers.
131
Caine’s Method
 Caine’s equation
𝑆𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Freezing ratio, 𝑋 =
𝑆𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟
 The freezing ratio of the mould is defined as the ratio of cooling
characteristics of casting to the riser.
 In order to feed the casting the riser should solidify last and hence freezing
ratio should be greater than unity.
132
Caine’s Method
 Caine’s equation
𝑎
𝑋= −𝑐
𝑌 −𝑏
Where, X = Freezing ratio
Y = Riser volume / Casting volume
a, b, c = Constant
133
Bibliography
• www.google.co.in
• www.researchgate.net
• www.youtube.com
• Mikell P. Groover “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing Materials, Proc
esses, and Systems”,4th Edition,JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.2010
• E.Paul DeGarmo, Black J.T and Ronald A. Kosher “Materials and Process
es, in Manufacturing”,Eight Edition, Prentice – Hall of India, 1997
• James S Campbell “Principles of manufacturing materials and processes”
New Delhi : Tata McGraw-Hill ,1983
• SeropeKalpakjian ,Steven R Schmid “Manufacturing Engineering and Tec
hnology” Pearson India, 4th Edition
134
135
Manufacturing
Technology
15ME202
Unit II- Mechanical
Working of Metals

Assistant Professor
Room ME-C 206
Room ME-C 205
SRM University
Mob: 9831349152
2
Mechanical Working
 Mechanical Working  Objectives of metal working processes are to
provide the desired shape and size, under the action of externally applied
forces in metals.
 Non-cutting or non machining shaping processes are referred to as
mechanical working processes.
material removal material removal ????

3
Types of Metal Working
 Hot working
 Mechanical processes which are done above recrystalisation
temperature of the metal.
 Cold working
 Mechanical processes which are done below recrystalisation
temperature of the metal.
4
Metal Working
 Temperature at which recrystalisation phenomenon starts known as
recrystalisation temperature
 Recrystalisation  It can be defined as the nucleation and growth of stress-
free grains.
5
Metal Working
 When a metal is heated and deformed under mechanical force, an energy
level will be reduced when the old grain structure starts disintegrating.
 Simultaneously, an entirely new grain structure with reduced grain size
starts forming. It is called Recrystalisation.
6
Hot Working
 Hot working: T>0.5Tm
 Mechanical working of a metal above the recrystallization temperature
but below the melting point.
 The recrystallization temperature of metal will be about 30 to 40% of its
melting temperature.
 Types (example)
 Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Drawing
7
Hot Working
 Advantages
 Force requirement is less
 Refined grain structure
 No stress formation (no residual stresses)
 Quick and economical
 Suitable for all metals
 Disadvantages
 Poor surface finish
 Less accuracy
 Very high tooling and handling cost
8
Cold Working
 Cold working: T<0.3Tm
 Mechanical working of a metal below the recrystallization temperature
(room temperature)
 Reduces the amount of plastic deformation that a material can undergo
in subsequent processing and requires more power for further working.
 Types (example)
 Drawing, Squeezing, Bending
9
Cold Working
 Advantages
 Better surface finish
 High dimensional accuracy
 Sheets and wires can be produced
 Increased mechanical properties (ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
hardness, fatigue strength, residual stresses)
 Suitable for mass production.
 Disadvantages
 Stress formation in metal very high
 No refined grain structure
10
Mechanical properties
11
Hot vs. Cold Working
 Comparison
Hot working Cold working

Working above recrystallization te Working below recrystallization te
mperature mperature
Formation of new crystals No crystal formation
Surface finish not good Good surface finish (no oxidation)

No stress formation Internal stress formation
No size limit Limited size
Decreased mechanical properties Increased mechanical properties
Increased ductility Decreased ductility
12
A heavily cold-worked structure has elongated grains and a large amount of residual stress (left). A moderate amount
of annealing causes the elongated grains to recover and new grains to form (center). Extended annealing is
associated with grain growth (right). 13
Rolling
 One of the primary process to convert raw material into finished product.
 Ingot’s are rolled into Slabs, Blooms, Billets by feeding material through
successive pairs of rolls.
14
Rolling
 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
15
Rolling
16
Rolling
The draft: the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its
thickness is reduced by an amount.
The true strain and the average

flow stress The roll force
The power required per roll

The torque
T=0.5FL
17
Rolling Problem
A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two
powered rolls each of radius = 250 mm. The work thickness is to be
reduced to 22 mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work
material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and the
coefficient of friction between the rolls and the work is assumed to be
0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation
to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and
horsepower. Also determine the no. of passes required to make 12mm
thick plate.
18
Types of Rolling
 Based on work piece geometry
 Flat rolling – used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section
 Shape rolling – square cross section is formed into a shape such as an
I-beam
 Thread and gear rolling, Tube rolling, Ring rolling, Skew rolling
 Based on work temperature
 Hot rolling
 Cold rolling
19
Hot Rolling
 It is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic
deformation through compressive stress by two or more than two rolls.
 Ingots into smaller sections
 Coarse structure of cast ingot is converted into a fine grained structure
20
Hot Rolling
21
Hot Rolling
 The crystals in parts are elongated in the direction of rolling, and they start
to reform after leaving the zone of stress.
 Hot rolling process is being widely used in the production of large number
of useful products such as rails, sheet metals, etc.
22
Hot Rolling
 Function of roll
 Pull the work into the gap
between them by friction
between work part and
rolls.
 Simultaneously squeeze the
work to reduce its cross
section.
23
Hot Rolling
24
Cold Rolling
 It is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shape by plastic
deformation through compressive stresses using two or more than two rolls
with or without spraying water.
25
Cold Rolling
 Below recrystalisation temperature (room temperature)
 Increased mechanical strength
 Greater surface finish compared to hot rolling
 Cold rolling cannot be reducing the work piece thickness as much as hot
rolling in single process.
26
Cold Rolling (Residual stress during rolling)
27
Rolling Mills
 Rolling mills  massive and expensive
 Configurations
 Two-high
 Three-high
 Four-high
 Cluster mill
 Tandem rolling mill
28
Rolling Mills
 Two-high  two opposing rolls
29
Rolling Mills
 Three-high  work passes through rolls in both directions
30
Rolling Mills
 Four-high  backing rolls support smaller work rolls
31
Rolling Mills
 Cluster mill  multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
32
Rolling Mills
 Tandem rolling mill  sequence of two-high mills
 A series of rolling stands in sequence
33
Universal Mill
34
Rolling Defects
 Rolling Defects
a) Waviness
b) Zipper cracks
c) Edge cracks
d) Alligatoring
35
Forging
 Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or
pressing.
 Forging machines are now capable of making parts ranging in size of a bolt
to a turbine rotor.
 Most forging operations are carried out hot. (cold and hot forging)
Up to 1150°C for Steel

360 to 520 °C for Al-Alloys
700 to 800°C for Cu-Alloys
36
Hot Forging
 During hot forging, the temperature reaches above the recrystallization
point of the metal.
 This kind of extreme heat is necessary in avoiding strain hardening of the
metal during deformation.
 Isothermal forging is used to prevent the oxidation of certain metals, like
super alloys.
 Up to 1150°C for Steel

 360 to 520 °C for Al-Alloys
 700 to 800°C for Cu-Alloys
37
Hot Forging
 Advantages
 Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance to impact
and fatigue loads.
 Forging refines the structure of the metal.
 It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as compared
to the production of similar item by cutting from a solid stock and then
shaping it.
 Forging distorts the previously created unidirectional fiber as created by
rolling and increases the strength by setting the direction of grains.
38
Hot Forging
 Disadvantages
 Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature results
in scaling which wears the dies.
 The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain.
 Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts having
undercuts
 Some materials are not readily worked by forging.
 The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is high.
39
Cold Forging
 Cold forging deforms metal while it is below its recrystallization point.
 Cold forging is generally preferred when the metal is already a soft metal,
like aluminium.
 This process is usually less expensive than hot forging and the end product
requires little, if any, finishing work.
40
Cold Forging
 Advantages
Produces net shape or near-net shape parts
Cold forging is also less susceptible to contamination problems
Final component features a better overall surface finish.
Minimizes the cost
Easier to impart directional properties
 Disadvantages
 The metal surfaces must be clean and free of scale before forging occurs
 The metal is less ductile
 Residual stress may occur
 Heavier and more powerful equipment is needed
 Stronger tooling is required
41
Application of Forging
 Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron,
copper-base alloys, aluminium alloys, and magnesium alloys.
 Stainless steels, nickel based super-alloys, and titanium are forged especially
for aerospace.
 Forged automobile components include connecting rods, crankshafts, wheel
spindles, axle beams, pistons, gears, and steering arms.
42
Upsetting (Forging)
 Upsetting of metals is a formation process in which a (usually round) billet
is compressed between two dies in a press or a hammer.
 This operation reduces the height of a part while increasing its diameter.
43
44
Wire Drawing
 Wire drawing involves reducing the diameter of a rod or wire by passing
through a series of drawing dies or plates.
 The subsequent drawing die must have smaller bore diameter than the
previous drawing die.
 Wires  produced by cold drawing through dies.
45
Wire Drawing
 Drawing operations involve pulling metal through a die by means of a
tensile force applied to the exit side of the die
 The plastic flow is caused by compression force, arising from the reaction of
the metal with the die
 Material should have high ductility and good tensile strength
 Bar, wire and tube drawing are usually carried out at room temperature,
except for large deformation, which leads to considerable rise in
temperature during drawing.
46
Wire Drawing
 Advantages
 Close dimensional control
 Good surface finish
 Improved strength and hardness
 Adaptability to mass production
47
<Video>
48
Extrusion
 A compression process in which the material is forced to

flow through an opening to produce a shape with a specific
cross-section
 Example  squeezing of tooth paste out
49
Extrusion
 Hot Extrusion
 Involves pre-heating the material above the recrystallization
temperature to increase ductility
 Cold Extrusion
 Does not pre-heat material; used to produce parts in finished or
near-finished form
50
Extrusion
 Metals
 Non-Metals
51
Metal Extrusion
 Direct Extrusion  A ram compresses the material, forcing it

through the die
 Indirect Extrusion  The die is mounted on the ram; the
material is forced out in the opposite direction of the ram
movement
Direct Indirect Indirect
52
Direct Extrusion
53
Indirect Extrusion
To produce solid cross section
To produce hollow cross section
54
Friction in Extrusion Process
 Direct Extrusion  Friction with the chamber opposes

forward motion of the billet.
 Indirect Extrusion  There is no friction, since there is no
relative motion.
55
Friction in Extrusion Process
56
Extrusion
 Extrusion Temperature Ranges
Lead  200-250 °C
Aluminum and its alloys  375-475 °C
Copper and its alloys  650-975 °C
Steels  875-1300 °C
Refractory alloys  975-2200 °C
57
Sheet Metal Forming
 Sheet metal forming is a grouping of many complementary

processes that are used to form sheet metal parts.
58
Shearing operations
 Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line between

two cutting edges
 Typically used to cut large sheets
Front View Side View
59
Shearing operations
 Shearing – mechanical cutting of material without the

formation of chips or the use of burning or melting
 Curved blades may be used to produce different shapes

 Blanking
 Piercing
 Notching
 Trimming
60
Shearing operations
 Shearing – mechanical cutting of material without the
formation of chips
 The workpiece is stressed beyond its ultimate strength.
 The stresses caused in the metal by the applied forces will
be shearing stresses.
61
Shearing operations
 Shearing operation includes
 Piercing
 Blanking
 Notching
 Slitting
 Parting
 Shaving
 Trimming
62
Shearing Operations
 Punching
 It is a cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made in
sheet metal.
 Hole is desired product.
 Blanking
 It is the operation of cutting a flat shape sheet metal.
 The article punched out is called the blank.
63
Punching
 Punching
 1/3 of material is cut and 2/3 of material fractures
64
Blanking
 Blanking
 For thicker and softer materials generally higher angular clearance is
given. In most cases, 2° of angular clearance is sufficient.
65
Shearing Operations
 Clearance
 To small  less than optimal fracture and excessive forces
 To large  oversized burr
66
Trimming
 When parts are produced by die casting or drop forging, a small
amount of extra metal gets spread out at the parting plane.
 This extra metal, called flash, is cut off before the part is used, by
an operation called trimming.
67
Stretch Forming
 Tensile force is applied on the metal which is placed over the die
 Large deformation for ductile metal can be achieved only by this process
 Sheet is first wrapped around the block and the tensile load is increased
through jaws until sheet is plastically deformed to final shape
68
Bending
 It is a operation by which straight length is converted to

curved like drums, channels. (Straining of the metal around a
straight axis)
(a) Bending of sheet metal; (b) both compression and tensile elongation of the metal occur in bending.
69
Bending
 During the bending: the metal on the inside of the neutral

plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside is
stretched.
 The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a
permanent set upon removal of the stresses that caused it.
 Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the
sheet metal.
70
Bending
 Bending operations are performed using punch and die

tooling.
 Types:
 V-bending, performed with a V-die
 Edge-bending, performed with a wiping die
Bending methods: (a) V-bending and (b) edge-bending; (1) before and (2) after bending. v = motion,
F = applied bending force, Fh = blank.
71
Bending force
 Bending Force  Force required to perform bending operation

 Factors
 Geometry of the punch and die
 Strength, thickness, and length of the sheet metal
Kbf (TS )wt 2

F
D
where F = bending force, N
(TS) = tensile strength of the sheet metal, MPa
w = width of part in the direction of the bend axis, mm
t = stock thickness, mm (a) V-die, (b) wiping die.
D = die opening dimension, mm
V-bending, Kbf = 1.33;
Edge bending, Kbf = 0.33.
72
Springback Bending
73
Springback Bending
 Springback effect  In bending, after plastic deformation there

is an elastic recovery this recovery is called spring back.
 Low carbon steels spring back is 1– 2°, while for medium
carbon steel it is 3–4°
 Compensation for spring back
 Over bending of part
 Bottoming and ironing
 Allowances in die and punch
74
Tube Forming or Bending
 Tube forming require special tooling to avoid buckling and

folding.
 The oldest method of bending a tube or pipe is to pack the
inside with loose particles, commonly used sand and bend the
part in a suitable fixture.
 This technique prevents the tube from buckling. After the tube
has been bent, the sand is shaken out. Tubes can also be
plugged with various flexible internal mandrels.
<Buckling>
75
Tube Forming or Bending
76
Bend allowance or Bend length
 It is the length of the neutral axis in the bend
77
Bend allowance or Bend length (Example)
 A 20 mm wide and 4 mm thick C 20 steel sheet is required to be bent at 600 at
bend radius 10 mm. Determine the bend allowance.
R = 10 mm;
bend = 600 = 60 * (π/180) radians
t = 4 mm;
2t = 8 mm;
Therefore, k = ½
Lb = 60 * (π/180) * (10+0.5*4) = 12.56 mm
78
Bending force
 Bending Force
Kbf (TS ) Lt 2
F
D
(TS) = tensile strength of the sheet metal, MPa
(a) V-die, (b) wiping die.
L = bend allowance or bend length, mm
t = stock thickness, mm
D = die opening dimension, mm

Edge bending, Kbf = 0.3.
V-die bending, die opening dimension = D, mm

Wiping die, die opening dimension = D = R + t + R, mm
79
Bending force (Example 1)
 A 400 mm long and 2.5 mm thick piece of carbon steel sheet is required to
be bent at 900 using a V – die. You may assume the yield stress of the
material as 500 MPa and the die opening as 10 times the material
thickness. Estimate the force required for the operation.
Kbf (TS ) Lt 2
F
D
(TS) = tensile strength of the sheet metal, Mpa = 500 MPa
L = bend allowance or bend length, mm = 400 mm
t = stock thickness, mm = 2.5 mm
D = die opening dimension, mm = 10 * 2.5 = 25 mm
Bending force = F = (1.3 * 500 * 400 * (2.5)2 )/ 25 = 65 KN
80
 A 400 mm long and 2.5 mm thick piece of carbon steel sheet is required to
be bent at 900 using a V – die. You may assume the yield stress of the
material as 500 MPa and the die opening as 10 times the material
thickness. Estimate the force required for the operation. If the material as
mentioned in the above example is to be bent at 900 using wiping die with
radius = 3.75 mm, what is the force requirement?
Kbf (TS ) Lt 2
F
D
t = stock thickness, mm = 2.5 mm
D = die opening dimension, mm = R + R + t = 3.75 + 3.75 + 2.5 = 10 mm
Edge bending, Kbf = 0.3;
Bending force = F = (0.3 * 500 * 400 * (2.5)2 )/ 10 = 37.5 KN
81
 A sheet-metal part 3 mm thick and 20 mm long is bent to an included

angle of 600 and a bend radius of 7.5 mm in a V-die. The die opening is 15
mm. the metal has tensile strength of 340 MPa. Compute the required
force to bend the part.
Kbf (TS ) Lt 2
F
D
t = stock thickness, mm = 3 mm
D = die opening dimension, mm = 15
Bending force = F = (1.3 * 340 * 20 * (3)2 )/ 15 = 5304 N
82
Example
 A certain sheet metal (tensile strength = 300 MPa), having a thickness of 3

mm and width 40 mm is subjected to bending in a v-die with opening of
22 mm. The other dimensions are as shown in figure. What are the blank
size and bending force required? Ignore springback.
83
Example
 Bend angle = 60 degree

 The length of the blank can be determined as : L = 40 +30+Bend allowance
 Bend allowance = Lb = 6.8 mm
 Therefore, L = 76.8 mm
Kbf (TS ) Lt 2
F
D
 Bending force = 12535.85 N
84
Coining
 Coining is a closed die forging process, in which pressure is

applied on the surface of the forging in order to obtain closer
tolerances, smoother surfaces and eliminate draft.
 Closed die forging is a process in which forging is done by
placing the work piece between two shaped dies.
The pressure involved in coining process is about 1600Mpa.
85
Embossing
 Embossing  Similar like coining, however, embossing dies

possess matching cavity contours.
 The punch containing the positive contour
 The dies containing the negative contour
 Whereas coining dies may have quite different cavities in the two die
halves
 The operation is also sometimes used for making decoration items like
number plates or name plates, jewelry, etc.
86
<Coining> <Embossing>
87
Deep Drawing
 Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
 Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and than punch
pushed metal in to opening.
 The process is considered "deep" drawing when the depth of
the drawn part exceeds its diameter.
 Example products: beverage cans, automobile body parts,
kitchen utensils
88
Deep Drawing
89
Deep Drawing
90
Drawing (Blank size and force calculation)
 Drawing
91
Deep Drawing
 Drawing Clearance
 In drawing sides of punch and die separated by a clearance ‘C’
C = 1.1 T
where, T = stock thickness
 Drawing ratio
 Ratio between diameter of blank to diameter of punch
DR = (Db/Dp) ≤ 2
 Drawing reduction ratio

 R = ((Db – Dp)/Dp) ≤ 0.5
92
Deep Drawing
 Drawing thickness to diameter ratio

 DT/D = T/Db ≥ 1%
 Drawing force
 The force required for the drawing operation
 DF = π Dp (TS) T (DR – 0.7)
 Holding force
 Fh = 0.015 Sy π [ Dp2 – (Dp + 2.2t + 2 rp)2]
93
Drawing - Blank size calculation
 The size or Diameter of the blank is given by

 Blank volume = Final product volume
d1
 D= (d12 + 4d2h)0.5
 Example : 122 mm d2
h
94
Drawing force calculation
95
96
Types of Die
 Progressive die
 Compound die
 Combination die
97
Progressive die
 Progressive die performs two or more operation

simultaneously in a single stroke of punch press.
 Multiple station
Piercing and blanking at different station
<washer>
98
Progressive die <Video>
99
Compound die <Video>
 All the operations are carried out at a single station in single

stroke of ram. Piercing and blanking at same station
100
Combination die
 In these types of dies cutting operation is combined with a

non-cutting operation.
 The cutting operations may include blanking, piercing,
trimming, etc. and are combined with non-cutting operations
like bending, extruding, forming etc.
101
Bibliography
• www.youtube.com
102
103
Manufacturing
Technology
15ME202
Unit III-Theory of
Metal Cutting

Assistant Professor
Room ME-C 206
Room ME-C 205
SRM University
Mob: 9831349152
2
Metal Cutting
 What is unique in this process?
3
Mechanics of Metal Cutting
 A cutting tool exerts compressive force on the workpiece which
stresses the work material beyond the yield point and therefore
metal deform plastically and shears off.
4
Mechanics of Metal Cutting
 Plastic flow takes place in a localized region called the shear
plane.
 Sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in
the form of chips.
 Applied compressive force is cutting force
5
Metal Cutting
 What is required for machining?
 Depth of cut  pre-set interference between tool and work
piece
 Feed  motion to bring in additional material for machining
 Speed  what generates the basic wedge and cuts
6
Metal Cutting
 Turning
7
Metal Cutting
 Drilling
8
Metal Cutting
 Milling
9
Metal Cutting
 Machining requirements
The blank and the cutting tool are properly mounted (in fixtures) and moved in a
powerful device called machine tool enabling gradual removal of layer of material from
the work surface resulting in its desired dimensions and surface finish. Additionally
some environment called cutting fluid is generally used to ease machining by cooling
and lubrication.
10
Machine Tools
 Machine tool  It is a power operated device or system of
devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired
size, shape and surface finish by removing excess material from
the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of
cutting tools moved past the work surface's.
11
Machine Tools
 Physical function of a machine tool
 Firmly holding the blank and the tool
 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank
 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action
 Control of the machining parameters (speed, feed and depth
of cut).
12
Theory of Metal Cutting
 Metal cutting is the process of producing a work piece by
removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form
of chips.
13
Rake Angle
14
15
16
17
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (Cutting Edge)
 Orthogonal cutting  the cutting edge of the tool is straight
and perpendicular to the direction of motion.
 Oblique cutting  The cutting edge of the tools is set at an
angle to the direction of motion.
18
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (Chip flow)
 Orthogonal cutting  The direction of the chip flow velocity is
normal to the cutting edge of the tool
 Oblique cutting  The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an
angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The angle
is called as chip flow angle.
19
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (dimension)
 Orthogonal cutting  Cutting force and thrust force are acting.
It can be considered as two dimensional cutting.
 Oblique cutting  Cutting force, radial force and thrust force or
feed force are acting. So the metal cutting may be considered as
a three dimensional cutting.
20
Fc  Cutting Force; Ft  Thrust Force
21
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (heat flow)
 Orthogonal cutting  During metal cutting process, the heat
developed due to friction per unit area is more.
 Oblique cutting  The heat developed due to friction per unit
area is less.
22
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (tool life)
 Orthogonal cutting  Smaller when compared to Oblique
cutting for same cutting condition.
 Oblique cutting  Tool have longer life compared to orthogonal
cutting.
23
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting (shear force)
 Orthogonal cutting  Shear force act on a small area.
 Oblique cutting  Shear force act on a larger area.
24
Cutting tools classification
 Cutting Tools classification
 Single point cutting edge tool
 Multiple point cutting edge tool
25
Single point cutting edge tool
 Single point cutting edge tool
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
 Turning uses single point tools
26
 These tools may be left-handed or right-handed
Example: Right handed / Left handed
27
 These tools may be left-handed or right-handed
 It depends on the cutting edge position
28
 Solid type and the tipped tool
29
Multiple point cutting edge tool
 Multiple point cutting edge tool
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools
30
31
Tool signature for single point cutting tool
Flank
32
 Shank
 It is the main body of the tool
 Flank
 The surface of the tool adjacent to the cutting edge
 Face
 The surface on which the chip slides
 Nose
 It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
33
 Nose radius
 Strengthens finishing point of tool
 Cutting edge
 It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the
work piece
34
 Side cutting edge angle

 Angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank
 End cutting edge angle
 Angle between end cutting edge and the line normal to the tool shank
35
 Side relief angle
 Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured
at right angle to the side flank
36
 End relief angle

 Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the
base of the tool, measured at right angle to the end flank
37
 Side rake angle

 Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base
and the side cutting edge
 Back rake angle

 Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the side
cutting edge
38
Single point cutting tool
39
Machine Reference System or ASA
40
Orthogonal Rake system (ORS)
41
Auxiliary Orthogonal Clearance Angle
42
 Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized
abbreviated system is known as tool signature or tool
nomenclature.
 Tool signature (7 elements)

1. Back rake angle (0°)
2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
43
44
Cutting Tool Materials
 Materials
 Carbon steels, High-speed steels
 Cast carbides, Cemented carbides, Coated carbides
 Cermets, Ceramic tools
 Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride
 Polycrystalline diamond
45
Cutting Tool Materials
Properties
 Red hardness or hot hardness  It is the ability of a material
to retain its hardness at high temperature
 Wear resistance  It enables the cutting tool to retain its
shape and cutting efficiency
 Toughness  It relates to the ability of a material to resist
shock or impact loads associated with interrupted cuts.
 High thermal shock resistance
 Low adhesion to work piece material
 Low diffusivity to work piece material
46
Types of Chips
Discontinuous chips
Continuous chips
Continuous chips with built-up edge
Serrated chip or Non-homogenous chip
47
Types of Chips
Discontinuous chips
 When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed
material gets fractured very easily and thus the chip
produced is in the form of discontinuous segments
 Reasons
 Brittle work materials
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth of cut
 High tool-chip friction
48
Types of Chips
Continuous chips
 Continuous chips are normally produced when machining
steel or ductile materials at high cutting speeds. The
continuous chip which is like a ribbon flow along the rake
face.
 Reasons
 Ductile work materials
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool-chip friction
49
Types of Chips
 Continuous chips with build-up edge (BUE)
 When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile
materials, some particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the
tool tip. When such sizeable material piles upon the rake face, it acts as a
cutting edge in place of the actual cutting edge is termed as built up
edge (BUE). By virtue of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent
work material
 Reasons
 Tools-chips friction causes portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
 BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically
 Low-to-medium cutting speeds
 Ductile materials
50
Types of Chips
 Serrated chips or Non-homogenous chip
 Semi continuous (saw tooth appearance) chips
 Associated with difficult-to-machine metals at high cutting speeds
 Reasons
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes portions of chip to adhere to rake face
 BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically
51
Chip breakers
 Long continuous chip are undesirable (safety issue)
 Chip breaker is a piece of metals clamped to the rake surface of
the tool which bends the chip and breaks it
 Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry,
thereby controlling the chip flow
52
Machinability
 Machinability is a system property that indicates how easy a
material can be machined at low cost.
 Good machinability  cutting with minimum energy, minimum
tool wear, good surface finish.
53
Machinability
 Quantitative measures of machinability
 Machinability index
 Tool life
 Surface finish
54
Machinability
 Good machinable materials should have
 Low ductility
 Low shear strength
 Low hardness
 High thermal conductivity
 Weak metallurgical bond (adhesion)
55
Machinability
 Machinable materials
 Ferrous materials
 Carbon steels : annealed, heat-treated, cold worked
 Alloy steels: hard
 Stainless steels
 Cast iron
 Non-ferrous materials
 Zinc, magnesium, aluminium alloys, beryllium, titanium

56
Cutting fluids
 Cutting fluids  used to reduce friction and tool wear
 Function of cutting fluids
 Lubrication
 Cooling
 Chip removal
 Types
 Straight oil (petroleum based oils), Soluble oil (water
based oils), animal fats, plant oils
 Characteristics
 Good cooling and lubricating qualities, rust resistance,
nontoxic, transparent, non-flammable
57
Cutting fluids
 Economic advantages of using cutting fluids
 Reduction of tool costs
 Reduce tool wear, tools last longer
 Increased speed of production
 Reduce heat and friction so higher cutting speeds
 Reduced of labor costs
 Tools last longer and require less regrinding, less
downtime, reducing cost per part
 Reduction of power costs
 Friction reduced so less power required by machining
58
Mechanism of Cutting
 Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to
form a chip. As chip is removed, new surface is exposed.
59
 Mechanism of Orthogonal Cutting
 Orthogonal cutting assumes that the cutting edge of the tool
is set in a position that is perpendicular to the direction of
relative work or tool motion.
60
61
 In turning, w = depth of cut and t1= feed
62
Mechanism of Cutting (Cutting ratio)
63
Mechanism of Cutting (Shear Plane Angle)
64
Mechanism of Cutting (Shear Plane Angle)
 Shear Plane Angle Derivation
65
Mechanism of Cutting (Shear Strain)
66
67
68
Mechanism of Cutting (Cutting Forces)
 Cutting force in conventional turning operation
69
70
 The largest magnitude is the vertical force Fc which in turning is

larger than feed force Ff, and Ff is larger than radial force Fr.
 For orthogonal cutting system Fr is made zero by placing the
face of cutting tool at 90° to the line of action of the tool.
71
Tool Failure
 Process of cutting tool failure
 Types
 By plastic deformation
 By chipping due to mechanical breakage
 Burning of the tool
 By gradual wear
72
Tool Failure
73
Tool Wear
74
Tool Wear
 Tools get worn out due to long term usage or gradual failure of cutting
tools due to regular operation.
 Types
 Flank wear
 It occurs on the relief face of the tool and the side relief angle.
 Crater wear
 It occurs on the rake face of the tool.
 Notch wear or chipping
 Breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the tool
75
Tool Wear
76
Tool Wear
77
Tool Wear
 cutting conditions (cutting speed V, feed f, depth of cut d)
 cutting tool geometry (tool orthogonal rake angle)
 properties of work material
VB  Flank wear land

VBk  tool life
78
Tool Wear
79
Tool Life Expectancy Equation
𝑉𝑐 𝑇 𝑛 𝐷 𝑥 𝐹 𝑦 = 𝐶
V – Cutting speed
T – Tool life
C – Machining Constant
Taylor’s Equation
80
1.While machining carbon steel by a tungsten based steel tool, tool life of 50
minutes was observed when machined with a cutting speed of 100 m/min.
Determine(a) General Taylor’s tool life equation and (b) tool life for a cutting
speed of 80 m/min. Assume n = 0.09.
81
2. A carbide-cutting tool when machined with mild steel workpiece material at a cutting
speed of 50m/min lasted for 100 minutes. Determine the life of the tool when the
cutting speed is increased by 25%. At what speed the tool is to be used to get a tool
life of 180 minute. Assume n = 0.26 in the Taylor’s expression.
82
Forces acting on chip
83
Forces acting on chip
84
Resultant forces
85
Shear Stress
86
Shear angle and its significance
87
Force calculations
88
Force calculations
89
Force calculations
90
Velocity calculations
91
Merchant Circle Diagram https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YCLZMx_nhsM#
92
Merchant Circle Diagram
 Merchant circle diagram is used to analyze the forces acting in metal cutting
 The analysis of three forces system, which balance each other for cutting to
occur. Each system is a triangle of forces.
 The three triangles of forces in merchant’s circle diagram are
1. A triangle of forces for the cutting forces,
2. A triangle of forces for the shear forces,
3. A triangle of forces for the frictional forces.
Three angles: rake, shear and friction
93
94
 Assumptions made in drawing Merchant’s circle:
 Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting edge.
 The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance force.
 The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of
motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
 The chip doesn’t flow to either side, that is chip width is constant.
 The depth of cut remains constant.
 Width of the too, is greater than that of the work.
 Work moves with uniform velocity relative tool tip.
 No built up edge is formed.
95
Bibliography
• www.youtube.com
• https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/
96
97
Manufacturing
Technology
15ME202
Unit IV- Gear
Manufacturing and
Surface Finishing
Assistant Professor
Room ME-C 206
Room ME-C 205
SRM University
Mob: 9831349152
2
Gear
 A gear is rotating machine part having cut teeth, which mesh
with another toothed part in order to transmit torque.
 Two or more gears working in tandem are called a transmission.
 Geared devices can change the speed, magnitude, and direction
of a power source.
3
Gear
 The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another
gear; however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part,
called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation.
4
Gear
 Gears are used extensively for transmission of power.
 Application  automobiles, gear boxes, oil engines, machine
tools, etc.
5
Gear Materials
 Gear Materials  wide variety of cast irons, non ferrous materials
 Selection of gear materials
 Purpose (type of service), peripheral speed, degree of
accuracy, method of manufacture, allowable stress, shock
resistance, wear resistance
6
Gear Manufacturing Process
Gear manufacturing divided into forming and machining
7
Sintering Process
8
Sintering Process
9
Sintering Process
10
Sintering
 Sintering is a heat treatment applied to a powder compact in
order to impart strength and integrity.
 The temperature used for sintering is below the melting point of
the major constituent of the Powder Metallurgy material.
11
Sintering
12
Sintering
13
Sintering
 Sintered gear characteristics
 Accuracy similar to die cast gears
 Material properties can be tailor made
 Typically suited for small size gears
 Economical for large lot size only
 Secondary machining is not required
14
Extrusion
 Material is drawn through a die, giving the material a new cross-
sectional shape that is usually constant throughout the lengths of
the material.
15
Extrusion
 Extrusion process is used to form teeth on long rods, which are
then cut into usable lengths and machined for bores and keyways
etc.
 Nonferrous materials  Copper and aluminium alloys are
commonly extruded rather than steels.
 Suitable for mass production, also small sized gear.
 Example: watches, clocks, type writers, etc.,
16
Stamping
 Sheet metal can be stamped with tooth shapes to form low
precision gears at low cost in high quantities.
 Surface finish and accuracy are poor.
 Example  toy gears, clock gears, watch gears, etc.,
17
Stamping
 After stamping, the gears are shaved, they give best finish and
accuracy.
 The materials which can be stamped are : low, medium, and high
carbon steels, stainless steel.
 Mass production possible.
18
Gear Machining or Generating Process
 Roughing processes include milling the tooth shape with formed
cutters or generating the shape with a rack cutter, shaping cutter
or a hob cutter.
 The roughing processes actually produce a smooth and accurate
gear tooth. If high precision and quiet running demands, the
secondary finishing operation is justified at added cost.
19
Gear Shaping
 It uses a cutting tool in the shape of a gear which is reciprocated axially across the gear
blank to cut the teeth while the blank rotates around the shaper tool.
 It is true shape generation process in that the gear shaped tool cuts itself into mesh
with the gear blank.
20
Gear Shaping
 Gear shaping by disc cutter
 The disc cutter shape confirms the gear tooth shape. Each gear needs
separate cutter. However, with 8 to 10 std. cutters, gears from 121 to 120
teeth can be cut with fair accuracy. Tooth is cut one by one by plunging
the rotating cutter in to the blank.
21
Gear Shaping
 Gear shaping by End Mill Cutter
 The End mill cutter shape confirms the gear tooth shape. Each tooth is cut
at time and then indexed for next Tooth space for cutting. A set of 10
cutters will do for 12 to 120 teeth gears. Suited for small volume
production of low precision gears.
22
Gear Shaping
 Gear shaping by Rack – type cutter
 generating cutter has the form of a basic rack.
 The cutter reciprocates rapidly & removes metal only during the cutting
stroke.
 The blank is rotated slowly but uniformly about its axis and between each
cutting stroke of the cutter, the cutter advances along its length at a speed
equal to the rolling speed of the matching pitch lines.
23
Gear Shaping
 Spur Gear Generation by Rack – type cutter
24
Gear Shaping
25
Gear Shaping
 Gear shaping by Pinion type cutter
 The pinion cutter generating process is fundamentally the same as the rack
cutter generating process, and instead of using a rack cutter, it uses a
pinion to generate the tooth profile.
26
Gear Hobbing
 Hobbing is the process of generating gear teeth by means of a
rotating cutter called a hob.
 It is a continues indexing process in which both the cutting tool &
work piece rotate in a constant relationship while the hob is being
fed into work.
27
Gear Hobbing
 The teeth of hob cut into the work piece in successive order &
each in a slightly different position.
 Each hob tooth cuts its own profile depending on the shape of
cutter.
 One rotation of the work completes the cutting up to certain
depth.
28
Gear Hobbing
 It is the most accurate machining process since no repositioning
of tool or blank is required and each tooth is cut by multiple hop
teeth averaging out any tool errors.
29
Gear Hobbing Types
 Axial Hobbing ( Axis of Hobber and blank are parallel)
30
Gear Hobbing Types
 Radial Hobbing ( Axis of Hobber and blank are Perpendicular)
31
Gear Hobbing Types
 Tangential Hobbing ( Axis of Hobber and blank are Tangential)
32
Grinding Process (Surface Finishing Process)
 Grinding is the abrasive machining process.
 Cutting mode  grit or grains of abrasive material
 These grits are characterized by sharp cutting points, high hot hardness, chemical
stability and wear resistance.
 Bonding material used to held together the grits.
33
Grinding Process (Surface Finishing Process)
 Applications
 Surface finishing
 Slitting
 De-scaling , De-burring
 Grinding of tools and cutters and re-sharpening of the same.
34
Grinding Machine
 Grinding Machines  machine tools.
 Machine tool  It is a power operated device or system of devices in which energy
is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of
35
Grinding Machine
 Grinding Machines  machine tools.
 Feature of grinding machines  rotating abrasive tool.
 Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy along with very high class
of surface finish on the work piece.
 Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:
 Surface grinding machine
 Cylindrical grinding machine
 Center less grinding
36
Surface grinding machine
 In surface grinding, the spindle position is either horizontal or vertical, and the
relative motion of the work piece is achieved either by reciprocating the work piece
past the wheel or by rotating it. The possible combinations of spindle orientations
and work piece motions yield four types of surface grinding processes illustrated in
the figure.
37
38
<Horizontal Grinding Machine> <Vertical Grinding Machine>
A: rotation of grinding wheel

B: reciprocation of worktable
C: transverse feed
D: down feed
39
Cylindrical grinding
 External or internal cylindrical grinding
 External cylindrical grinding (center-type grinding) the work piece rotates and reciprocates along
its axis, although for large and long work parts the grinding wheel reciprocates.
 Internal cylindrical grinding, a small wheel grinds the inside diameter of the part. The work
piece is held in a rotating chuck in the headstock and the wheel rotates at very high rotational
speed. In this operation, the work piece rotates and the grinding wheel reciprocates.
40
Cylindrical grinding machine (External)
The surface may be straight, tapered, grooved or profiled.
A: rotation of grinding wheel

B: work table rotation
C: reciprocation of worktable
D: infeed
41
Cylindrical grinding machine (Internal)
The surface may be straight, tapered, grooved or profiled.
42
Centre less grinding
43
Centre less grinding
 Center less grinding is a process for continuously grinding cylindrical surfaces in
which the work piece is supported not by centers or chucks but by a rest blade.
 The work piece is ground between two wheels.
 The larger grinding wheel does grinding, while the smaller regulating wheel, which
is tilted at an angle i, regulates the velocity Vf of the axial movement of the work
piece.
 Center less grinding can also be external or internal, traverse feed or plunge
grinding. The most common type of center less grinding is the external traverse
feed grinding.
44
Grinding Wheel
 Grinding wheel consists of hard abrasive grains called grits, which perform
the cutting or material removal, held in the weak bonding matrix.
 A grinding wheel commonly identified by the type of the abrasive material
used.
 The conventional wheels include aluminium oxide and silicon carbide
wheels while diamond and CBN (cubic boron nitride) wheels fall in the
category of super abrasive wheel.
45
Grinding Wheel
 Specification of grinding wheel
 Geometrical specification
 This is decided by the type of grinding machine and the grinding
operation to be performed in the workpiece.
 This specification mainly includes wheel diameter, width and depth of rim
and the bore diameter.
 Compositional specification
46
Grinding Wheel
 Specification of grinding wheel
 Compositional specification
 type of grit material
 grit size
 bond strength of the wheel, commonly known as wheel hardness
 The structure of the wheel denoting the porosity i.e. the amount of
inter grit spacing
 type of bond material
47
Grinding Wheel
 Conventional abrasive grinding wheels
48
Grinding Wheel
 Super abrasive grinding wheels
The bonding materials for the super abrasives are (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified, (b) metal,
(c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid.
49
Grinding Wheel
 Examples of Bonded Abrasives
 Conventional abrasives
 Al2O3  for High-tensile strength materials
 SiC  for low-tensile strength materials
 Super abrasives
 Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
 Diamond
50
Grinding Wheel
 Bonding materials
51
Grinding Wheel
52
Grinding Wheel
53
Grinding Wheel
54
General rules for grinding
55
56
57
Selection of Cutting speed and Working speed is based on
 Material to be ground and its hardness.
 Amount of stock removal and finish required.
 Whether the grinding is done wet or dry.
 Wheel speed.
 Area of grinding contact.
 Severity of the grinding operation.
58
Grinding Wheel
59
Truing of Grinding Wheel
 Truing is the process of making grinding wheel round and concentric with its
spindle axis and producing required form of shape on wheel
 Involves grinding of a portion of the abrasive section of grinding wheel
 Act of regenerating the required geometry on the grinding wheel, whether
the geometry is a special form or flat profile.
 This process produces the macro-geometry of the grinding wheel.
 A new conventional wheel also requires truing to ensure concentricity
 In practice the effective macro-geometry of a grinding wheel is of vital
importance and accuracy of the finished work piece is directly related to
effective wheel geometry. 60

Truing of Grinding Wheel
61
Dressing of Grinding Wheel
 Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit
cutting edges are exposed from the bond and thus able to penetrate into
the work piece material.
 Operation of removing dull grains.
Dressing or micro geometry
62
 Reasons for dressing wheel
 Reduce heat generated between work and wheel
 Reduce strain on grinding wheel and machine
 Improve surface finish and accuracy of work
 Increase rate of metal removal
63
 Truing and dressing are commonly combined into one operation for
conventional abrasive grinding wheels, but are usually two distinctly separate
operation for super abrasive wheel.
64
Finishing operation
 The surface finish has a vital role in influencing functional characteristics like
wear resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and power loss due to
friction.
 The finishing operations are assigned as the last operations in the single part
production cycle usually after the conventional or abrasive machining
operations, but also after net shape processes such as powder metallurgy,
cold flash less forging, etc.
65
Finishing operation
 Lapping
 Buffing
 Honing
 Super finishing
 Wire brushing
 Polishing
 Electro polishing
 Magnetic-field-assisted polishing
66
Lapping
 It is a machining operation, in which two surfaces are rubbed together with
an abrasive between them, by hand movements or by a way of a machine.
67
Lapping
68
Lapping
69
Lapping
70
Lapping
 Abrasives of lapping
 Al2O3 and SiC, grain size 5~100μm
 Cr2O3, grain size 1~2 μm
 B4C3, grain size 5-60 μm
 Diamond, grain size 0.5~5 V
 Lubricating materials of lapping
 Machine oil
 Rape oil
 grease
 Technical parameters affecting lapping processes are
 unit pressure
 the grain size of abrasive
 concentration of abrasive in the vehicle
 lapping speed
71
Polishing
 Polishing
 It is a finishing operation to improve the surface finish by means of a polishing
wheel made of fabrics or leather and rotating at high speed.
 The abrasive grains are glued to the outside periphery of the polishing wheel.
72
Buffing
 Buffing
 It is a finishing operation similar to polishing, in which abrasive grains are not
glued to the wheel but are contained in a buffing compound that is pressed into
the outside surface of the buffing wheel while it rotates. As in polishing, the
abrasive particles must be periodically replenished.
 Buffing wheels are made of discs of linen, cotton, broad cloth and canvas
73
Buffing vs polishing
 Finishing processes that utilize abrasive belts are referred to as polishing, and
processes that use cloth wheels with compound applied is buffing.
74
Honing
 Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool, which contains a set of
three to a dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced
about the periphery of the honing tool. They are held against the work surface with
controlled light pressure, usually exercised by small springs.
 The honing tool is given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which
combine to produce a crosshatched lay pattern of very low surface roughness
Honing tool
75
Honing
76
Honing
 Stone
 Al2O3 or SiC bonded abrasives
 The critical process parameters are:
 Rotation speed
 Oscillation speed
 Length and position of the stroke
 Honing stick pressure
 Parameters that affect material removal rate (MRR) and surface roughness (R) are:
 Unit pressure, p
 Peripheral honing speed, Vc
 Honing time, T
77
Honing
78
Honing
79
Honing
80
Super Finishing
 Super finishing is a micro finishing process that produces a controlled surface
condition on parts which is not obtainable by any other method. The operation
which is also called ‘micro stoning’ consist of scrubbing a stone against a surface to
produce a fine quality metal finish.
 The process consists of removing chatter marks and fragmented or smear metal
from the surface of dimensionally finished parts. As much as 0.03 to 0.05 mm of
stock can be efficiently removed with some production applications, the process
becomes most economical if the metal removal is limited to 0.005 mm
81
Super Finishing
Figure Schematic illustrations of the super finishing process for a cylindrical part. (a)
Cylindrical mircohoning, (b) Centerless microhoning.
82
Bibliography
• www.youtube.com
83
84
Manufacturing
Technology
15ME202
Unit V- Machine
Tools

Assistant Professor
Room ME-C 206
Room ME-C 205
SRM University
Mob: 9831349152
2
Machine Tools
 Machine tool  It is a power operated device or system of
devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired
size, shape and surface finish by removing excess material from
the preformed blanks in the form of chips with the help of
3
Machine Tools
 Physical function of a machine tool
 Firmly holding the blank and the tool
 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank
 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action
 Control of the machining parameters (speed, feed and depth
of cut).
4
Milling
 Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular surfaces by

feeding the work piece against a rotating cutter containing a number of
cutting edges (i.e., multi point cutting edge tool).
 Multi-tooth cutting tool is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are
called teeth.
5
Milling
 Milling is an interrupted cutting operation in which the teeth of the milling
cutter enter and exit the work during each revolution.
 This interrupted cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force
and thermal shock on every rotation.
 The tool material and cutter geometry must be designed to withstand these
conditions.
 Cutting fluids are essential for most milling operations.
6
Milling Machine
 The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of

feed, either parallel or perpendicular to the machined surface.
 Milling machine  Machine tool
 Basic components
 motor driven spindle  mounts and revolves the milling cutter
 Reciprocating adjustable worktable  mounts and feeds the work
piece.
 Electric drive motors, coolant systems, variable spindle speed, power-
operated table feeds.
7
Milling Machine Classification
 The conventional milling machines provide a primary rotating motion for
the cutter held in the spindle, and a linear feed motion for the work piece,
which is fastened onto the worktable.
 Milling machines for machining of complex shapes usually provide both a
rotating primary motion and a curvilinear feed motion for the cutter in the
spindle with a stationary work piece.
8
 According to nature of purposes of use
 General Purpose Milling Machine
 Conventional milling machines, e.g Up and down milling machines
 Single Purpose Milling Machine
 Thread, cam milling machines and slitting machine
 Special Purpose Milling Machine
 Mass production machines, e.g., duplicating mills, thread milling etc.
9
 According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bed
 Knee type
 Bed type
 According to the orientation of the spindle
 Horizontal
 Vertical
 Universal
10
 Column-and-knee milling machine
 a column that supports the spindle, and a knee that supports the work
table.
 Two types: horizontal and vertical
11
 Bed type milling machine
 the worktable is mounted directly on the bed that replaces the knee
 greater rigidity, thus permitting heavier cutting conditions and higher
productivity. This machines are designed for mass production
12
Horizontal Milling Machine Vertical Milling Machine
13
14
Horizontal Milling Machine
 Base  Carries the entire load, should have high  Saddle  Between table and knee. Can move
compressive strength (made with cast iron). Act as a transversally to the column face. The main
reservoir of cutting fluid. function to provide motion in horizontal
 Column  Another foundation. Supports knee, direction to work piece.
table, etc. It work as a housing for the all the other
 Spindle  Main part of the machine. Holds
driving member. Contains driving gears and
tool at right place in vertical milling m/c, and
sometimes motor for the spindle and the table.
hold arbor in horizontal milling m/c.
 Knee  first moving part of the milling machine. It
moves along the slide ways, up and down, distance
between the tool and workpiece. Mechanical or
hydraulically driven.
 Table  Made by cast iron. T-slot cut. Clamping
blots.
 Overhanging arm Supports arbor
 Arbor  It is used as extension part of the spindle
in horizontal milling m/c. It holds tool
15
Horizontal Milling Machine
16
Vertical Milling Machine
17
Machining Center
 A machining center is a highly automated machine tool capable of perfo
rming multiple machining operations under CNC control.
 The features that make a machining center unique include the following
 Tool storage unit called tool magazine that can hold up to 120 different cutting tools.
 Automatic tool changer, which is used to exchange cutting tools between the tool magazine
and machining center spindle when required. The tool changer is controlled by the CNC pro
gram.
 Automatic work part positioning. Many of machining centers are equipped with a rotary wo
rktable, which precisely position the part at some angle relative to the spindle. It permits the
cutter to perform machining on four sides of the part.
18
Machining Center
19
Milling Methods
 Types of milling methods

 Down (climb) milling, when the cutter rotation is in the same direction
as the motion of the work piece being fed.
 Up (conventional) milling, in which the work piece is moving towards
the cutter, opposing the cutter direction of rotation
20
Down milling
 Down (climb) milling  the cutting force is directed into the work table,
which allows thinner work parts to be machined.
 Better surface finish is obtained but the stress load on the teeth is
abrupt(unexpected/sudden), which may damage the cutter.
21
Up milling
 Up (conventional) milling  the cutting force tends to lift the work piece.
 The work conditions for the cutter are more favorable.
 The surface has a natural waviness.
22
Up milling
 Up (conventional) milling  the cutting force tends to lift the work piece.
 The work conditions for the cutter are more favorable.
 The surface has a natural waviness.
23
Types of milling
 Peripheral and face milling
 In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the cutter is parallel
to the surface being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting
edges on the outside periphery of the cutter.
 In face milling, cutter is perpendicular to the machined surface.
24
Peripheral milling
Slitting
 Slab milling  the cutter width extends beyond the work piece on both sides
 Slotting  slot milling, width of the cutter usually called slotter, is less than the work
piece width
 The slotter has teeth on the periphery and over the both end faces.
 If one-side face teeth are engaged, then operations is known as side milling.
 Straddle milling  Same as side milling where cutting takes place on both side of the
work (two slotters)
 If the slotter is very thin, the operation is called slitting (teeth only on the periphery)
25
Face milling
 Cutter is perpendicular to the machined surface.
 Machining is performed by teeth on both the end and periphery of the face-
milling cutter.
 Face milling is usually applied for rough machining of large surfaces.
 Surface finish is worse than in peripheral milling, and feed marks are inevitable.
 One advantage of the face milling is the high production rate because the
cutter diameter is large and as a result the material removal rate is high.
 Face milling with large diameter cutters requires significant machine power.
26
End milling
 Kind of face milling.
 End mill has helical cutting edges
 To produce pockets, closed or end key slots
27
Milling of complex surfaces
 Complex surfaces can be machined either by means of the cutter path (profile milling
and surface contouring), or the cutter shape (form milling)
<Profile milling>
<Form milling>
<surface milling>
28
Milling Cutters
 Classification of milling cutter according to their design
 HSS cutters: Many cutters like end mills, slitting cutters, slab cutters, angular cutt
ers, form cutters, etc., are made from high-speed steel (HSS).
 Brazed cutters: Very limited number of cutters (mainly face mills) are made with
brazed carbide inserts. This design is largely replaced by mechanically attached c
utters.
 Mechanically attached cutters: The vast majority of cutters are in this category. C
arbide inserts are either clamped or pin locked to the body of the milling cutter.
29
Milling Cutters
 Classification of milling cutter based on milling operation

 Surfaces are not related with the tool shape
 Slab or plain milling cutter : straight or helical fluted
 Side milling cutters – single side or both sided type
 Slotting cutter
 Slitting or parting tools
 End milling cutters – with straight or taper shank
 Face milling cutters
 Where the job profile becomes the replica of the tool-form

 Form cutters, Gear (teeth) milling cutters, Spline shaft cutters, Tool form cutters, T-slot
cutters, Thread milling cutter
30
Milling Cutters
<Machining flat surface by slab milling Cutter>
31
Milling Cutters
<Side milling cutters>
32
Milling Cutters
<Face milling cutters>
33
Milling Cutters
<T-Slot Milling Cutters>
<Gear Milling Cutters>

34
Milling Cutters
<Thread Milling Cutters>
35
Simple Operations Performed in Milling
Reference: Introduction to Basic
Manufacturing Processes and
Workshop Technology, by Rajender
Singh.
Please refer Page: 455-458 for clear

picture and more understanding
36
Shaping Machine
 A shaping machine is used to machine surfaces. It can cut curves, angles and many
other shapes.
 The major components of a shaper are the ram, which has the tool post with cutting
tool mounted on its face, and a worktable, which holds the part and accomplishes the
feed motion.
37
Shaping Machine (Tool post)
 Tool post (clapper box)
The tool post has been turned at an

angle so that side of the material can
be machined
The tool post is not angled so that the

tool can be used to level a surface.
38
Shaping Machine (Clapper box)
39
Shaping Machine (Quick Return Mechanism)
40
41
42
Indexing
 What is Indexing?
 Indexing is the process of evenly dividing the circumference of a circular work piece
into equally spaced divisions, such as in cutting gear teeth, cutting splines, milling groov
es in reamers and taps, and spacing holes on a circle.
 The index head of the indexing fixture is used for this purpose.
<Indexing Head>
43
Indexing
 Indexing Head
 The index head of the indexing fixture contains an indexing mechanism which is used to
control the rotation of the index head spindle to space or divide a work piece accurately.
 A simple indexing mechanism consists of a 40-tooth worm wheel fastened to the index
head spindle, a single-cut worm, a crank for turning the worm shaft, and an index plate a
nd sector.
 Since there are 40 teeth in the worm wheel, one turn of the index crank causes the worm
, and consequently, the index head spindle to make 1/40 of a turn; so 40 turns of the
index crank revolve the spindle one full turn.
44
Indexing
 Index Plate Types

 Brown and Sharpe type consists of 3 plates of 6 circles each drilled as follows:
 Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes
 Plate 2 - 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes
 Plate 3 - 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 holes
 Cincinnati type consists of one plate drilled on both sides with circles divided as foll
ow
 First side - 24, 25, 28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 holes
 Second side - 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66 holes
45
Indexing Methods
 Simple Indexing or Plain Indexing
 The index plate is fitted on the worm shaft and locked through a locking pin’
 To index the work through any required angle, the index crank pin is withdrawn from the hole of the index
plate than the work is indexed through the required angle by turning the index crank through a calculated
number of whole revolutions and holes on one of the hole circles, after which the index pin is relocated in t
he required hole
 If the number of turns that the crank must be rotated for each indexing can be found from the formula
N = 40 / Z
Where
Z - No of divisions or indexings needed on the work
40 – No of teeth on the worm wheel attached to the indexing plate, since 40 turns of the index cran
k will turn the spindle to one full turn
46
Indexing Methods
 Suppose it is desired to mill a gear with eight equally spaced teeth. l/8th of 40 or 5 turns
(Since 40 turns of the index crank will turn the spindle one full turn) of the crank after
each cut, will space the gear for 8 teeth. If it is desired to space equally for 10 teeth,
1/10 of 40 or 4 turns would produce the correct spacing.
 The same principle applies whether or not the divisions required divide equally into 40.
For example, if it is desired to index for 16 divisions, 16 divided into 40 equals
2 8/16 turns. i.e for each indexing we need two complete rotations of the crank plus
8 more holes on the 16 hole circle of plate 1(Plate I - 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes)
47
Differential Indexing Methods
48
Indexing Methods
49
Indexing Methods
50
Indexing
Indexing Problems
 Refer P.C. Sharma –Vol-II, Page No 157 to 162
51
Planner Machine
 Planning and shaping are similar operations, which differ in the kinematics of the
process.
 Planning is a machining operation in which the primary cutting motion is performed by
the work piece and feed motion is imparted to the cutting tool. In shaping, the primary
motion is performed by the tool, and feed by the work piece
52
Planner Machine
53
Planner Machine
 The open side planer, also known as a single-column planer has a single column
supporting the cross rail on which a tool head is mounted. The configuration of the
open side planer permits very wide work parts to be machined.
 A double-column planer has two columns, one on either side of the bed and
worktable. The columns support the cross rail on which one or more tool heads are
mounted. The two columns provide a more rigid structure for the operation but limit
the width of the work that can be handled.
54
Slotting Machine
 Slotting machines can simply be considered as vertical
shaping machine
 Vertical shaping machine where the single point tool
reciprocates vertically
 Cutting on the downward stroke and upward stroke being
idle
 Work table specified for transverse, longitudinal or rotary
movement
 Longer stroke length
 Wide range of operations for internal surfaces as splines,
keyways and teeth 55

Slotting Machine
56
Slotting Machine
57
Slotting Machine
 Vertical slide reciprocated by crank-
connecting rod mechanism
 Quick return absent
 Intermittent rotation provided by four bar
linkage
 The work table rotated by feed rod
connected to worm-worm wheel drive
 Working speed(number of strokes per
minute) can be changed by belt pulley
ratio/gear box
58
Work and Tool Holding Devices
Work Holding Devices
 Drill Press Vice
 Used to hold round, square or odd-shaped rectangular pieces
 Clamp vise to table for stability
59
 Angle Vice
 Angular adjustment on base to allow operator to drill holes at an angle
without tilting table
60
 V-Blocks
 Made of cast iron or hardened steel
 Used in pairs to support round work for drilling
61
 Step blocks
 Used to provide support for outer end of strap clamps
62
 Angle plate
 L-shaped piece of cast iron or hardened steel machined to accurate 90º may
be bolted or clamped to table
63
 Drill Jigs
 Used in production for drilling holes in large number of identical parts
 Eliminate need for laying out a hole location
64
Work Holding Devices
65
Boring
 In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been
drilled (or cast) by means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head
containing several such tools), such as in boring a gun barrel or an engine
cylinder.
 Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole, and can
be used to cut a tapered hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal-diameter
counterpart to turning, which cuts external diameters.
66
Boring Machine
Horizontal Boring Machine
 The work is supported on a table which is stationary and tool revolves in a
horizontal axis via also possible.
 Work piece which are heavier and asymmetrical can be easily held and
machined.
67
Boring Machine
The boring bar in this setup must be very stiff to avoid deflection and vibration during cutting. To
achieve high stiffness, boring bars are often made of cemented carbide, whose modulus of elasticity
approaches 620 x 103 MPa
68
Carbide boring bar
Boring Machine
 A horizontal boring machine can perform boring, reaming, turning, threadin
g, facing, milling, grooving and many other operations with suitable tools.
 Different types of horizontal boring machines have been designed to suit
different purposes.
69
Boring Machine
Horizontal Boring machine mechanism

 A table type machine has movements mentioned below :
 The head stock and the end supporting block may be moved up and down.
 The spindle may be rotated with the different speeds.
 The spindle may be moved in or out by hand or power for feeding.
 The saddle or table may be moved by hand or power.
 The columns may be moved by hand or power.
70
Boring Machine
Horizontal Boring machine mechanism
71
Boring Machine
Vertical Boring machine mechanism
72
Boring Machine
 Vertical Boring Machine:
 The work rotates on a horizontal table about a vertical axis and

the tool is stationary except for feed.
 Machine may look like a vertical lathe.
 Larger diameter and heavy work pieces, can be set up more

quickly than in lathe.
 Multiple tooling may be adapted with its turret type tool post, in
creasing the rate of production.
73
74
Boring Machine
Vertical Boring machine mechanism
 It is used for large, heavy workparts with large diameters; usually the
workparts diameter is greater than its length.
75
Boring Machine
 Vertical Boring Operation
76
Boring Machine
 Jig Boring Machine
 It uses a single point cutting tools to machine surfaces rapidly and accurately.
 Cemented carbide and diamond tipped tools are operated at a very high cutting s
peed to produce accurately sized holes with fine surface.
 Jig boring machine is a precision boring machine, resembles to vertical milling m
achine in construction.
 Accurate positioning of holes is achieved by Lead screw method or Mechanical / E
lectrical Gauging method or Optical measuring method.
77
Boring Machine
 Jig Boring Machine
78
79
Broaching
 It is a machining process for removal of a layer of material of desired width a
nd depth usually in one stroke by a slender rod or bar type cutter having a s
eries of cutting edges with gradually increased protrusion.
 In shaping, attaining full depth requires a number of strokes to remove the m
aterial in thin layers step – by – step by gradually in-feeding the single point
tool.
 Whereas, broaching enables remove the whole material in one stroke only by
the gradually rising teeth of the cutter called broach.
80
Broaching
81
Broaching
<Finishing hole by broaching>
82
Broaching
<Continuous broaching>
83
Nomenclature of Broach
 Both pull and push type broaches are made in the form of slender rods or bars of varying
section having along its length one or more rows of cutting teeth with increasing height
(and width occasionally).
 Push type broaches are subjected to compressive load and hence are made shorter in length to
avoid buckling.
 The general configuration of pull type broaches, which are widely used for enlarging and
finishing preformed holes.
<Pull type>
84
85
 Pull end for engaging the broach in the machine
 Neck of shorter diameter and length, where the broach is allowed to fail, if at all, under overloading
 Front pilot for initial locating the broach in the hole
 Roughing and finishing teeth for metal removal
 Finishing and burnishing teeth for fine finishing
 Rear pilot and follower rest or retriever
<Pull type>
86
Types of Broaching Machine
 According to purpose of use
– general purpose
– single purpose
– special purpose
 According to nature of work
– internal broaching
– external (surface) broaching
 According to configuration
– horizontal
– vertical
 According to number of slides or stations
– single station type
– multiple station type
– indexing type
 According to tool / work motion
– intermittent (one job at a time) type
– continuous type
87
Broaching Machine
 Major advantages
 Very high production rate (much higher than milling, planing, boring et
c.)
 High dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish of the product
 Roughing and finishing in single stroke of the same cutter
 Needs only one motion (cutting), so design, construction, operation an

d control are simpler
 Extremely suitable and economic for mass production
88
Broaching Machine
 Limitations
 Only through holes and surfaces can be machined
 Usable only for light cuts, i.e. low chip load and unhard materials
 Cutting speed cannot be high
 Defects or damages in the broach (cutting edges) severely affect product quality
 Design, manufacture and restoration of the broaches are difficult and expensive
 Separate broach has to be procured and used whenever size, shape and geomet
ry of the job changes
 Economic only when the production volume is large.
89
Bibliography
• www.youtube.com
90
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ManufacturingTechnology 15ME202

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Manufacturing

Dr. S. Murali Dr. Manidipto Mukherjee

Mikell P. Groover, “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing Materials,

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid “Manufacturing Engineering and

i) Design of the product

ii) Selection of raw materials and

iii) The sequence of processes through which the product will be

 Any Product in the engineering industry will be manufactured in the below

1. By totally deforming the metal to the required shape. (Casting /Forming)

2. By joining two metals. (Welding)

3. By removing the excess material from the raw stock.(Machining)

 Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is

usually poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the

desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.

known to human being.

 The casting process was discovered probably around 3500 BC in

 Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is

usually poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the

desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.

 The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or

broken out of the mould to complete the process.

 In casting, a pattern is a replica of the

object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity

into which molten material will be poured

during the casting process.

 The quality of the casting produced depends

upon the material of the pattern, its design,

the casting process.

 Patterns may be constructed from the following materials:

wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and

rubbers, wax, and resins.

 Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of

 Easily available, Low weight, Low cost

 It absorbs moisture and hence dimensions will change

 Used for mass production

 For maintaining closer dimensional tolerances on casting

 More life when compared to wooden patterns

 Used for prototype (single piece) castings

 Also known as Disposable patterns

 Do not absorb moisture

 Good corrosion resistance

 The pattern material should be

 Easily worked, shaped and joined

 Strong, hard and durable

 Resistant to wear and abrasion

 Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

 Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and

 Available at low cost

 Split piece pattern

 Loose piece pattern

 Match plate pattern

 Cope and Drag pattern

 Split piece pattern

 Match plate pattern

 Cope and Drag pattern

 Why are allowances necessary?

 Final dimensions of casting are different from pattern because of

 Draft (or) Taper Allowance

 Rapping (or) Shake Allowance

 Liquid shrinkage refers to reduction in volume when metal changes

from liquid to solid state. Riser are used to compensate this.

 Solid shrinkage refers to reduction in volume when metal loses

temperature in solid state. To compensate this shrinkage allowance is