DFM

CHAPTER -2: SELECTION AND

DESIGN OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESS

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2.1) Review of manufacturing processes
 By the end of this lecture, you will learn what are the
different types of manufacturing processes and
manufacturability of engineering materials.

Types of Manufacturing Processes

A different way of dividing manufacturing processes is to
classify them into three broad families:

 Primary processes take raw materials and create a shape.

 Secondary processes modify shape by adding features such
as keyways, screw threads, and grooves.
 Joining processes
 Finishing processes produce the final appearance and feel of
a product by processes such as coating, painting, or
polishing.
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The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into three
categories viz.
shaping, joining and finishing processes

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Shaping Processes
 The shaping processes are referred to those that use a certain raw
material and shape it to a final part.
 Casting, moulding, powder material processing, primary and
secondary material forming, machining

 Casting Processes
 Most of the manufactured parts start its journey with casting
process.
 The metal casting process involves three sequential steps :
 liquefying of metallic material by properly heating it in a
suitable furnace,
 pouring of hot molten metal into a previously made colder
mould cavity,
 extraction of the solidified cast from the mould cavity

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Casting is one of the oldest processes, but it is still preferred
over other processes due to several advantages listed below:
 It is economical with very little wastage. Even the extra
metal produced during each casting can be re-melted and
reused.
 It can produce parts with complex geometrical features
such as internal cavities, hollow sections with fair
dimensional accuracy.
 Casting can be used to make very small to extremely large
and complex parts.
 It is possible to cast metallic materials with very low to
reasonably high melting temperatures. Further, the
mechanical properties of a cast are usually isotropic.

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Classification of casting processes

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Figure : Typical mold setup for sand casting process

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 Bulk Deformation Processes
 Also called metal forming processes
 The deformation processes shape a final part by plastic
deformation with the application of pressure and with or
without the assistance of heat.

Figure: Schematic picture of (a) forging, (b) rolling, and (c)

extrusion processes 8
2.1) Design for Casting
Objectives: to outline
 various casting processes, several defects that appear in casting
and corresponding remedial measures, and general
recommendations to achieve a good quality casting
Casting Processes
 The flow of molten metal into the mold cavity depends on several
factors like minimum section thickness of the part, presence of
corners, non-uniform cross-section of the cast, and so on.
 The casting processes can be broadly classified into expendable
mold casting and permanent mold casting processes.

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Expendable Mold Casting
 Use temporary, non-reusable molds
 Are suitable for very complex shaped parts and materials
with high melting point temperature
 The rate of production is often limited by the time to make
mold rather than the casting itself.
Sand Casting
 Video
Shell molding
 Video

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 Investment casting
 Very high melting temperature material can be cast in
investment casting process because of the refractory mold
 Very high dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be
achieved
 the tooling cast is usually high and hence, and is primarily used
for large size batch production
 Vacuum Casting
 In this process, a mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded
over metal dies and cured with amino vapor.
 The molted metal is drawn into the mold cavity through a gating
system from the bottom of the mold

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 Plaster mold casting
 method of producing aluminum or zinc castings by pouring
liquid metal into typical plaster (gypsum) molds
 The plaster molds used as negative molds are created from
gypsum and water.
 Is often used for producing prototypes of final part or
component.

 Ceramic mold casting

 used to produce split molds from a quick-setting ceramic
investment

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Permanent Mold Casting processes
 Permanent mold casting processes involve the use of metallic dies
that are permanent in nature and can be used repeatedly
 The metal molds are also called dies and provide superior surface
finish and close tolerance than typical sand molds
 Pressures die casting
 The pressure die casting process is the most common for Al, Zn
and Mg castings (low melting point).
 Pressure die casting is suitable for large batch size production

Figure: Set-up of (a) hot-chamber and (b) cold-chamber die casting processes
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 Squeeze casting
 Molten metal is poured into a metallic mold or die cavity
with one half of the die squeezing the molten metal to fill in
the intended cavity under pressure

Figure: Schematic set-up of squeeze casting process

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 Centrifugal casting
 In centrifugal casting process, the molten metal poured at the
center of a rotating mold or die.
 For producing a hollow part, the axis of rotation is placed at
the center of the desired casting

Figure: Schematic set-up of horizontal centrifugal casting process

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 Continuous casting
 Continuous casting process is widely used in the steel industry
 In principle, continuous casting is different from the other casting
processes in the fact that there is no enclosed mold cavity. [ DkT]

Figure: Schematic set-up of continuous casting process

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Defects in Casting Processes
 A brief explanation of some of the significant defects
(especially in sand casting) and their possible remedial
measures are indicated
Shrinkage
 Shrinkage of molten metal as it solidifies is an important issue
in casting. It can reduce the 5-10% volume of the cast.
 Gray cast iron expands upon solidification due to phase
changes.
 Shrinkage defect can be reduced by decreasing the number of
walls and increasing the draft angle

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Figure: Schematic pictorial presentation of various casting defects
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Porosity
 Porosity is a phenomenon that occurs in materials, especially
castings, as they change state from liquid to solid during the
manufacturing process.
 Casting porosity has the form of surface and core imperfections
which either affects the surface finish or as a leak path for gases
and liquids.
 The poring temperature should be maintained properly to reduce
porosity
Hot tear
 Are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the
casting surface, caused by rapid contraction occurring
immediately after the metal solidified.
 Caused when the mold and core have poor collapsibility
 Incorrect pouring temperature and improper placement of gates
and risers can also create hot tears.
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 Method to prevent hot tears may entail improving the casting
design,
 achieving directional solidification and even rate of cooling all
over,
 selecting proper mold and poured materials to suit the cast
metal, and
 controlling the mold hardness in relation to other ingredients of
sand

Scar
 It is usually found on the flat casting surface.
 It is a shallow blow.

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Blowhole
 Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on
the surface of the casting.
 To prevent blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well
adjusted, sand of proper grain size should be used, ramming
should not be too hard and venting should be adequate.
Blister
 This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.
Dross
 The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface
is called the dross.
 It can be taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as
a strainer and a skim bob.
Dirt
 Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded
on the top surface of a casting.
 When removed, these leave small angular holes is known as
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dirts.
Wash
 It is a low projection on the drag surface of a casting
commencing near the gate.
 It is caused by the erosion of sand due to high velocity liquid
metal.
Buckle
 It refers to a long fairly shallow broad depression at the
surface of a casting of a high temperature metal.
 Due to very high temperature of the molten metal, expansion
of the thin layered of the sand at the mold face takes place.
 As this expansion is obstructed by the flux, the mold tends to
bulge out forming a V shape.
Rat tail
 It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting.
The cause is similar to buckle.

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Shift
 A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually
as a parting line.
 Misalignment is common cause of shift.
 This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment of the
pattern for die parts, molding boxes, and checking of pattern flux
locating pins before use.
Warped casting
 Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which occurs
during or after solidification.
 Large and flat sections are particularly prone to wrap edge.
 Wrap edge may also be due to insufficient gating system that
may not allow rapid pouring of metal or due to low green
strength of the sand mold or inadequate / inappropriate draft
allowance in the pattern / mold cavity.

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Metal Penetration and Rough Surfaces
 This defect appears as an uneven and rough external surface of
the casting.
 It may be caused when the sand has too high permeability,
large grain size, and low strength. Soft ramming may also
cause metal penetration.
Fin
 A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is
called a fin.
 Fins occur at the parting of the mold or core sections.
 Molds and cores in correctly assembled will cause the fin.
 High metal pressures due to too large downsprue, insufficient
weighing of the molds or improper clamping of flasks may
again produce the fin defect.

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Cold Shut and Mis-Run
 A cold shut is a defect in which a discontinuity is formed due
to the imperfect fusion of two streams of metal in the mold
cavity.
 The reasons for cold shut or mis-run may be too thin sections
and wall thickness, improper gating system, damaged
patterns, slow and intermittent pouring , poor fluidity of metal
caused by low pouring temperature, improper alloy
composition,
etc.

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Inspections of Casting
Visual inspection
 Visible defects that can be detected provide a means for
discovering errors in the pattern equipment or in the molding
and casting process.
 Visual inspection may prove inadequate only in the detection of
sub surface or internal defects.
Dimensional inspection
 Dimensional inspection is one of the important inspection for
casting.
 When precision casting is required, we make some samples for
inspection the tolerance, shape size and also measure the profile
of the cast. This dimensional inspection of casting may be
conducted by various methods:
• Standard measuring instruments to check the size of the cast.
• Contour gauges for the checking of profile, curves and shapes
• Coordinate measuring and Marking Machine
• Special fixtures 26
X-Ray Radiography
 In all the foundries the flaw detection test are performed in
the casting where the defects are not visible.
 This flaw detection test is usually performed for internal
defects, surface defects etc.
 The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy
(shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves
that we see as visible light.
 The radiation can come from an X-ray generator or a
radioactive source.

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Magnetic particle inspection
 This test is used to reveal the location of cracks that extend to
the surface of iron or steel castings, which are magnetic nature.
 The casting is first magnetized and then iron particles are
sprinkled all over the path of the magnetic field.
 The particles align themselves in the direction of the lines of
force.
 A discontinuity in the casting causes the lines of the force to
bypass the discontinuity and to concentrate around the
extremities of the defect.

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Fluorescent dye-penetration test
 This method is very simple and applied for all cast metals. It
entails applying a thin penetration oil-base dye to the surface
of the casting and allowing it to stand for some time so that
the oil passes into the cracks by means of capillary action.
 The oil is then thoroughly wiped and cleaned from the
surface.
 To detect the defects, the casting is pained with a coat of
whitewash or powdered with tale and then viewed under
ultraviolet light.
 The oil being fluorescent in nature, can be easily detect under
this light, and thus the defects are easily revealed.

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Design Recommendations for Casting
1. Compensate the shrinkage of the solidified molten metal by
making patterns of slightly oversize.
2. In sand casting, it is more economical and accurate if the parting
line is on a flat plane. Contoured parting lines are not economical.
Further, some degree of taper, or draft is recommended to provide to
the pattern for its easy removal. The recommended draft angles for
patters under various conditions are given
elsewhere

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3. In sand casting, it is recommended to attach the raiser near to the
heavier section. The thinnest sections are farthest from the raiser and
solidify first and then the solidification proceeds toward the direction
of raiser i.e. towards the heavier section. (fig c)

4. Sharp corners in a casting design cause uneven cooling and lead to

formation of hot spots in the final cast structure. Moreover sharp
corner in a casting structure acts as a stress raiser. Rounding the
corner decreases the severity of the hot spot and lessens the stress
concentration (fig d).

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5. Abrupt changes in sections should be avoided. Fillets and tapers
are preferable to sharp steps [Figure:(e)].
6. The interior walls and sections are recommended to be 20%
thinner than the outside members to reduce the thermal and residual
stresses, and metallurgical changes [Figure:(f)].
7. When a hole is placed in a highly stressed section, add extra
material around the hole as reinforcement [Figure:(g)].

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8. To minimize the residual stresses in the gear, pulley or wheel
casting, a balance between the section size of the rim, spokes and
hub is maintained [Figure: (h)].

9. An odd number of curved wheel spokes reduce cast-in-residual

stresses [Figure:(i)].

10. Similar to sand casting, permanent mold castings also require

draft for the easy withdrawal of the casting from the mold. The
recommended draft angles are given elsewhere.

11. Due to pattern shrinkage, investment shrinkage and metal

shrinkage during solidification, there is always a tendency for an
investment part to “dish” (develop concave surfaces where flat
surfaces are specified). This condition takes place in areas of thick
cross section. Dishing is minimized by designing parts with
uniformly thin walls [Figure (j)].
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12. When keys and keyways are required, the recommended ratio
of width to depth is 1.0 or more. The minimum castable key width
is 2.3 mm for ferrous metals and 1.5 mm for nonferrous metals
[Figure below].

Figure: The recommended casting design for key and key ways
for (a) ferrous metal, (b) non ferrous metal
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13. Heavy bosses connecting to the surface can cause “sinks” due to
the shrinkage of the large mass of the metal in the boss during
cooling. This shrinkage problem can be reduced by moving the boss
away from the surface and connecting it to the surface with a short
rib [Figure below].

Figure: The recommended cast design to avoid surface shrink

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2.2) Design for Bulk Deformation Processes
 You are expected to learn the working principle of
bulk deformation processes and
 the factors to be considered in the selection and design
of a bulk deformation process.
 How careful design can improve the quality of the
final product.

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What is Bulk Deformation?

 Metal forming operations which cause significant shape

change by plastic deformation in metallic parts
 In most of the cases cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular
billets and slabs, and similar shapes are the initial shapes
which are plastically deformed in cold, hot conditions into a
desired shape.
 Complex shapes with good mechanical properties can be
produced by bulk deformation processes.
 There are around 4 common types

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A. Forging
 Is the process by which a metallic part is deformed to a final
shape with the application of pressure and with or without the
application of heat.
 Forging processes can broadly be classified as follows.
 Open Die Forging
 The workpiece is compressed between two flat dies
facilitating lateral flow of material without constraint,

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 Impression Die Forging
 The workpiece is compressed between two dies with a cavity
or impression that is imparted to the workpiece.
 The metal flow is constrained within the impression of the dies.
However, the excess material remains as flash.

 Flashless Forging
 This is an improved version of Impression-die forging process.
 The initial volume of the workpiece is carefully taken so that
no excess flash is produced.

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Major advantages of forging processes:
1) It improves the structure as well as mechanical properties of the
metallic parts.

2) Forging facilitates orientation of grains in a desired direction to

improve the mechanical properties.

3) Forged parts are consistent in shape with the minimum presence

of voids and porosities.

4) Forging can produce parts with high strength to weight ratio.

5) Forging processes are very economical for moderate to high

volume productions.

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Defects in Forging
 Though forging process provides good quality products
compared to other manufacturing processes, some defects that
are lightly to come if proper care is not taken in forging process
design.

 Unfilled Section
 This defect refers to localized unfilled portion within the die
cavity due to improper design of the forging die or
inappropriate selection of the forging technique.

 Cold Shut
 Cold shut appears as small cracks at the corners of the forged
part that is caused primarily due to very tight fillet radii that
inhibit smooth material flow towards the corner of the die.
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 Scale Pits
 Scale pits are seen as irregular deputations on the surface of the
forging that is caused primarily due to improper cleaning of the
stock used for forging.
 The oxide and scale gets embedded into the finish forging
surface. When the forging is cleaned by pickling, these are seen
as deputations on the forging surface.
Die shift: is caused by the misalignment of the top and the bottom
dies making the two halves of the forging to be improper shape.
Flakes: are basically internal ruptures caused by the improper
cooling of the large forging.
Rapid cooling causes the exterior to cool quickly causing internal
fractures. Remedied by following proper cooling practices.
Improper Grain Flow
Is primarily caused by the improper design of the die that induces
material flow in an inappropriate manner leading to various defects.
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B) Rolling
 Is a forming operation where cylindrical rolls are used to reduce
the cross sectional area of a bar or plate with a corresponding
increase in the length.
 Rolling process is widely used because of high productivity.
 Are broadly classified by the geometry of the final rolled shape of
the workpiece material
Flat rolling that is used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross-
section
Shape rolling that is used to produce shaped sections such as I-
Beam from a square or rectangular cross-section

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 Rolling processes are performed both at high temperature
(Hot Rolling), as well as at room temperature (Cold
Rolling).
 Hot Rolling is usually performed when large amount of
deformation is required
 Cold Rolling is performed for finished sheet and plate stock.
 Due to high tooling cost, it is economical for large batch
size only

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Defects in Rolling
 The defects in rolling can be classified as (a) surface defects, and
(b) structural defects.
 The surface defects include rusting and scaling, scratches and
cracks on the surface, pits left on the surface due to subsequent
detachment or removal of scales.
 The structural defects are more important rolling defects some of
which are difficult to remove.
Some common structural defects in rolling are as follows.
Wavy edges and zipper cracks
These defects are caused due to bending of rolls under the rolling
pressure [Figure below].

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Edge cracks and centre split
These defects are caused due to non-homogeneous plastic
deformation of metal across the width [Figure below].

Alligatoring
Due to friction present between the roll surface and the upper or
lower workpiece surface [Figure below].

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C) Extrusion
 Is the process in which the workpiece material is forced to flow
through a die opening by applying compressive force to produce
a desired cross-sectional shape.
 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform
cross-sections.
 Direct and Indirect extrusions are two commonly used extrusion
processes.
 Extrusion processes are also classified as hot and cold extrusion.

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Following are some of the basic advantages of extrusion processes.
1) Extrusion can produce variety of shapes with uniform cross-
section.
2) The grain structure and mechanical strength of workpiece
material are improved in cold and warm extrusion processes.
3) Cold extrusion can provide close tolerances.
4) Wastage of material is the minimized
5) Extrusion can be performed even for relatively brittle
materials.

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Defects in Extrusion
 Surface cracking
 Occurs when the surface of an extrusion splits, which is often
caused by the extrusion temperature, friction, or speed being too
high.
 Internal cracking
 Occurs when the centre of the extrusion develops cracks or
voids.
 Pipe
 Is the flow pattern that draws the surface oxides and impurities
to the centre of the product.
 Caused by high friction or cooling of the outer regions of the
billet.
 Surface lines
 Lines visible on the surface of the extruded profile.

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D) Wire and Tube Drawing
 Wire drawing is used to reduce the cross-section of a wire by
pulling the wire through a single, or series of, drawing die(s).
 Although similar in process, drawing is different from extrusion,
because in drawing the wire is pulled, rather than pushed,
through the die.
 The concept of tube drawing is similar to wire drawing, but in
this case tube is sized by shrinking a large diameter tube into a
smaller one, by drawing the tube through a die.

Figure: Schematic set-ups of (a) Wire Drawing and (b) Tube Drawing
 Defects in drawing process are similar to those observed in
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extrusion
Design for Bulk Deformation Processes
 Besides several advantages, these metal forming processes can
also lead to undesirable defects in the processed parts.
 Defects can be avoided by proper design of the parts as well as by
the appropriate selection of the process parameters.
 For example, depths of impression, draft allowance, minimum
web thickness of the parts are some of the critical issues
associated with typical forging operations.
Case 1: Depth of Impression
The preferred orientation of the part would avoid deep impression
that would require high forging pressure for the complete filling and
might lead to die breakages.

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Case 2: Draft Angle
 Similar to the pattern making in casting, draft angle is also an
important factor in forging process.
 Draft allowance is required to facilitate proper material flow
inside the die and also to eject the finished part from the die.

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Case 3: Fillet Radius
 The fillet is necessary to avoid typical forging defects such as
fold and cold shut that are originated due to inadequate material
flow.
 For example, a tight fillet radius prevents smooth material flow
around the same that may also damage the die.
 Figure (b) depicts typical recommended values of minimum fillet
radius with the increase in rib height

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Case 4: Roll Deflection
 Deflection of rolls is a major issue in rolling.
 If perfectly cylindrical rolls are used, they will bend under load
which results in a barrel shaped product.
 To overcome this problem, the rolls are designed with crowns
[Figure below] to compensate the deflection in the rolled
plates.

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2.4) Design for Sheet Metal Forming Processes
Objective:
 You will learn the principles of several sheet metal forming
processes and measures to be taken during these process to
avoid various defects.
Sheet Metal Forming Processes
 Sheet metals are widely used for industrial and consumer parts
because of its capacity for being bent and formed into intricate
shapes.
 Applications: automotive, agricultural machinery, and aircraft
components as well as consumer appliances.
 Factors in successful sheet metal forming operation are selection
of a material with adequate formability, appropriate tooling and
design of part, the surface condition of the sheet material, proper
lubricants, and the process conditions such as the speed of the
forming operation, forces to be applied, etc.
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Shearing
 Irrespective of the size of the part to be produced, the first step
involves cutting the sheet into appropriate shape
 which includes stamping, blanking, punching

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Bending
 Bending is the operation of deforming a flat sheet around a
straight axis where the neutral plane lies.
 It is a very common forming process for changing the sheets and
plates into channel, drums, tanks, etc.

Figure: set-up of (a) air vee bending, and (b) die bending

 Spring back: a major problem during bending of sheets that

occurs due to elastic recovery –how can we correct this?
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Stretch Forming
 It is a method of producing contours in sheet metal.
 The die design for stretch forming is very crucial to avoid defects
such as excessive thinning and tearing of the formed part.
 The stretch forming process is extensively used for producing
complex contours in aircraft and automotive parts.

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Deep Drawing
 Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a
sheet metal blank is radially drawn into a forming die by the
mechanical action of a punch.

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 The metal flow during deep drawing is extensive and hence,
requires careful administration to avoid tearing or fracture and
wrinkle.
 Following are a few key issues affecting metal flow and each of
them should be considered when designing sheet metal deep
drawing stamping tools.
 Type of material used (should be ductile) and its thickness
 Tool surface finish and use of Lubricant
 important to reduce the friction between the tool surfaces and
metal being drawn
 Die temperatures can affect the viscosity of the lubricants.
 Blank size and shape
 Blank that are too large can restrict metal flow.
 The geometry of parts can also affect the ability of metal to
flow during deep drawing process.

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 Blank Holding Force
 Control of BHF enables control of friction on the flange
and significantly influences the quality of drawn part.
 Greater blank holding force may lead to tearing of the
flange while inadequate blank holding force may lead to
wrinkling of the flanges.
 Punching speed
 Sufficient punching speed allows time for materials to flow
through the tool.
 Corner cracking will always occur if press speed is tool fast
in deep drawing process.
 Draw radius
 Radius on the draw die where the material flows through
should be optimum.

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Hydroforming
Hydroforming is a specialized type of die forming that uses
pressurized hydraulic fluid to form typical metallic sheets in to a
desired shape with a die cavity.

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Design for Sheet Metal Forming
Design of sheet metal components should be such that it would
minimize scrap loss and die cost, and improve efficiency.

Figure Changes in design to minimize scrap loss in blanking

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2.5) Design for Machining
By the end of this lecture, you will learn
 What are the different machining processes and their
applications,
 Advantages, disadvantages and design guidelines of parts for
machining,
 Concept and definition of machinability, and how to improve
the same.

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Definition
 Machining is the manufacturing process by which parts can be
produced to the desired dimensions and surface finish from a
blank by gradual removal of the excess material in the form of
chips with the help of a sharp cutting tool.

 Almost 90% of all engineering components are subjected to

some kind of machining during manufacture.

 It is very important to design those parts in such a way that

would lead to increase in efficiency of the machining process,
enhancement of the tool life and reduction of the overall cost
of machining.

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Major Machining Processes

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Turning
 Turning is the most important machining process and can
produce a wide variety of parts.
 Primarily, turning is used to produce parts cylindrical in shape
by a single point cutting tool on lathes.
 The primary motion of cutting in turning is the rotation of the
workpiece, and the secondary motion of cutting is the feed
motion.

Different types of turning

 Straight turning is used to reduce the cylindrical diameter of a
part to a desired dimension (Fig: a).
 Contour turning and Taper turning (Fig: b) are performed by
employing a complex feed motion using special attachments to a
single point turning tool thus creating a contoured shape on the
workpiece
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Facing (Fig: c): tool is fed radially to create a flat machined surface.
Thread cutting (Fig: d)
Form turning (Fig: e)very complex and expensive cutting tool
Boring (Fig: f) is similar to straight turning operation but differs in
the fact that it can produce internal surface of revolution

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Milling
 Milling is a process of producing flat and complex shapes with the
use of multi-point (or multi-tooth) cutting tool.
 The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the
direction of feed, either parallel or perpendicular to the machined
surface.
 Two basic types: down milling (a), and up milling (b)

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Other milling operations
 Peripheral milling (Figure: a), also referred to as plain milling
 Face milling (Figure: b),
 Form milling (Figure: c),
 Surface contouring (Figure: d)

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Drilling
Drilling is a process of producing round holes in a solid material or
enlarging existing holes with the use of multi-point cutting tools
called drills or drill bits.

Figure: Different Types of Drilling Operations

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Planning, Shaping and Broaching
 Planning and shaping (Figure below) are similar operations,
which differ only in the kinematics of the process.

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Grinding
Grinding (Figure below) is the most popular form of abrasive
machining

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Non Traditional Machining Processes
characteristics:
 Conventional/traditional processes
 generally involve a wedge shaped and harder cutting tool to
remove material in the form of chip by causing plastic
deformation and shear failure.
 Non-traditional (advanced) processes
 Material removal may occur with or without the
conventional chip formation,
 A physical cutting tool may not always be present
 The tool material needs not be harder than the workpiece
material.
 Do not necessarily use mechanical energy and rather
different other forms of energy for material removal.

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Abrasive Jet Machining
AJM process involves impinging of fine abrasive particles on the
work material at a very high velocity causing small fracture on the
workpiece surface on impact.
The jet velocity is in the range of 150-300 m/s and the applied
pressure can range from 2-10 times of atmospheric pressure.

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Ultrasonic Machining
 In UM, a tool of desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic
frequency (19 ~ 25 kHz) with an amplitude of around 15 – 50μm
over the workpiece.
 The tool is pressed downward with a feed force and the
machining zone is flooded with hard abrasive particles generally
in the form of water based slurry.
 Used for very accurate machining of hard and brittle metallic
alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides, wire drawing
and punching dies, etc

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Laser and Electron Beam Machining
 LBM uses the light energy from a laser (carbon dioxide (CO2)
gas lasers, solid lasers (Nd-YAG) ) to remove material by
vaporization and ablation
 EBM uses a high-velocity stream of electrons focused on the
work piece surface to remove material by melting and
vaporization.

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Design for Machining
Machinability: referred to
 the ability of the work material to be machined,
 how easily and fast a material can be machined
 Quantified/measured in terms of:
(a) tool life which substantially influences productivity and
economy in machining,
(b) magnitude of cutting forces which affects power consumption
and dimensional accuracy, and
(c) surface finish, which plays role on performance and service
life of the product.
 For example, cast iron is often considered more machinable than
aluminium.
 Application of cutting fluid improves machinability
 improving tool life by cooling and lubrication,
 reducing cutting forces and specific energy consumption, and
 Improving surface integrity
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Selection of Machining Parameters
Three most important factors to be considered to maximize
production rate and minimize overall cost
 Cutting speed: affects production rate and tool life
 Feed
 Depth of cut
To maximize the production rate, the total production time has to be
minimized

Where, Th: part handling time,

Tm: machining time per part,
Tt: tool change time per part
np: number of pieces cut in one tool life

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Guide Lines for Designing Parts
 Machined features such as sharp corners, edges, and points should
be avoided
 Select materials with good machinability
 Machined parts should be designed from standard stock sizes
 Design machined parts with features that can be produced in a
minimum number of setups

Figure: Through holes need less number of setup

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 Avoid unusual hole sizes, threads, and features requiring special
form tools.
 Reduce volume of material to be removed thus reducing
machining time.
 Use large tolerances and surface roughness that will allow higher
material removal rate
 Reduce surface area to be machined.
 Reduce tool path length
 Design the part in such a way that reduces setup, reorientation
time thus reducing total operation time

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 Minimize the use of different machine for a single part

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2.6) Design for Powder Metallurgy
Objective: We will learn the basic principles of Powder Metallurgy
processes and the critical issues to be considered during design of
parts to be manufactured using Powder Metallurgy processes/

Powder metallurgy is the process of

 blending fine powdered materials,
 compacting the same into a desired shape or form inside a mould
 Sintering: heating of the compacted powder in a controlled
atmosphere, to facilitate the formation of bonding of the powder
particles to form the final part.

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Design for Powder Metallurgy
Several design rules must be considered to make parts efficiently
and economically by the powder metallurgy process:
 The design must be such that the part can be ejected from the
mould or die. Parts with straight wall are preferred.

 In designing the part, thin walls, narrow splines, or sharp corner

should be avoided to flow properly into all parts of the mould
 Dies and punches should have no sharp edges. Reasonable
clearance must be provided between the top and the bottom dies
during pressing.

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 Since pressure is not transmitted uniformly through a deep bed of
powder, the length of the part should not exceed about two and
half times of the diameter.
 Very close tolerance in the direction of compression should be
avoided.
 Shape of the parts should be kept as simple as possible and
should contain with few levels and axial variation. Holes should
not be designed in the direction of pressing

 As far as possible, abrupt changes in the section thickness should

be avoided

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Design for Polymer Processing
Objective: We will get a basic introduction to polymer structure
and various processing of polymers, and the factors to be
considered during design for polymer processing.

 Polymers are natural or synthetic resins or their compound

which can be molded, extended, cast or used as films or
coatings.
 Naturally occurring polymers – those derived from plants and
animals – are in use for many centuries; these materials include
wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, and silk.
 The synthetics can be produced inexpensively, and their
properties may be managed to the degree that many are
superior to their natural counterparts.
 In many applications, metal and wood parts are replaced by
plastics, which have satisfactory properties, longer durability
and can be produced at a lower cost.
Classification
Polymers are most commonly classified as (a) thermoplastics and
(b) thermosetting polymer.

Thermoplastic Materials
 The polymeric materials which soften on the application of heat
with or without pressure, but require cooling to set them to
shape are called Thermoplastic Materials.
 These can be heated and cooled any number of times, but
should not be heated above the decomposition temperature.

 These polymers are characterized with low melting temperature

and lesser strength compared to the thermo setting plastic.
 Some important thermoplastic materials are Polythene,
Polyvinyl chloride, Polystyrene etc.
Thermosetting Materials
 Polymers which require heat and pressure to mold them into
shape and become permanently hard during shaping are called
Thermosetting Materials
 These materials cannot be re-softened once they are set and
hardened.

 Thermosetting polymers typically include cross-linked molecular

chains and hence, are ideal for making components which
require rigidity, strength and resistance to heat.
 Due to cross linking, thermosetting polymers are hard, tough,
non-swelling and brittle, and cannot be softened and remolded as
thermoplastic materials.
 Some important thermoplastic materials are Phenol
Formaldehyde, Epoxy Resins, and Polyesters etc.
Molecular Structure
 The physical characteristics of a polymer depend not only on its
molecular weight and shape but also on differences in the
structure of the molecular chains.
 Several types of molecular structure are possible and can be
controlled over various structural possibilities.
Linear polymers
 The linear polymers are those in which repetitive molecular units
are joined together end to end in single chains.
 These long chains are flexible with extensive van der Waals and
hydrogen bonding between the chains.
 Some of the common polymers that form with linear structures
are polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon, and the fluorocarbons.
Branched Polymers
 These polymers are characterized by side-branch chains that are
connected to the main ones, as indicated schematically in fig
below
 The branches may result from side reactions that occur during the
synthesis of the polymer.
 The chain packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side
branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer density.
Examples: glycogen and starch
Cross-linked Polymers
These polymers are characterized with adjacent linear chains that are
joined one to another at various positions by covalent bonds, as
represented in Figure below. Cross linking is done during synthesis
or by a non-reversible chemical reaction. Often, this crosslinking is
accomplished by additive atoms or molecules that are covalently
bonded to the chains.
Network Polymers
These polymers are formed when multifunctional monomers
forming three or more active covalent bonds, make three-
dimensional networks. A polymer that is highly cross linked may
also be classified as a network polymer. These materials have
distinctive mechanical and thermal properties. The epoxies,
polyurethanes and phenol-formaldehyde belong to this group of
polymers
Processing methods of Polymers and Design Guidelines
Manufacturing process used with polymers take advantage of the
unique visco-plastic flow properties of polymers.
The common production process is given below.
Injection Molding
In this process, plastic granules are heated and forced under
pressure into a die cavity of desired shape. This process is well
suited for producing true three-dimensional shapes such as bottles,
toys etc, which require fine details like holes, snaps and surface
details.
 Design for gating and feed system for the die is crucial to ensure
complete die fill. For large part more than one gate may be
required for proper flow of material.

 Mold must be designed in such a way that the solid part can be
ejected without distortion. By considering proper orientation at
the beginning, it may be possible to avoid expensive mold cost.

 To minimize the shrinkage fillers like glass fiber, wood flour, are
added during molding.
Extrusion
 Extrusion is one of the few continuous plastic processes, which
is used to produce sheet, film, long length with a profiled cross
section and fiber.
 The chief concern with extrusion of polymers is the die swell
and the orientation.
 In die swell, the extrudate swells to a size greater than the die
from which it just exited.
Blow Molding
 In blow molding, a hot tube of plastic material is placed between
two halves of the mold.
 The mold is then closed and air or inert gas is blown at a
pressure of 20 – 40 MPa which expands the hot tube outward to
fill the mold cavity
 The part cools, hardened and is ejected from mold.
 The process produces a part that is dimensionally defined on its
external dimension.
 The blow molding process is very fast and can produce part very
economically.
Compression Molding
 In this technique, a preform of a typical polymer is placed in a
heated mold cavity and a plunger applies pressure to force the
polymer to fill the mold cavity.
 The material is then allowed to cure and ejected from the mold.
 As the amount of flow is much lesser than the same used in
injection molding, the level of residual stress in the part is low.
 Parts made in this way would have sprues and runners which
must be trimmed.
Thermoforming
 Thermoforming refers to heating a sheet of plastic material until
it becomes soft and flexible and then forming it either by
vacuum, by air pressure or between matching mold halves.
 A sheet of thermoplastic material is placed over a die and
heated until it becomes soft.
 A vacuum is then created inside the die cavity which draws
down the heated plastic sheet into the shape of the die.
 The material is then cooled, the vacuum is released and the
final product is taken out.
Design Issues in Polymer Processing
 The minimum wall thickness is the most important design
feature of any plastic part. The wall thickness should not vary
greatly. The nominal wall thickness will vary from about 0.4 –
4.0 mm.
 The typical projections from a molded wall are ribs, webs and
bosses. These should be designed properly to endure proper
mold filling.
 It is important to design as many feature, such as pilot holes,
countersinks, snap fits, living hinges rather than adding them as
secondary operations.
 Part design and process selection affect the residual stresses in
the part. These stresses arise from inhomogeneous flow as
polymer molecules flow through the passages of the mold.
Lower stress leads to better dimensional stability.
Co-selection of Materials and Processes
By the end of this lecture, the student will learn
 how to categorise various manufacturing processes
depending on materials, shape and requisite dimensional
tolerances, etc.
 how to choose the most suitable manufacturing process for a
given part and material,
Fig: Schematic flow chart of the procedure for process selection
Selection charts
 Each manufacturing process can be characterized by a set of
attributes similar to what have been illustrated for materials in the
earlier lectures.
 Process-Material matrix: Fig: belowrepresents a typical process-
material matrix indicating the general compatibility between
manufacturing process and engineering material.
Process-Shape matrix:
 Figure below presents a broad classification of different shapes
that are commonly encountered in product design.
 Various manufacturing processes are capable of making these
shapes.
 For example, a typical turning operation creates axisymmetric
shapes while extrusion, drawing and rolling make prismatic
shapes – both circular and non-circular. The sheet forming
processes can make flat or dished shapes.

Figure: General classification of shapes

Figure: Process–Shape matrix with the dot indicating a
compatibility between the shape and the corresponding
manufacturing process
Process-Mass bar-chart: Figure below shows the typical mass-range
of components that each process can make. Large components can be
built up by joining smaller ones. For this reason the ranges associated
with joining are shown in the lower part of Figure below.
Process-Section thickness bar-chart: The selection of a
manufacturing process also depends on the section thickness of the
part to be made. Each process has its limit over the range of the
section thickness, which it can produce.
Process – Dimensional Tolerance bar-charts:
 Tolerance and surface roughness that a specific manufacturing
process can provide is an important characteristic.
 Manufacturing processes vary in the levels of tolerance and
roughness they can achieve economically.
 Figures 1 and 2 show the process vis-à-vis range of achievable
dimensional tolerance and the process vis-à-vis range of
minimum achievable surface roughness bar charts, respectively.
 For example, die casting process with the permanent metallic
dies can give better surface finish compared to the same
achievable in sand casting.
 Machining is capable of delivering high dimensional accuracy
and surface finish when the process parameters are controlled
properly.
 Grinding can be adopted to achieve very high tolerance while
such precision and finishing operations are generally expensive.
Figure:Process – Tolerance Limit bar chart indicating compatibility
between the manufacturing process and tolerance limit
Figure:Process – Surface roughness Limit bar chart indicating
compatibility between the manufacturing process and minimum
surface roughness limit
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