Traditional Settlement Patterns and Management of Resources - Prehistoric Settlements of India - Aparna Rao C

Traditional
T di io l
Settlement
Patterns
and
Management
a age e t
of Resources
Prehistoric Settlements in India
Traditional Settlement Patterns
&
Management of Resources
Prehistoric Settlements in India
Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | LA 8107 | Dept. of Landscape Architecture | CEPT University

DEPARTMENT OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE
CEPT UNIVERSITY
AHMEDABAD
This is to certify that the seminar titled
“ Traditional Settlement Patterns
and
Management of Resources ”
has been submitted by Aparna Rao C
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Masters Degree in Landscape Architecture.
This is a Bonafide work by the student and has not been
submitted to any University / Institution for award of any
Degree / Diploma
Degree / Diploma.
Prof. Prabhakar.B. Bhagwat Dr. Deepa Maheshwari

(HOD, Dept. of Landscape Architecture) (Dept. of Landscape Architecture)
Traditional Settlement Patterns & Management of Resources
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me this

possibility to complete and compile this seminar.
First and foremost, I would like to thank Prof.Prabhakar Bhagwat

for his continuous support and guidance in suggesting and making
me comprehend the facets of this topic. I have known him as a
sympathetic and a principle‐centred person.
person His enthusiasm,
enthusiasm
integral view and his dictum of ‘high quality work’ have made a
deep impression on me. I owe him lots of gratitude for showing
me this approach and for providing me with invaluable
propositions and critical comments. I am glad to have known him,
for being more than a Professor, an excellent guide and a
philosopher.
Secondly, I would like to thank Prof.Deepa Maheshwari for her

timely clarifications and precise comments on the subject which
came in very handy at times of ambiguity.
Further, this note would be incomplete without the mention of

Nishita, Deepanwita and Siddhi for we had some elaborate
brainstorming sessions as we shared similar lines of thought.
Also, Shailasri, Supriya, Lakshmi, Harsh, Ravi, Vijay and Krishna for
their support and cheer throughout the process and for putting up
with all my tantrums.
Last but not the least, thank you Mom and Dad, for, this wouldn’t
have been ppossible without yyou.
Aparna Rao C
• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 1

Preface
Much can be inferred about the culture and world‐view of people

by careful study and analysis of their settlement patterns – how
the patterns emerge out of the landscape and how they construct
and organize their built environment to suit their needs is the
reason to explore.
How natural resources become the basis of the settlement and

what are the driving factors that trigger the development.
One can carefully look at the spatial distribution of buildings on

the landscape, the relative concentration of population in a
center, the emphasis given to certain specialized structures over
others,
th th relationships
the l ti hi providedid d between
b t andd within
ithi personall
living spaces, the relationships between personal living spaces and
public domains, and the comparative balance between private and
public projects, the presence of distinct morpho‐cultural forms
and exacting patterns or images, the definition in the zoning of
interior settlement space, the specific geometric patterns used in
design and layout, the degree to which the settlement is
integrated within the local ecology,
ecology including the relative
segregation of agriculture and other land uses, the functional use
of flow patterns and nodes, the compactness of the settlement
and the presence or absence of distinct perimeters, etc.
A human settlement can be interpreted as an indication of how

the inhabitants view their particular place in the world; or more
inclusively the nature of the built environment as an outcome of
inclusively,
the natural lay of land and the resources it supplies.
What did these settlements patterns arise from , are these

patterns in response to the natural environment or are they just
human expressions that have no congruence with the
surroundings?
In the present scenario, where the nature of these patterns seems

to be changing, where the parcels of agricultural lands are
transformed into hard edged plots for concrete developments, the
patterns remain to be the same but the ecological problems are
multiplied and lead to a widespread environmental degradation.
This study tries to focus on the type of traditional village

settlement patterns in response to the natural resources and
environment around them.

Contents
1. Introduction
2
2. O i i off Man
Origin M
3. Earth and Man-Made world
4. Prehistoric Migration
4.1 Hunters – Gatherers
4.2 Inferences Regarding Migration
5. Agriculture : Basis of Settlements
5.1 Incidence of Agriculture
5 2 Human Colonization
5.2
5. Evolutionary Model towards Agriculture
6. Geographic Conditions for Human Settlements
7. Prehistoric Colonization in India
Lower Paleolithic
9. Response to Natural resources
Chronological Developments in Stone Age.
10
10. Paleolithic cultures in India
10.1 The Anatomically Modern Man in India

Middle and Upper Paleolithic
10.2 Timeline of Paleolithic Cultures in India
10.3 Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh
11. Mesolithic Cultures in India

Contents
12. Neolithic Cultures in India
12.1 Central and Eastern India
12.2 Northern and Southern India
12.3 Early Settlements : Mesopotamia
12.4 Early Indus Civilization
13. Farming communities outside zone of Indus

civilization.
13.1 Deccan Chalcolithic and South Indian Neolithic
13.2 Post – Harappan Cultures in India
13.3 Ganges Neolithic and Chalcolithic
13.4 Inamgaon
14. Bibliography

Introduction | 1
Source : http://mrkash.com/images/homosapien.jpg
There are three main associations between man and his

environment which happen to be for Food, Shelter and Protection.
He inhabited lands which happened to be rich in Bio‐diversity and

Natural Resources and supported congenial conditions for
survival.
He followed animal migration routes and migrated out of Africa as

the conditions started to deteriorate at around 80,000 years ago.
Man, a puny, weak animal, due to continuous genetic mutations

developed a greater brain mass and intelligence and discovered
methods of modifying and controlling Nature at his will. It is this
confidence of growing food at his will that revolutionized the
process of development. Settlements are a result of Agriculture,
which in turn is a result of availability of Natural Resources.
Agriculture to Settlements, to Civilizations, to Fortifications, to
Power and Culture, everything is a result of Man’s response to the
Natural Resources.
This study tries to focus and sketch the settlement patterns in

response to the Natural Resources available through the
Prehistoric traditions.

Origin of Man | 2
Origin of the Man is still under investigation, but the studies
suggest that modern Man, Homo sapiens probably appeared
about 2,00,000 B.C. in Africa. The early man sought for shelter
from the elements of nature and from the wild beasts.
Man’s association with the environment has been economic in
nature from times unknown.
A recent study revealed and repeatedly confirmed that the modern

man evolved in Africa about 200,000 years ago. By analyzing DNA
in living human population, geneticists could trace lineages
backward in time. By studying the mitochondrial DNA which is
inherited only from the mother and the mutations carried over in
subsequent generations, scientists have been able to trace the
evolutionary
l ti t k A woman existed
trunk. i t d 200,000
200 000 years ago whose
h
mitochondrial DNA was the source of mitochondrial DNA in every
person alive today. Scientist’s named her Eve, and she is the most
recent ancestor known who lived in Africa.
Current view of the temporal and geographical distribution of

hominid populations. Other interpretations differ mainly in
th taxonomy
the t andd geographical
hi l distribution
di t ib ti
Source : The Origin of Humankind, Science Masters Series.
Source : www.ramsdale.org/dna7.htm New York, NY : Basic Books.

Man’s Family Tree

Source : The Dawn of Civilization, Stuart Piggott, Thames and Hudson Limited, London, 1961

Earth and Man‐Made World | 3
Soil, water, vegetation, energy – sun, and climate are the five
basic Natural Resources available to man from the Nature. The
modification and management of these natural resources
supports the man‐made environment. Water has always played an
important role to anchor human settlements right from pre‐
g the modern ages.
historic times through g
Even before man began to settle down i.e. when he led a nomadic
life, he traveled and explored stretches of land along the water
resources, may it be small streams, rivers or lakes.
Utilization, Exploitation and Management of these natural

resources has been p practiced from the p
pre‐historic times, ever
since man evolved on this planet. The relationship between the
Neanderthal Man, Paintings by Charles R Knight. Natural Resources and Man is closely knit and is in a continuous
Source : www.fi.edu/learn/brain/fats.html shift. Natural resources have been an impetus for man to settle
and thrive.
A continuing pattern of culture beliefs or practices is known as

tradition. Tradition is carried over through ages either by oral
communication or by written history.
How does one understand the relationship between the nature

and the man‐made world? How did man relate to his surrounds
and hence modify and maneuver it to suit his needs?
What was the point at which man decided to settle down and live
a societal life?
Examining the Settlement Patterns makes the above thought

more lucid. Tracing a path right from man’s nomadic history
through to the birth of settlements is essential to throw light upon
the Management of Natural Resources.
The idea is to explore and interpret the very basis of the

Settlement Patterns and also the manner in which man chose to
Neanderthal Man, Paintings by Charles R Knight.
settle down in congruence with the natural resource available.
Source : www.fi.edu/learn/brain/fats.html

Prehistoric Migration | 4
P hi
Prehistoric
i Migration
Mi i
Major climatic fluctuations accompanied by the earth’s

movements during the Paleolithic age led to different cold, dry
and warm zones which made man migrate widely in search of
food.
( Migration Routes : Plate 1 and Plate 2 )
Africa supported a wide variety of vegetation and animal life due

to suitable climate. It was a lush, tropical lake country and
supported a congenial living habitat for hominids. Many such
An illustration depicting the migration of nomads places are dry today .
along the water courses.
Source:http://www.backpackers.org.yu/beosonic/otkrij There were three prime reasons of concern to him, food, shelter
tesrbiju/lepenski
j p _vir.jpg
jpg
and protection from wild animals.
animals The most suitable environment
for man happened to be near the edge of the forested areas
where the grasslands occurred. He preferred grasslands to thick
forests as he had lesser competition and more safer grounds from
the wild beasts and caves provided shelter from harsh climatic
conditions.
The pre‐historic cave paintings discovered in Zimbabwe have

revealed that natural pigments were used ever since 400,000
years ago.
Recent discoveries in 2007, revealed that, in a cave at Pinnacle

point in South Africa, a team led by Arizona State University paleo‐
anthropologist Curtis Marean found evidence that humans in
Cave Paintings in Zimbabwe 162 000 B.C
162,000 B C were eating shellfish,
shellfish making complex tools and using
Naturally occurring pigments such as ochres and iron red ocher pigment ‐ all modern human behaviors. The shellfish
oxides have been used as colorants since prehistoric remains ‐ of mussels, periwinkles, barnacles and other molluscs ‐
times. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that indicated that humans were exploiting the sea as a food source at
early humans used paint for aesthetic purposes such least 40,000 years earlier than previously thought. Sea food may
as body decoration. Pigments and paint grinding
equipment believed to be between 350,000 and have served as a nutritional trigger at a crucial point in the human
400,000 years old have been reported in a cave at history, providing the fatty acids that led to development of brain,
Twin Rivers, near Lusaka, Zambia. also, a genetic mutation roughly at this point in human history
Source : www.listverse.com/history/top-10- suggests a sudden increase in brain power, perhaps also led to
ancient-inventions/ onset of speech.

The Hunters and Gatherers
Mankind's sense of the remarkable character of his environment

must have lasted throughout his early days (from 80,000 B.C until
about 8,000 B.C).
During this long period of incubation man progressed from

g y to barbarianism. Savagery
savagery g y is classified as a p
part of the
Paleolithic era, during which society consisted of small roving
bands using natural resources where they found them.
Man was a hunter and he thrived on the herbivores that the

grasslands supported. There are several depictions in the form of
prehistoric art which reveal hunting scenes. He migrated in small
bands followingg the animal herds seasonally.
y Duringg his migrations
g
he discovered many edible nuts, fruits, roots and seeds.
Prehistoric hunting scene, Bhimbetka, India.
Man migrated along the courses of water and tended to settle
Source:http://www.4to40.com/images/indian_travel along the lakes and streams as water was an essential component
_places/bhimbetka/hunting_scene.gif
for his survival.
Massive droughts , before the great migration split the modern

African's into small isolated groups. These isolated groups moved
in various directions, certain groups were threatened extinction
due to extreme weather conditions. Also, cold conditions may
have lowered sea level and opened up new land bridges.
The modern humans – Homo sapiens first migrated to Asia

between 80,000 and 60,000 B.C. By 45,000 B.C modern humans
migrated to Indonesia and Australia, they entered Europe at about
40,000 B.C either through Turkey or along the Mediterranean
coast.
They would have followed a Southern route Eastward along the

coast of Indian Ocean, a path of least resistance that did not
Prehistoric hunting require adaptations to different climates, topographies or diet.
Source:www.boisdale.co.uk/events2/past_event The migrant’s path never failed to provide familiar food such as
s.aspx shellfish and tropical fruit.

Middle East
directions-find-directionss-out.html
human migration routess out of Africa and the M
Sourcce : http://bldgblog.blogsspot.com/2008/04/by-ind
e 1 : A map of possible h
Plate

Source : www.ramsdale.orrg/dna7.htm
ate 2
Pla

nkind, Science Masters Series, www.wikipedia.ccom

Sourcce : The Origin of Human
mya* – Million years ago
Plate 3

Inferences regarding Migration :
On comparing the 3 plates illustrated in the previous pages related

to migration routes and DNA sequences and also the brain
volumes, certain inferences can be drawn ; such as :
Modern Humans first evolved in Africa, and hence moved to Asia

during 80,000 B.C.
They did not follow any sea route, but migrated by land along the
coast.
They migrated along the Southern coast of the Indian Ocean.
They survived on shellfish, molluscs and tropical fruit. They were

ensured of food supply in plenty.
The climate was favorable and they did not have to adapt
themselves, as they stuck to the coast
Also, the DNA analysis suggests that there is a mutation at this

time in the history, where in sea food rich in fatty acids and amino
acids, triggered a sudden mutation and hence a development in
brain, its size and thinking.
A map of southeast Asia during the Ice Age; note how much dry land
th
there could
ld have
h b
been.
Source:http://bldgblog.blogspot.com/2008/04/by-indirections-find-
directions-out.html

Basis of Civilization | 5
Agriculture : The Basis of Civilization
The single, decisive factor that made it possible for mankind to

settle in permanent communities was agriculture. After farming
was developed in the Middle East in about 6500 BC, people living
in tribes or family units did not have to be on the move continually
searchingg for food or herdingg their animals. Agriculture
g brought
g
about a great change in man’s life as he was assured of the food
supply.
Communities began to settle in fertile river valleys. Settlers

learned to use the water supply to irrigate the land. Being settled
in one place made it possible to domesticate animals in order to
provide other sources of food and clothing.
Farming was a revolutionary discovery. It not only made

settlements possible‐‐and ultimately the building of cities‐‐but it
also made available a reliable food supply.
With more food available, more people could be fed. Populations

therefore increased. The growing number of people available for
more kinds of work led to the development of more complex
social structures. With a food surplus, a community could support
a variety of workers who were not farmers.
Farming the world over has always relied upon a dependable

water supply. For the earliest societies this meant rivers and
streams or regular rainfall.
The first great civilizations grew up along rivers. Later

communities were able to develop by taking advantage of the
rainy seasons.
All of the ancient civilizations probably developed in much the

same way, in spite of regional and climatic differences. As villages
Neanderthal Man
Man, Paintings by Charles R Knight
Knight. grew, the
h accumulation
l i off more numerous and d substantial
b i l goods
d
Source : www.fi.edu/learn/brain/fats.html became possible.

Hunters and Gatherers

identification of permanent food Incidence of Agriculture
source ; Wetland / .River Bank
About 20,000 years ago savage bands began to supplement
natural foodstuffs by cultivating edible plants and domesticating
Availability of resource- mainly animals. Barbaric societies then came into existence, which shared
Water-e.g.River a common goal of producing the means to survive the rigors of
inimical nature.
Origin of the Barbaric Societies

Flooding pattern and flood plains
At about 8,000 B.C during the New Stone Age or the Neolithic
period, Barbaric societies existed where larger clusters of families
Cultivation of crops leading to lived together by cultivating edible plants and domesticating
agriculture as a profession animals. These barbaric societies were characterized by
permanent villages of 200 to 400 people which looked at
communityit interests
i t t suchh as farming,
f i production
d ti and d maintenance
i t
of food stuffs.
Settlements/ clusters-villages as a
The agricultural revolution happened 8,000 B.C and it
result of agriculture
tremendously changed man’s role in the environment from a true
predator to an interdependent being. Between 8,000 and 5,000
Flow chart showing the process of human B.C, man, also began domestication of animals such as dogs, pigs,
settlements. sheep goats,
sheep, goats chickens etc.
etc Assured food supply was discovered in
Source : Study of Natural Elements in Early the form of agriculture, he was soon forced to settle down in
Urban Settlements by Nishita R T locations such as fertile river valleys.
Human Colonization

Evolutionary Model : Agriculture | 6
An evolutionary model from foraging to agriculture, with archaeo‐botanical expectations indicated at the bottom
(modified from Harris, 1989).
The stages of pre‐domestication cultivation are shaded. In this version, domestication is represented as a process
of gradual frequency change, with an earlier, more rapid ‘semi‐domestication’ and a later, slower fixation of full
domestication.
The gap in time elapsed between these two can be taken as a minimal estimate of domestication rate.
S
Source : History
Hi t off agriculture
i lt
© Hachette Multimédia/Hachette Livre

Geographic Conditions | 7
Geographic Conditions for Human Settlements
A human settlement grows out of a specific geographic location, a

particular spot
p p of earth, and its characteristics, p
potentialities, and
very destiny are derived from the qualities of that particular place.
The settlement draws its sustenance from and adapts its economy
to the surrounding indigenous flora and fauna, to the mineral
treasures of its encompassing landforms, and to the entire
resource base of its sub‐region, including its soils, forests, and
waterways.
A beneficial initial placement bestows enormous economic and

strategic “comparative advantages” in relations and trade with
other settlements or other societies.
The associated climatic factors involved in geographic placement

will be direct influences on such details as the choice of building
materials, the substance and purpose of local crafts and
industries, the subsistence patterns of food production and
storage, the structure of socio‐cultural and kinship organization,
and even the interpretation of numinous supernatural
phenomena resulting in a religious or spiritual predilection.
Especially in pre‐industrial times, before the creation of

settlements became a predominantly engineering problem with a
standard blueprint applied to all situations, a human settlement
could be considered a unique anthropomorphological outgrowth
of specific eco‐geographic circumstances, custom fit to serve a
particular function within the larger whole of the composite
society.
With all these considerations, human geography becomes an

i di
indispensable
bl comprehension
h i tooll ini the
h analysis
l i off a culture’s
l ’
settlement patterns.

Prehistoric Colonization : India | 8
Prehistoric Colonization in India

Lower Paleolithic Culture
Prehistoric colonization or Settlements in India can be broadly

classified in 3 groups :
Stone Age (upto 8000 B.C ‐ 5000 B.C)
Bronze Age / Copper Age
Iron Age
Stone Age is further classified into Paleolithic

(Lower, Middle and Upper), Mesolithic and Neolithic. The country
has found at about 1100 Paleolithic sites scattered all over the
sub‐continent in Lower, Middle and Upper cultures which belong
to the Neanderthal Man. The western Ghats and the North‐
Eastern region showed not evidence of remains. This suggests
that, the Western ghats were covered with thick forested areas
which could not be inhabited or rather were dangerous for
survival from the wild animals.
One has to understand the geographical extent of the country and

its vast canvas as there are overlaps in timelines from North to
South and East to West. The country experienced Chalcolithic and,
Mesolithic and Neolithic at the same point of time in history. For
example, at Didwana in Rajasthan the stone assemblages revealed
that the Middle Paleolithic culture existed at about 150,000 B.C,
on the contrary, in Gujarat the same culture prevailed during
54,800 B.C. Considering Sri Lanka’s Southern wet zone, suggests a
continuous culture of more than 100,000 years from 200,000 B.C
through 40,000 B.C.
There are several sites found in the South India in Karnataka,

Andhra Pradesh along the upeer belt of Krishna River and its
tributary Tungabhadra and in Tamilnadu‐ Attirampakam valley
NW off Chennai.
Ch i Lower
L P l li hi artifacts
Paleolithic if were also
l uncovered
d at
Didwana in Rajasthan.

Response to Natural Resources | 9
Chronological Developments and Response to Natural Resources – Stone Age
Lower Gatherer
90,000 B.C
Highly dependant on Nature

[ Gathered fruits, roots, berries, nuts / traveled
eolithic along the water courses and followed the
migration routes of the wild animals ]
Middle
Pale
35,000 B.C
Hunter – trap
Storage of grains, methods of harvesting in wild
Upper [ Captured small animals, birds, shellfish, rats etc.
in a given geological condition which added to his
food supply which came mainly from gathering /
camped in grasslands along water courses and
thick forest belts ]
Hunter – weapons
Dependence on Nature slowly reduces
Mesolithiic
[ Large game – wild boar, beats etc. / group efforts

and skill /development of tool industry ]
Incidence of Agriculture / Cultivation of Crops

Development of Communities
Modification of Natural Resources
[ Distinct hunter and cultivator societies emerged
with the incidence of Agriculture / Tool Industry
developed and the sites were found on the
periphery of settlements / Pottery developed for
storage of grains / Hearths ]
Neolithic
c
8,000 B.C
Settlements
Barter System and Storage of Surplus
Management of Natural Resources
[ Settlements in fertile lands – plains /
Development of Barbaric Societies / Pastoral
N
Nomadsd /DDevelopment
l t off T
Trade
d / Fortifications
F tifi ti ]

Paleolithic Cultures in India | 10
The Anatomically Modern Man in India

Middle and Upper Paleolithic Cultures
The earliest findings of Modern Man in India dates back to 75,000

B.C in South India. Jwalapuram in Andhra Pradesh, Kurnool district
revealed a remarkable presence of Paleolithic remains.
Soan basin in Pakistan presents extensive Middle Paleolithic

culture through 60,000 B.C to 20,000 B.C. The profusion of tools
found in these sites of this culture, especially at the Rohri Hills
gives a picture of a society where some communities hunted in
the plains, ravines and jungle while others specialized in making
tools, at distant sites where good, suitable stone could be
quarried. This leads to presumptions that a rough division of
labour and barter system existed.
Cave paintings at Bhimbetka, are another classic example, these

paintings cover a large timeline, right from 35,000 B.C i.e. Upper
Paleolithic to 1000 A.D. i.e. the Gupta Period.
In South India, there is no clear stratification between Upper

Paleolithic and Mesolithic cultures. Whereas, the usual sequence
of black‐blade tools marking the Upper Paleolithic and the
microliths marking the Mesolithic culture is clearly observed in Sri
Lanka as early as 32,000 B.C.
Renigunta in Chittor dist. Andhra Pradesh, Shorapur Doab in

Karnataka, Belan valley and Baghor in central India have
experienced Upper Paleolithic from 23,000 B.C through 8,500 B.C.
Also, Upper Paleolithic artifacts made out of fossil wood were
found in Tripura which belong to 9,000 B.C to 2,500 B.C. This
suggests that
h modernd man migrated
i d to India
I di from
f B
Burma i the
i.e. h
Eastern frontier at a later stage.

Paleolithic cultures in India : Timeline
Lower Paleolithic
80,000 B.C to 60,000 B.C
Middle Paleolithic
North – 60,000 B.C to 20,000 B.C

South – 60,000 B.C to 23,000 B.C
West – 150,000
150 000 B.C
B C to 34
34,000
000 B
B.C.
C
(Rajasthan – 150,000 B.C ,
Gujarat – 55,000 B.C)
East – up to 9,000 B.C.
Upper Paleolithic
North - 25,000 B.C to 5,000 B.C.

South – 25,000 B.C to 8,000 B.C.
West – 30,000 B.C to 8,000 B.C
East – 25,000 B.C. to 2,500 B.C.
( Tripura – 9,000
9 000 B.C
B C to 2
2,500
500 B
B.C.)
C)
There is an overlap of time line in cultures due to

a vast geographical canvas and continuous
migrations to the Indian Sub‐continent.
The middle Paleolithic findings in Didwana,

Rajasthan belong to 150,000 B.C. , this finding is
yet to find its place in chronology, probably
Homo sapiens migrated to India even before we
thought from Africa and perished due to some
catastrophe, as there is no continuous culture
here.
The above timeline is charted out ffrom

cumulative reading.

Source : Prehistoric Human Colonization in India, by V N Misra, Indian Academy of Sciences, Nov 2001

Chronology of Early Humans
Stone Age PHASE – Tool types ‐ Species
Source : Chronology of early humans, pg. 43, Stone Age – tool types pg. 28, People’s History of India
by Irfan Habib , 2001..

Source : People’s History of India by Irfan Habib, 2001.

Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh – 75,000 B.C
Article : Hindu, Tiruvananthapuram Edition, by N.Gopal Raj

9th July 2007.
In the course of archaeological excavations at Jwalapuram in

Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh, an international team of
scientists has found evidence that anatomically modern humans
are likelyy to have reached India before a massive volcanic eruption
p
in what is today Indonesia occurred tens of thousands of years
ago.
“Super‐eruption” : The “super‐eruption” of the Toba volcano in

Sumatra some 75,000 years ago was the largest volcanic event to
have occurred in the last two million years and the ash thrown up
g into the atmosphere
high p byy that cataclysmic
y explosion
p reached
India too.
During five years of excavations at Jwalapuram, Indian, British,

and Australians scientists unearthed fine stone flakes that had
been turned into tools for various purposes.
Selected Jwalapuram artifacts that pre-date (locality 3) and post-date (localities 3, 17, and 21) the YTT.
Above the ash: 1, bladelet core with faceted platform; 2 and 3, flake cores with faceted platforms; 4, side
scraper; 5, utilized flake; 6, atypical end scraper on blade; 7, side and end scraper; 8, utilized flake; 9,
b k blade;
broken bl d 10,
10 broken
b k blade.
bl d Below
B l th ash:
the h 11,
11 notch
t h and
d burin;
b i 12,12 ventrally
t ll retouched
t h d side
id scraper;
13, side scraper on broken blade; 14, side scraper on ridge straightening flake; 15, ventrally retouched
side and end scraper; 16, ventrally retouched scraper; 17, notch; 18, ground ochre. Scale bar, 1 cm.

The stone tools were to be found in layers of earth above as well

as below the fine ash from the Toba super‐eruption, the scientists
noted in a paper published in the latest issue of the journal
Science.
“Volcanic winter” : It had been thought that the vast amounts of

volcanic ash flungg into the atmosphere
p byy the eruption
p could have
blocked sunlight and produced a “volcanic winter” that decimated
the humans living then. But the evidence from the Jwalapuram
excavations, however, suggests that the volcanic eruption did not
have such a catastrophic impact on the early human population
there.
Stone tools : The stone tools also p pointed to a more excitingg

possibility. The stone tool assemblages found in Jwalapuram were
“very similar to ones that we see produced in Africa at the same
time. Those stone tools in Africa had been produced by modern
humans. This finding is significant because genetic studies of tell‐
tale patterns in the DNA of people living in various parts of the
world have supported the view that all modern humans arose in
Africa.
It is believed that these modern humans then migrated out of

Africa and settled all across the globe.“So what we are saying is
that modern humans probably dispersed from Africa into India at
a very early date, earlier than anyone has suggested before.
There is a hypothesis that modern humans could have taken the

“southern route of dispersal,” utilising the coastlines to travel
from Africa, through Arabia, across the Indian subcontinent and
then into South‐East Asia and finally into Australia, he said. The
presence of modern humans in India at the time of the Toba
super‐eruption would be consistent with humans having used the
southern route, but would remain speculative till further
excavations were carried out in the Indian subcontinent and
Arabian peninsula.
Key role
India has a played a key role in the migration of modern humans
out of Africa, says K. Thangaraj of the Centre for Cellular and
Light -toned Toba tephra in excavation at
Molecular Biology at Hyderabad. In a paper published in Science
Jwalapuram, India. two years ago, Dr. Thangaraj and others held that genetic lineages
to be
b found
f d among Andaman
A d i l d supported
islanders d an out‐of‐Africa
f Af i
Source:http://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/research/project migration by modern humans some 50,0000 to 70,000 years ago.
s/supereruptions/2.jpg

Distribution of Archaeological Sites in Karnataka
Source : http://bp3.blogger.com/_FIolHwdBu3Q/RxhwPml3GhI/AALo/
ipfZCMMAMK4/s1600-h/agrio+old1.bmp
Archaeological data
Dr. Korisettar is, however, skeptical about modern humans opting
for a coastal route for their migration. There was currently no
archaeological evidence of such ancient human migrations along
India’s west coast and into southern Tamil Nadu. Rather, the
available archaeological data favored a continental route whereby
early humans came through the Bolan and Khyber passes to the
north‐western parts of the Indian subcontinent and then into
R j h
Rajasthan b f
before di
dispersing
i to otherh parts off the
h country, heh
added.

Mesolithic Cultures in India | 11
Mesolithic cultures are marked by ligher and more efficient tools.
This period is also marks communication of ideas as speech came

forth which was fully articulate. This enabled collective enterprise
in hunting which led to immense potential and pace
The earliest p
period of microliths in South Asia dates back to 32,000
,
B.C in Sri Lanka. Charred millet grains were found in Sri Lanka
during 10,000 B.C which suggest that wild grains were already
being collected for food.
Cave Painting at Bhimbetka that exhibits a Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh showed burrials of men and
celebration women, which show that man was slowly settling down.
Source:http://www.craftsinindia.com/newcraftsimages Bow and arrow had also come into practice as certain skeletons
/sheer-joy.jpg
were found with flint in them. The animals hunted were Indian
humped oxen, buffalo, sheep, deer, goat, pig, rhinoceros,
elephant, pig, tortoise, turtle and different birds. There is no firm
evidence of cattle, sheep or goat being domesticated.
The settlements were in forests and the animals found were wild.
Evidences of roasting meat were found and also, man gathered
grains and pounded them. Mullers and querns were found at
these settlements which suggest that grains were stored, but
there was no evidence of cultivation as yet. They wore animal
skin, no pottery as yet, Ornaments were found made of bones, but
worn only by men. Burials indicate the existence of superstition
and religion.
Adamgarh in Narmada valley shows an advance in Mesolithic

culture during 6,000 B.C. with remains of domesticated animals
such as dogs, cattle, sheep and pigs in equal numbers with the
wild animals. This was a hunting community which turned
pastoral.
Man made pottery was also found. People lived in rock shelters
and perhaps were the first authors of rock paintings.
Bhimbetka’s paintings date back to 6,000 B.C. and depict life in a

very lucid manner. These paintings show animals being hunted by
Cave Painting of a prehistoric hunting Scene from men with bows and arrows, women carrying load on their head
Bhimbetka, India. etc. None of the paintings reflect class or rank differences in the
communities
ii nor do
d they
h show
h any agricultural
i l l or pastorall
Source:http://www.khaufpur.com/images/Bhimbetka.jpg activity.


Neolithic Cultures in India | 12
Neolithic culture marks the usage of ground tools which had

sharper points and round symmetrical shapes. Pounding of seeds
by rubbing with stone would have led to smooth edges which
gg
would have suggested the tool makers to use this technique.
q
Men mainly hunted, while women collected seeds and gathered

roots from forests, perhaps, by accident they discovered that
sowing seeds would increase their food supply. He chose to clear
out land or rather choose land that is fertile and plain to practice
cultivation. As cultivation became more widespread,
domestication of cattle also found a firm foundation. With
increased subsistence, now human population could grow and
settled agricultural communities developed.
On the western bank of Indus in Baluchistan at Mehrgarh, this can

be traced from 7,000 B.C. to 3,800 B.C. Mehrgarh has practically
experienced every phase of the Neolithic revolution. The presence
of agriculture is attested by finds of seeds such as barley, wheat
like einkorn, emmer and hard. The Agricultural production not
only accelerated animal production but also led to pursuit of arts.
Houses were built in bricks and granaries became larger which
suggest the further development of agriculture.
During 5,000 B.C to 4,000 B.C. a lot of barley and wheat grains
were produced, the cultivation of such grains needed a lot of
water which was possible only by usage of dams in such dry areas.
Further, command on water resource, led to cultivation of cotton
as lot of cotton seeds were also found in Mehrgarh.
There are many more stray sites found in the Indus delta which
revealed similar settlements.
A large
l region,
i arid
id andd largely
l l hilly
hill found
f d the
h first
fi onset off
Agriculture and a pastoral economy in India.

Stone age cultures before Neolithic Revolution.
Source : People’s History of India – Prehistory by Irfan Habib

In the broad pattern of its material progress, the region in this

period clearly belonged to a large zone that stretched from the
Mediterranean to the Indus. The pastoral nomads could be a
reason for the culture to travel across.
Central and Eastern India
The Neolithic cultures and Agriculture did not begin in any part of
central India until 4,000 years after Mehrgarh, i.e. 3,000 B.C.
During the same time period, other communities did not show
Agriculture, but showed a greater deal of domestication of
animals and belonged to communities of shepherds.
On the contrary, Koldihwa valley of the small Vindhyan River in

Belan, South of Allahabad found rice which belong to 6719 – 5010
B.C., these are one of the earliest occurrences of rice in the world.
The Vindhyan Neolithic is very important as it gave reference to
cultivation of Rice. There is a great overlap in timeline here, as the
Eastern India experience Mesolithic culture almost up to 2,500
B C with a lot of microliths found buried under floors of huts.
B.C. huts
Pottery also existed, findings of handmade to wheel turned
pottery with lustrous paintings were found.
The later Neolithic cultures cultivated wheat, barley and lentils (

mung and masur ). Soon the Neolithic Revolution in Ganga Basin
led to a large expanse in cultivation.
The basin must have been heavily forested and the cultivated
areas must have been small clearances around the settlements. In
these clearances, cultivation was carried on by setting the
vegetation on fire during the dry season. Cultivation was carried
on for some years but later the ground was abandoned and
people moved to fresh clearances.
This system of cultivation is known as ‘jhum’ or ‘slash and burn’

system and is practiced by many tribal communities till date.
Hunting and fishing heavily supplemented plant food, such are the
revelations from cave paintings at Bhimbetka. Also, the
domesticated cattle and sheep were kept for food, since neither
plough
p g nor carts were known. Therefore,, there was a lot of time
before the Agricultural communities spread over the Gangetic
plains.


Northern and Early Southern cultures
Two major Neolithic cultures,

cultures the one in Kashmir and the other in
Karnataka, both began at around 3,000 B.C. ie. at the time of the
Vindhyan Neolithic. The synchronization is accidental and there is
no connection between these cultures.
Burzahom and Gufkral belong to the Northern Neolithic cultures.

Here people lived in pits or ‘karewas’, or natural alluvial platforms
overlooking streams.
streams They used ground stone tools and bone
tools. Soon herding was replaced by hunting. Wheat, barley, lentil
and field pea were found and in the late Neolithic i.e. around
2,000 – 1,500 B.C rice was found.
The Northern Neolithic, unlike the Eastern had some linkages to

the Indus cultures.
The Neolithic culture of the South was entirely indigenous to its

origins in South. The territory of the Southern Neolithic spread
across Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Chronology of Neolithic Revolution
Source : People’s History of India – Prehistory, by Irfan Habib

EARLY SETTLEMENTS
Case : Early Dynastic Mesopotamia
Sumerian
Absolute Time Period

2900 – 2334 B.C (c. 4900 – 4334 B.P)
Location : The lower Tigris, Euphrates, and Diyala river valleys in

Iraq.
Diagnostic Material Attributes : marked Urbanization, with most of

thepopulation living in the walled cities.
Important Sites : Abu Salabikh, al‐Ubaid, Lagash (al‐Hiba), Nippur,
Tell Asmar,
Asmar Tell Agrab,
Agrab Ur,
Ur Uruk.
Uruk
Cultural Summary :
Environment
Climate :
Mild winters, Hot and dry Summers. Mean annual Temp was
between 20 and 25 degree C, Mean Annual
Rainfall – about 200mm.
Topography : Southern Mesopotamia is dominated by Tigris and

Euphrates rivers which are perennial and fed by the snowmelt
y
from the mountains of turkey.
Geology : Thick alluvium deposits.
Biota :
Southern Mesopotamia sits between Desert to the west and
steppe to the east. Marsh and riverine environments due to the
rivers and hence diversity of plants and animals.
Settlements
System :
Early dynastic tradition was dominated by city states.
Twenty to thirty city states, each with a principal center that
linked smaller towmns and villages dispersed across the
countryside. The centers were separated from one another by
30km or so across the floodplain. Most of the population lived in
The Tigris
Tigris-Euphrates
Euphrates valley civilisation
cities larger than 40 ha, while less than 10 percent lived in villages
Source: Wonders of the ancient world smaller than 4 ha.

Community Organization :
Cities were dominated by 2 features : Temples and Fortifications.
The temples formed the centre of the cities while the fortifications
formed the peripheries. Temples were surrounded by auxiliary
buildings which formed a complex for religious and political
activity. Palaces replaced temples in some cases.
Outside the complex was a dense network of streets lined by
shops of pottery, ceramic, flint works etc., the house walls
bordered directlyy onto the streets.
Housing :
Houses were made of mud‐brick with mud‐plastered walls and
floors and a mud and wood roof. Most houses consisted of several
rooms organized around a central courtyard and spread over 40 to
100 Sq.m for a single family, nuclear or extended.
Subsistence :
Early Dynastic subsistence was based on agriculture and animal
husbandry.
The main domestic crops :

Wheat, Barley, pulses (lentils, beans and peas)
fruits ( apples, dates an figs)
The main domestic animals :

Sheep and goats for wool, milk and dung.
Cattle were also kept, along with ducks, geese, pigs and dogs.
Fishing was important in the marshlands of the south.
Source : History of Landscape Architecture the relationship of People to

Environment ,George B Tobey

Source : History of Landscape Architecture the relationship of People to Environment George B Tobey

Spice Routes
Source : asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/mapSpiceRoutes.GIF
The beginning of the trade is hinted at in Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions during the New Kingdom period
about 3,600 years ago. The Pharoahs of Egypt opened up special relationships with the kingdom of Punt to
the south. Although the Egyptians knew of Punt long before this period, it was during the New Kingdom that
important trade missions to that country included large cargoes of spices.
Silk Routes
Source : asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/mapSpiceRoutes.GIF

Major Sites and Interaction Metworks : Regionalization Era ( 5500 B.C to 2600 B.C )
Indus, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions
Source : People’s History of India – Prehistory, by Irfan Habib, 2001

Early Indus Civilization
Absolute Time period : Regionalization Era – 5500 to 2600 BC
Location : Indus to the Ganga and Yamuna alluvial plains
Biota :
Due to the vast extent of the Indus tradition there was a

considerable regional variation in the Flora and Fauna.
The vegetation of alluvial plains is scrub forest with Acacia,
Tamarix, Prosopis, Capparis, Zyziphus and Salvadora as dominant
trees.Semitropical plants like Dalbergia and Ficus ( banyan and
Peepal)
Grasses and thorny shrubs common throughout the plains and

marginal desert areas.
Indus remains at the background of the Buddhist Stupa Coastal vegetation dominated by the mangroves with wide variety
Source:http://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://
www.varalaaru.com/images/Apr06/Iconography04.jpg&i
of reeds and water plants. Highland valleys found arboreal
mgrefurl habitats with a mixture of coniferous and deciduous trees, such as
Pinus, Abies, Picea, Juniperus, Cedrus, Quercus, Populus, Betula,
Fraxinus, Ulmus and a variety of fruit trees.
Settlements :
System :
Surveys show a four‐tiered settlement system. Mounded sites
such as Harappa (27 ha) and sites in Cholistan such as Jaliwali
(22.5 ha) and Gamanwala (27.3 ha) represent the largest urban
centers. They are surrounded by smaller settlements located at
variable distances ranging in size from 5 to 10 ha. Interspersed
between and around these settlements are even smaller sites with
scatters of pottery. These settlements have massive stone walls
which may have been built to protect against flooding. In
Cholistan, many of the settlements have the evidence for pottery
making and probably also metalworking.
Cartt Replica
C R li att Indus
I d N
None off the
h Early
E l Indus
I d sites
i h monumentall architecture
has hi that
h
Source : http://www.bombaymuseum.org/powm/pre_ could be defined as temples or palaces.
prothis/16.jpg

Major Sites of the Indus CivilizationSource :

http://moinansari.files.wordpress.com/2008/08/indus-vallecivilization.jpg
Major Sites of the Post Indus CultureSource :

http://kalyan96.googlepages.com/map.gif

Farming communities
Source : Dawn of Civilization
Part plan of Mohenjo-Daro residential quarter showing grid-iron pattern of streets

Source: Wonders of the ancient world

Housing :
‐The wide plains of the Indus attracted man. The houses were built in wood with reeds and clay plaster. The
They were widely fertile and their fertility was walls are oriented N‐S and E‐W. The cooking areas were located in
renewed by annual floods, while the great open areas outside the houses. Hand‐formed mud bricks with
rivers full of edible fish were also natural 1:2:4 proportions were used. Several houses built next to one
highways between the mountains and the sea. sea p spaces
another define open p or p
passageways
g y that were used for
activities and burials. Some of the houses have distinct bathing
‐The rivers were also full of edible fish and areas, latrines and drains made of fried brick.
were natural highways between the
mountains and the sea. ‐But initially these Subsistence :
plains were marsh and jungle ridden haunted
by noxious beasts. The basic agricultural technology was rain‐fed farming in the Indus
plain itself, p
p probablyy combined with opportunistic
pp cultivation
‐The principle food grains and the principle along gradually drying up oxbow lakes. No evidence of Irrigation
herd‐animals subsisted in Western Asia, systems, but small dams for trapping silt were constructed along
between the Himalayas and the the piedmont.
Mediterranean. It is a corollary that large‐
scale food production was first practiced in One agricultural season would have been from November to April
that region; and the first towns with their watered by winter rains, optimal for cultivation of wheat and
primaryy dependence
p p upon
p ffood p
production barley and various pulses, sesamum, peas and other vegetables
were the natural sequel and possibly perennial cotton.
Source : Study of Natural Elements in Early Urban Wheat( Triticum compactum, T.sphaerococcum ) and Barley
Settlements, Seminar by Nishita R.T. (Hordeum vulgare, various sub‐species) appear to have been
major grains.
During the summer, with monsoon rainfall, crops such as cotton,

mustard, sesamum, dates, melon and peas could have been
cultivated and harvested between September and November.
Animal husbandry appears to have focused on cattle(humped Bos

indicus and nonhumped Bos Taurus), water buffalo (Bubalus
Mohenjodaro Citadel
bubalis), sheep and goat supplemented by fishing and hunting.
Flood plains of river Indus
River Indus
The topography of the land was used in the best possible manner to locate the citadel. The massive citadels protected from
floods and attackers,
attackers were larger than most Mesopotamian ziggurats
Source : Study of Natural Elements in Early Urban Settlements, Seminar by Nishita R.T.

Beyond Indus Civilization | 13
Farming Communities outside the zone of INDUS Civilization
Diffusion of Harappan Culture
The diffusion of farming‐based settled village life beyond the

realm of the Indus Civilization accounts for more than thousand
sites covering all parts of India except for the West coast, including
Kerala.
These sites can be divided into two distinct culture groups, namely
Neolithic in the South India and Chalcolithic in the Deccan.
Neolithic culture preceeded the Chalcolithic culture in the rest of
the world, but in India, these were simultaneous cultures.
Both the cultures exhibit a farming‐based, settled way of life with

Chalcolithic beingg a further developed
p stage g with the usage g of
Copper.
Neolithic and Chalcolithic ‐ Simultaneous Traditions of India
Neolithic culture Chalcolithic culture
Kashmir
K h i VValley,
ll N
Northern
th E ti G
Entire Ganga valley,
ll E
Eastern
t R
Rajasthan,
j th
Geographical India, middle Ganga Madhya Pradesh, Western
distribution valley, Eastern, North Maharashtra, Northern Vindhyas and
Eastern and South India. some parts of Gujarat.
Ground or polished stone

Material / Tool
tools, axes, wedges, Copper counterparts
Industry
chisels
chisels.
Hand-made pottery, Mostly wheel-made, fine fabric with

coarse clay, poorly baked, superior surface finish, burnt at higher
Ceramic
mostly undecorated, temperature and hence sturdy, large
Industry
appears drab with limited range of shapes and designs,
shapes and designs. decorative motifs.
Wattle-daub circular or rectangular

houses with incipient settlement
Architecture / Wattle-daub circular or
planning, multi-roomed houses, semi-
Planning rectangular houses
dressed stones, mud-bricks, defence
structures, moats.
C lti ti
Cultivation, animal
i lh husbandry
b d andd
Subsistence Agro-pastoral community
hunting

Deccan Chalcolithic and South Indian Neolithic
Diffusion
ff off Harappan
pp Culture
Absolute Time Period : 3000 B.C to 1100B.C
The Deccan Chalcolithic and the South Indian Neolithic, together is

known as South Indian Chalcolithic Culture, and it falls between
the end of Indus Civilization and the beginning of the Historical
p
period.
These traditions primarily constituted of farming communities

which were set up by Late Harappans moving South into the Tapi
basin after the collapse of the Harappan Civilization around 1900
B.C.
They merged with the existing communities and established

economies based on agriculture and pastoralism.
Later, Malwa culture of Central India during 1700 B.C, expanded

into Deccan and further the deccan Chalcolithic intruded into the
Neolithic phases of Krishna, Godavari and Tungabhadra Rivers.
The Climate, similar to present, semi‐arid and monsoonal with

intervening dry and relatively wet phases.
Precipitation, from June to October, 500 – 1200mm of Annual

Rainfall, very high during SW Monsoon. Winter Rains are rare,
Rainfall variability is high with droughts which are common.
Important Sites
Inamgaon
Daimabad
Jorwe
Prakashae
Kaothe
Nashik
Bahal
T k d
Tekwada
Brahmagiri

Post –Harappan Cultures in India
Post – Harappan Cultures
Savalda Culture
2200 B.C – 1800 B.C
[ First phase of development of cultural sequence after
the decline of Harappan culture located in the Tapi
basin, named after a site called Savalda ]
mmunities,
desh and
Late Harappan Culture
B.C
es
nataka, Andhra Prad

of Tamil Nadu, Early farming com
LCOLITHIC Culture
EOLITHIC Culture 1700 B.C – 1100 B

1800 B.C – 1600 B.C
[ Comprised of people moving out to the North-West
e pastoralism ]
and the pre-existing communities of the Region ]
[ South India – Karn
cattle
CHAL
Malwa Culture
1600 B.C – 1400 B.C
[ Developed in Central India and expanded South as a
result of demographic pressure ,evidence of Public
parts
structures and Irrigation systems ]

p
NE
Jorwe Culture
1500 B.C – 1000 B.C
[ Flourished
Fl i h d allll over D
Deccan region,
i Chi
Chiefdom
fd society,
i
Jorwe degenerated into Late Jorwe found in Bhima
valley, Characterized by Semi-nomadic life, most
developed phase in Deccan Chalcolithic ]
IRON AGE

Source : http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/images/map.jpg

Source : The Personality of India, B.Subba Rao

Source : The Personality of India, B.Subba Rao

Ganges Neolithic‐Chalcolithic
Absolute Time Period : 2500 BC to 1500 AD (4500‐500 B.P)
Relative Time period : Follows the South Asian Microlithic tradition

and precedes the Gangetic India tradition.
Location :
The middle Ganga River valley is located approximately between

the modern cities of Allahabad in the west and Patna in the east,
particularly various tributaries and sub tributaries joining the river
from south and north.
Regional Subtraditions : Neolithic‐Chalcolithic of the Sarayupar
region, Neolithic‐Chalcolithic of the Chota‐nagpur plateau and the
Lower Gangetic plains, Neolithic of Assam.
Environment
Climate :
The climate of the region during Holocene was wetter and warmer
than today, aridity began during the late Holocene.The
climatological change began during the tradition’s time period and
roughly coincided with the period of the Neolithic‐Chalcolithic
transition.
Topography : The region is characterized by Alluvial plains.
Geology : Three geological units are present , the mountainous
northern track (Shivalik foothills), Southern plateau (Chotanagpur
in the East and Vindhyan plateau in the west) and between the
two are the Gangetic plains.
Biota :
Dry deciduous forests with rich diversity of plant and animal life.
There are 19 different grass species, 56 herbaceous species, 16
l
legumes. Th tree and
The d shrub
h b components are associatedi d with
i h the
h
grassland type.

Settlements
System :
Most of the sites are situated near the tributaries of the Ganges
and were inhabited on a permanent basis, a few sites located at
gg terrains.
the foothills or at rugged
The sites were close to Ganges and were associated with

agricultural activity and large scale production of bone and antler
tools along with objects of various domestic requirements. These
sites were linked to smaller sites.
There are small settlements in the eastern margins such as the
Chotanagpur plateau who seem to have acted as suppliers of
Neolithic celts to most sites of major tradition.
Cultural contacts promoted exchange of goods, but evidence of
any formal market system is not present.
Housing:
The best evidence is Mahagara where a cattle pen was found
surrounded by community dwellings in remains of burnt clay
clumps in oval and circular huts. Eight to ten such huts were found
in a cluster around a cattle pen which was centrally located.
Subsistence :
Small scale peasant economy, domestication of plant and animal

which was supplemented by hunting, gathering and fishing.
Agriculture involved cultivation of summer crops, mainly rice.
Winter crops such as wheat and barley were found in some sites
such as Chirand.
Wild foods constituted small share of the diet, such as wild ber
(Jujube) collected from small bushes in the Belan valley. Also, wild
b
boar, spottedd deer
d andd swamp deer.
d A
Aquatic
i resources such h as
snail, mollusk, fish and tortoise were also consumed.

INAMGAON
Chalcolithic Settlement,, Maharashtra
Inamgaon, on the banks of the river Ghod in Maharashtra, is one

of the largest chalcolithic sites in India.
Inamgaon was excavated in the 1960s and 1970's. The excavations

were horizontal, which means that the digging was done over a
g area. The aim was to find out about the earlyy farmers who
large
lived at this site between about 1600 B.C. to 700 B.C.
Inamgaon recieves scanty rainfall, but the Ghod river flows past it.
The Ghod is a tributary of the Bhima, which in turn is a tributary of
the Krishna river.Hundreds of years ago, the forests in the area
must have been full of wild animals that could be hunted for food.
Stones of different kinds were available in plenty for making tools
and weapons. The earliest settlers in the Ghod valley were stone
Pinkish Red jar with designs painted in
age people. Many different kinds of stone tools and fossils of
black
animal bones from this period have been found. The chalcolithic
Source:http://www.4to40.com/indian_travel_
settlement at Inamgaon lasted for about 900 years.
places/index.asp?placeid=51
Site / Location
Inamgaon is situated 85km Southeast of Pune, on the bank of

River Ghod, a tributary of River Bhima.The site is spread over 5
Ha. , 5m thick Cultural deposit.
The Inamgaon excavations reveal a three fold sequence of

cultures during the Chalcolithic period, they are ;
Timeline
Period Name of Culture
B.C
Period I Malwa 1600 - 1400

The chalcolithic farmers of Inamgaon lived
in houses which are seen even today in the Period II Early Jorwe 1400 - 1000
villages – Reconstructed image
Period III Late Jorwe 1000 - 700
Source:http://www.4to40.com/indian_travel_
places/index.asp?placeid=51

INAMGAON
Chalcolithic Settlement, Maharashtra
Environment
Geology
Inamgaon is located on a low terrace‐like surface, developed on

the fertile late Pliestocene fill of the banks of River Ghod.
The river takes a sharp bend at the site because of a sharp basaltic
outcrop on the opposite bank. This results in a large, deep,
Reconstruction of a Pit Circle Homestead perennial pool of water.
Availability of a perennial source of fresh water was one of the

main considerations for the Chalcolithic farmers to settle here.
Another important consideration was the availability of large

tracts of fertile black cotton soil.
Climate / Temperature
Semi‐Arid and almost desert‐like, but 50 yrs ago the site

supported a thick scrub forest and thrived in wild boar, deer and
other small game.
Ground plans / layout
Rainfall
Mean Annual Rainfall 500mm, this region g is characterized byy

scanty and extremely variable annual rainfall (average of 500 to
1150 mm). Also, this region frequently experiences ill‐timed
monsoons, insufficient rainfall, and crop failure.
Floods occur in the source region of R.Ghod due to heavy rainfall
in the Western Ghats.
Section through pit and drain
Pit circles, Rhodesia, Africa Vegetation
Source : Village Planning in the Primitive
World, New York, 1968 Thorny Scrub type.

Chalcolithic Sites of Maharashtra
Source : www.appalachianbioanth.org/INMhouse.jpg
Source : www.appalachianbioanth.org/INMhouse.jpg

INAMGAON
As a response to low volume of rainfall and high level of

uncertainty regarding Cultivation of crops, the farmers of
Inamgaon generally involve themselves in diversifying the
subsistence base throughg double cropping,
pp g diversifying
y g staple
p seed
storage, diversified planting strategies, and crop rotation.
In addition to subsistence farming, a wide variety of other

occupations are performed part or full‐time by farming
communities including herding, stock raising, gathering, cash
cropping, and wage labor.
The Malwa culture spread to Maharashtra from central India and

significantly expanded during the Jorwe culture upto about 200
sites. This culture is marked by a chieftain‐agriculturist society.
Rectangular houses, of 7m x 5m in size with partitions, largest
finding being the one at the core with 5 rooms and storage
granary. The periphery of the settlement was marked my circular
huts and pit cave dwellings which belonged to the semi‐nomadic
groups and the pastoralists. They were self‐sufficient and settled
groups who culivated barley, raised cattle and hunted wild animals
and freshwater fish.
The later phase is further divided into 2 phases known as Jorwe

period and Late Jorwe period.This is the most imporatant
characteristic Chalcolithic culture of Maharashtra.
The characteristic feature of the Jorwe settlement pattern is the

presence of Regional centers and villages surrounding them.Most
of the settlements were 2ha. In size and had a population of 100 ‐
500 people, the 1 ha. Sites had about 50 ‐100 persons who were
nomadic herdsmen.
Th largest
The l settlement
l i Daimabad
in D i b d covers at aboutb 30 ha.
h and
d is
i
Source : Village Planning in the Primitive World,
New York, 1968 one of the largest Chalcolithic settlements in the country.

INAMGAON
Prakashe in Tapi valley, daimabad in Godavari‐Pravara valley and

Inamgaon in Bhima valley were three Regional Centers.
The densityy off settlements ffound in the Tapi

p valleyy is the highest
g
and progressively declines towards the Bhima valley as an
adaptive response to the availability of the fertile black cotton soil
for cultivation.
Inamgaon had a granary and a diversionary water channel which

shows that agriculture was a public practice and it involved a
major bulk of the inhabitants. These structures were considered as
public architectural examples.
The houses during this period were smaller in size as compared to

the Malwa culture of 5m x 3m in size, rectangular in shape and of
Headless Mother Goddess and Bull figurine –
Inamgaon culture.
wattle and daub construction. The longer axis of the houses was in
east‐west direction. The floors were made of well‐rammed clay
Source : M.K.Dhavalikar, The first farmers of and yellow silt from the river basin.
Maharashtra – Article, Science Age.
Inside the house, there was a small oval shaped fire pit, outside in
he courtyard was a large fire pit probably used for roasting meat.
Also, a pit silo lined with lime for storing grains.
Later Jorwe period experienced an economic decline due to change

in climate and deterioration in agriculture. The rectangular houses
of Early Jorwe were replace by circular huts of 1.5m to 2m in
diameter in the Late Jorwe period.
The late Jorwe belongs to dry climate and Agriculture was no

longer a reliable practice, hence people started depending on
Aerial View of Illesha homestead, Yoruba, breeding cattle, hunting and gathering.
Nigeria.
Th the
Thus h change
h i climate
in li and
d decline
d li off availability
il bili off the
h
Source : Village Planning in the Primitive Natural resources led to decline of a culture.
World, New York, 1968

Crops cultivated at Inamgaon
Sl.No Common Name Botanical Name
1. Barley Hordeum vulgare Linn
2. Wheat Triticum sp.

3. Rice Oryza sp.
4. Lentil Lens esculenta Moench

5. Horse gram Dolichos biflorus Linn
6
6. Hyacinth bean Dolichos lablab Linn
7. Grass pea Lathyrus sativus Linn

8. Pea Pisum arvense Linn
9. Black gram Phaseolus mungo
10. Green g
gram Phaseolus aureus Roxb
11. Ber Zizyphus jujuba Lamk
12. Gram Cicer arietinum Linn

13. Jamun Syzigium cumini Linn
14. Behada Terminalia beberica
15. Wild date Phoenix sylvestris
Source : The first farmers of Maharashtra – Article by M.K.Dhavalikar,

Science Age, December 1987.
Source : M.K.Dhavalikar, The first farmers of Maharashtra – Article, Science Age.

Bibliography
Tobey, George B, History of Landscape Architecture the

relationship of People to Environment, M/s Prabhakar B Bhagwat
ff Library.
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Volume 8, www.books.google.co.in
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Limited, London, 1961, CEPT Library
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Prakashan, New Delhi, 2008, CEPT Library.
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histogenic perspective, icon publications pvt ltd.,New Delhi, 2006,
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India and Pakistan, Sep 1956, CEPT Library.
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Seminar, 2008, CEPT Library.
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Mohanty , International Society of Environmental Botanists,
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Ekistic Evaluation, 2001
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1968.
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M.K.Dhavalikar, The first farmers of Maharashtra –
fM h h A i l S i
Article, Science
Age, December 1987.

Bibliography
V.N.Misra, Prehistoric Human Colonization in India, Indian

Academy of Sciences, Nov 2001.
Guy Gugliotta, The Great Human Migration , Article, Smithsonian

magazine, July 2008.
Dr.V.Sankaran Nair, Etymological Conduit to the Land of Qanat,
Article, August 2004.
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Early Civilzations of the World, Extracted from, 'The First Cities',
Ruth Whitehouse, Phaidon Press, Oxford, 1977.
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l hi bi th /INMh htt // i h ld i i f
dharma.com/images/map
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ml

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Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | LA 8107 | Dept. of Landscape Architecture | CEPT University

Prof. Prabhakar.B. Bhagwat Dr. Deepa Maheshwari

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me this

First and foremost, I would like to thank Prof.Prabhakar Bhagwat

Secondly, I would like to thank Prof.Deepa Maheshwari for her

Further, this note would be incomplete without the mention of

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 1

Much can be inferred about the culture and world‐view of people

How natural resources become the basis of the settlement and

One can carefully look at the spatial distribution of buildings on

A human settlement can be interpreted as an indication of how

What did these settlements patterns arise from , are these

In the present scenario, where the nature of these patterns seems

This study tries to focus on the type of traditional village

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 2

3. Earth and Man-Made world

4.1 Hunters – Gatherers

4.2 Inferences Regarding Migration

5. Agriculture : Basis of Settlements

5.1 Incidence of Agriculture

5. Evolutionary Model towards Agriculture

6. Geographic Conditions for Human Settlements

7. Prehistoric Colonization in India

9. Response to Natural resources

Chronological Developments in Stone Age.

10.1 The Anatomically Modern Man in India

10.2 Timeline of Paleolithic Cultures in India

10.3 Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh

11. Mesolithic Cultures in India

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 3

12. Neolithic Cultures in India

12.1 Central and Eastern India

12.2 Northern and Southern India

12.3 Early Settlements : Mesopotamia

12.4 Early Indus Civilization

13. Farming communities outside zone of Indus

13.1 Deccan Chalcolithic and South Indian Neolithic

13.2 Post – Harappan Cultures in India

13.3 Ganges Neolithic and Chalcolithic

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 4

There are three main associations between man and his

He inhabited lands which happened to be rich in Bio‐diversity and

He followed animal migration routes and migrated out of Africa as

Man, a puny, weak animal, due to continuous genetic mutations

This study tries to focus and sketch the settlement patterns in

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 5

A recent study revealed and repeatedly confirmed that the modern

Current view of the temporal and geographical distribution of

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 6

Man’s Family Tree

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 7

Utilization, Exploitation and Management of these natural

A continuing pattern of culture beliefs or practices is known as

How does one understand the relationship between the nature

Examining the Settlement Patterns makes the above thought

The idea is to explore and interpret the very basis of the

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 8

Major climatic fluctuations accompanied by the earth’s

Africa supported a wide variety of vegetation and animal life due

The pre‐historic cave paintings discovered in Zimbabwe have

Recent discoveries in 2007, revealed that, in a cave at Pinnacle

• Submitted by : Aparna Rao C | Code : LA 8107 | CEPT University | 20th Dec 2008 | 9