0198-0211 /94/1506-0311$03.
00/0
FOOT a ANKLE INTERNATIONAL
Copynght 6 1994 by the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society. Inc
Dynamic Study of Insole Materials Simulating Real Loads
Ana-Cruz Garcia, Ph.D.,’ Juan-Vicente Dura, Eng.,’ Jose Rarniro, P.T.,t Juan-Victor Hoyos, Ph.D.,S and Pedro Vera, Ph.D.9
ABSTRACT
A new methodology of biomechanical analysis of materials
for shoe inserts is presented. This methodology is based
on the determination of the loads applied to the materials
in real situations and its simulation by means of a dynamic
testing machine. Both the rigidity and the energy-absorb-
ing characteristics of the materials are investigated as a
function of frequency. This methodology is applied to the
study of several commercially available viscoelastic ma-
terials intended for shoe inserts in the treatment and
prevention of degenerative joint diseases. The influence
of thickness is investigated as well as the frequency-
dependent behavior of the materials studied. Significant
differences between materials and different behavior as
a function of thickness and frequency were found. Poron
materials were found to have the lowest rigidity, good for
adequate pressure distribution, while Noene showed the
highest energy absorption. A careful selection of the thick-
ness of Sorbothane was found to be necessary for avoid-
ing flattening of the material.
INTRODUCTION
Viscoelastic inserts have been used extensively, both
in sport shoes and in normal footwear, especially for
people with some articular diseases. The use in sport
shoes is owed to the high forces and impacts developed
in sport movements, especially in jumping and running.
In normal footwear, they are also widely used because,
although the impacts are lower, they can be harmful for
those people who have a lower capacity for reducing
the impacts transmitted along their musculoskeletal
system.
The use of viscoelastic inserts in the treatment and
prevention of degenerative joint diseases is based on
the study of the attenuation of shock waves invading
Researcher, Institute of Biomechanics of Valencia, Valencia Parc
Tecnolbgic, P.O. Box 199, E-46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain. To
whom requests for reprints should be addressed.
t Head of the Sports Biomechanics Group, Institute of Biome-
chanics of Valencia.
$ Head of Laboratories, Institute of Biomechanics of Valencia.
0 Director, Institute of Biomechanics of Valencia.
311
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Valencia, Spain
the human locomotor system while walking. It has been
shown that the elements usually damaged by degen-
erative changes (the foot, meniscus, intervertebral disk,
and bone) are generally referred to as natural shock
absorbers, and one of their functions is to attenuate
the incoming shock waves traveling toward the skull.’a
Soft tissue also plays an important role in attenuating
dynamic forces invading the locomotor system during
each heel strike.
Experimental studies carried out by Voloshin sug-
gested a correlation between the variety of degenera-
tive joint diseases and the shock-absorbing capacity of
the human locomotor system. It was shown that the
shock-absorbing capacity of subjects with healthy lo-
comotor systems is approximately 30% higher than
that of subjects with joint diseases.” Because of func-
tional inability of the joint to fulfill its role as a shock
absorber, insufficiently attenuated shock waves will
overload the proximal joint and the process of degen-
erative change may occur. Even under normal physio-
logical conditions, the intermittent and continuously
repetitive shock waves tend to cause a slow progres-
sive weakening of the natural shock absorbers and may
later lead to articular cartilage degeneration and os-
teoarthritis.
Viscoelastic inserts have been used in these situa-
tions as artificial shock absorbers. Several studies have
shown that these materials reduce the amplitude of the
incoming shock waves bearing upon the musculoskel-
etal system because of heel trike.'^^'^
In the literature, several approximations have been
considered for the study of materials intended for ab-
sorbing the impact waves. The tests can be divided
into those that require subjects performing the move-
ments to be studied while wearing the materials consid-
ered in their shoes, and those that use machines in-
stead of subjects to simulate the forces applied to the
materials.” The first type, called “subject tests,” uses
force plates or accelerometers to investigate the ability
of the materials in reducing the peak of force associated
with heel contact or the transmission of the impact
along the skeleton. Tests using machines are usually
312 GARCiA ET AL. Foot & Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994

FZ

30 Kg.

Fz 20 ug.

I ‘
I ’

I I 20 ms t

1
FZ max. Fig. 2. Definitionof the load applied in the tests (ms = milliseconds).
FZ min.
called “material tests.” The advantage of the material
tests over the subject tests is that they are usually
t simpler and quicker because they are not subjected to
t Fz mtix. the intrinsic variability that subject tests involve. Be-
Fig. 1. Typical vertical ground reaction force recording and param- sides, material tests, if properly done, provide informa-
eters used for the definition of the load for the tests. tion about the mechanicalcharacteristicsof the material
under use conditions and not only about its effect upon
the subject’s body. The most recommended procedure
is to investigate the material characteristics extensively
TABLE 1
Approximate Density for Each Material and Thickness with material tests and, in a second stage, to validate
Thickness Density
the results obtained by carrying out tests involving
Material subjects.”
(mm) (g/mm3)
lmplus 5.5 0.008 The material tests that appear in the literature can
3.4 0.011 be divided into those that measure some parameters,
1.7 0.01 1 such as force, acceleration, or deformation as a result
Noene 8.4 0.013 of a drop t e ~ t , ’ and
* ~ *those
~ that study the stress-strain
- (I

2.2 0.016
characteristics of the material^.^.'.^ These tests have
Poron 1 6.5 0.006 some shortcomings. One of them is that forces, accel-
4.7 0.006 erations, and deformations measured during the impact
2.2 0.008 can depend on the dropping mass, the dropping height,
Poron 5 6.0 0.006
4.7 0.006
and the area of contact with the surface.” In most of
2.2 0.008 them, only the peak magnitudes are considered, which
Sorbothane 8.0 0.032 also has the disadvantage of lost information that can
4.0 0.035 be useful for understanding the cushioning abilities of
2.1 0.032
the materials. The tests that determine the stress-strain
a Four-mm samples of Noene were made with two layers 2-mm
characteristics of the materials are, in most cases, done
thick each.
with load histories usually slower than those occurring
in real situations. Because of the viscoelastic nature of
the materials studied, their rigidity increases with fre-
quency. This means that if this parameter is studied
TABLE 2 with loads of lower frequencies than the real ones, a
Results of the Walking Experiments material can seem soft when it is actually hard under
Shod Unshod P the real conditions.’
Fzmax 330 f 30 N 500 f 30 N .0005 When properly done, material tests address two main
Fzmin 230 f 20 N 230 f 15 N .97 problems: (1) the nonlinearity of the materials under the
tFzm 21.9 f 0.8msec 16.6 f 0.5 msec .OOOO loads developed, and (2) the frequencydependent

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Foot & Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994 INSOLE MATERIAL DYNAMIC STUDY 313

ALL THICKNESSES

100

75

50

25

..j ........ .
I.. * * . . . . I . *.,!*...,...*......,...,...i.. ..., ,,,...,....* , ...!.,,...........*, ,,.,,..!....,,........,.......* .;....* *. .............*. ;...
I I I I 1
I MPLUS NOENE PORONl PORONJ SORB

MATER IA LS
Fig. 3. Results of loss tangent for all the materials, frequencies, and thicknesses.

characteristics of the materials due to their viscoelastic lated. For example, a quite soft material can be very
nature. elastic (not absorbing) and, in contrast, a quite rigid
The first problem requires studying the materials material can be viscoelastic (energy absorbing).' The
under loads similar to those developed in real situations, optimum characteristics are a low rigidity to reduce the
because their mechanical characteristics (rigidity and force transmitted to the body and a high energy-ab-
energy-absorbing capacity) depend on the level of the sorbing capacity to reduce the energy transmitted to it.
load applied. The second problem means that the loads In viscoelastic materials, energy absorption depends
applied to the material have to be not only equal in level on frequency, while rigidity always increases with it.
to those occurring in real situations, but also applied in High frequencies are associated with rapid impacts,
the same interval of time. Besides, a study of those which are considered the most prejudicial to the mus-
characteristics as a function of frequency is required. culoskeletal system. Then, if the rigidity and the shock-
Two parameters are of main interest in the study of absorbing characteristics are analyzed as a function of
materials intended for cushioning: rigidity and energy- frequency, it is possible to know which frequencies are
absorbing capacity. The first is related mainly to the preferably absorbed. The aim now is to obtain low
force transmitted to the ,body while the second refers rigidity and high energy absorption at higher frequen-
to the energy that is dissipated and not transmitted to cies. A material with these characteristics will reduce
the body. These parameters are not necessarily corre- the most rapid part of the force and energy of vibration,

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314 GARCiA ET AL. Foot & Ankle InternationallVol. 15, No. GIJune 1994

TABLE 3 is the beginning of the stance phase and often there is

Multiple Range Tests of the Loss Tangent for All the Materials an impact between the heel and the ground that is
and Thicknesses’
called heel strike. This impact corresponds to the trans-
Homogeneous fer of body weight from the rear to forward foot during
Count Average
aroum
gait. In this phase, for a short period, the body is in free
All thicknesses fall from a height of about 1 cm.” There is a consider-
Poron 1 72 0.2650139
able variation between individuals in the level of force
Poron 5
lrnplus
72
72
0.3247923
0.3738428 .. applied in heel strike. Some people are said to glide the
Sorbothane 72 0.4005301 foot onto the ground while others are said to dig the
Noene 72 0.6616178 foot in.13
2 rnrn thickness We conducted experiments with a 27-year-old
Sorbothane 24 0.3154824
lrnplus 24 0.4330231 healthy male weighing 89 kg who showed a marked
Poron 5 24 0.4632989 heel strike peak. This was done to subject the materials
Poron 1 24 0.4680370 studied to hard conditions. The subject was asked to
Noene 24 0.6094806 walk at several velocities, ranging from a quick walking
4 rnrn thickness without running to slow walking. Velocities, ranging
Poron 1 24 0.1345703
Poron 5 24 0.2899181 from 0.89 meters/sec to 1.4 meters/sec, were meas-
lrnplus 24 0.3365556 ured by means of two pairs of photocellules placed a
Sorbothane 24 0.4826791 distance of 8 meters, with the force plate between
Noene 24 0.6785838 them. Ground reaction forces of 20 right foot supports,
6 rnm thickness 10 shod and 10 unshod, were measured by a Dinascan
Poron 1 24 0.1924344
Poron 5 24 0.2211598 force plate at 500 Hz. The shoes worn by the subject
lrnplus 24 0.3519497 for the shod condition test had hard leather soles to
Sorbothane 24 0.4034288 produce high heel impacts. A parametric study of the
Noene 24 0.6967891 data obtained with the force plate was performed. The
95% Confidence intervals. parameters considered were: maximal vertical force
(Fzmax), time of the maximal vertical force ( t F z m a x ) , and
which, as mentioned above, is considered more dam- vertical force at the first minimum (Fzmin) (Fig. 1).
aging. Time was measured from the instant the foot first
Due to the need to simulate the loads applied in real touched the platform (Fig. 1). A multifactor analysis of
situations under the movement studied, a biomechani- variance of these parameters was performed with ve-
cal analysis of this movement was needed. Time history locity as a covariant and situation (shod or unshod) as
of the forces applied was studied to simulate them with a factor. Fzmax and f F z m m parameters were used to
the testing machine used. define the peak value and time of the impact applied to
In most of the material tests that appear in the the materials, while Fzmin was used to define the
literature, the materials are not studied under load preload applied. The preload was applied because, as
histories similar to those occurring when the heel con- mentioned above, most of the materials studied do not
tacts with the ground. In most of them, only one of the behave as linear materials under the loads applied.
aforementioned parameters is studied. Nevertheless, if only a part of the stress-strain curve is
The purpose of present study was to determine the considered, the linear approximation is more applicable.
loads applied in walking and its simulation by means of Consequently, a preload of a level similar to the mini-
a dynamic testing machine. Both the rigidity and the mum after the impact peak was applied. The latter
energy-absorbingcapacity of some materials are inves- allowed us to conduct the tests in linear conditions as
tigated as a function of frequency. well as to simulate, as closely as possible, the real
conditions. In Figure 2, the definition of the load applied
METHODOLOGY to the materials is shown.
The material tests were done using an lnstron (model
The methodology used in this study (see Appendix) 8501) dynamic-testing machine controlled by a com-
required that the loads applied by the material testing puter. Analogical electric output signals of the load and
apparatus be initially determined based on the impact displacement transducers were obtained from the rear
forces calculated as the subject walked over a force panel of the testing machine console. These signals
platform. As the materials studied in this work were were used as input signals for a Rockland cross-chan-
intended for absorbing the impact on heel strike while nel spectrum analyzer (model 58206) to obtain the load
walking, a study of those forces was done. Heel contact and displacement spectrums and the transfer function

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Foot & Ankle Intemational/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994 INSOLE MATERIAL DYNAMIC STUDY 315
IPIPLUS NOENE PORONl PORON5 SORBOTHANE
! ! I ! ! ! I ! ! I I
8. 8 .?......:.......j . . .... :.......:. .................:................ .......:. ......1.

.................!... . ...... : ...... .......1.

;

............................ .............

............................... . . . . . I . . ......

I 1 1
2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6

THICKNESS (mm)
Fig. 4. Results of loss tangent for all the materials and for each thickness.

(equivalent to the complex impedance) as a function of

frequency. From the amplitude of the transfer function,
the rigidity can be obtained and the tangent of the
TABLE 4 phase shift between load and displacement is directly
Slope and Regression Coefficientsof Loss Tangent as a the loss tangent (the rate of energy lost to the energy
Function of Freauencv
stored).
Thickness Regression The materials studied were: Implus, Noene, Poron 1
Material Slope (4
(mm)
grade, Poron 5 grades, and Sorbothane. lmplus (Texon,
Noene 2 85+8 €4 0.85 USM, Leicester, England) is a PVC foam of opencell
4 99k9 E-4 0.85
6 47 + 1 1 €-4 0.40 structure. Noene is a material with a basis of a micro-
lrnplus 2 1+4 €4 0.00 air elastomer first developed for vibration isolation of
4 -27k3 €4 0.83 machines. Poron (Rogers Corp., East Woodstock, CT)
6 -36+4 €4 0.75
Poron 1 2 -22+5 €4 0.39
is a cellular urethane available in various grades. We
4 -65+4 E-4 0.92 selected the two most commonly used in footwear
6 -78*3 €4 0.96 applications. Sorbothane (Sorbothane, Inc., Kent, OH)
Poron 5 2 -16 f 7 €4 0.13 is a viscoelastic polymer.
4 -50+5 E-4 0.82
6 -50+4 €4 0.84 Mean values of eight consecutive impacts were con-
Sorbothane 2 7*8 €4 0.00 sidered for each measure in each test sample. The
4 14+5 €4 0.21 samples had an area and a shape similar to the heel (a
6 -13+6 E-4 0.12 circle of 50 mrn of diameter).

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316 GARCiA ET AL. Foot & Ankle InternationallVol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994
THICKNESS 2mm THICKNESS 4mm THICKNESS 6mm
..................................................
.1 .1 1. 1. 1. 1.. 1. 1. .. .1 .1 ..1 .1. .1. .1. .1. .1. ..
.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . .
.................................................
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. . . . . . .
... ...
... ...
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
. .
............ ... ... ....
.. .. . .
... ..
.. ... . .. ..
.. .. . .. ..
... ... . .
. .
............. . .. .. .. .. . ..
\ . . . . \ . . . . . . . . . I . . . I

..... ..... ... ... ... ...

....

....

If....................................................
j
. . . . . . . .
j
. . . . . . . . .
j j i f ;j
j f

. . . . . . . . . .
1 1 1 1 I I I I '
5 10 15 20 25 3 0 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

FR EQU ENCY (Hz)

Fig. 5. Results of rigidity for each thickness as a function of frequency: A , Noene.

Three samples of each material and thickness were
tested. Besides, some measurements were made of
multilayer samples of those materials that showed a
decrease in density with thickness.
Sample thicknesses were considered to be 2, 4, and
6 mm for all the samples to simplify statistical analysis.
The thicknesses studied corresponded to the thick-
nesses closest to those mentioned above and available
commercially. Two-layer samples of 2-mm thick Noene
were studied to simulate 4-mm thick samples, which
were unavailable. Actual thicknesses and approximate
densities are shown in Table 1.
RESULTS
A multifactor analysis of variance of the parameters
used for the definition of the load, to be applied by the
testing machine, was performed, with velocity as a
covariant and situation (shod or unshod) as a factor.
For all of the parameters studied, changes with velocity
were not significant (P > .05), but for Fzmax and ffzmax,
condition variations were significant (P < .001). In Table
2, the results of the walking experiment are shown. As
shown, the force at the peak is higher for the unshod
condition and appears earlier than in shod condition.
Although the unshod condition produced higher im-
pacts, as the materials studied would be placed inside
a shoe, the parameters considered for designing the
tests were the ones corresponding to the shod condi-
tion. A peak of 10 kg from a preload of 20 kg and
applied in 20 msec was considered for the tests (Fig.
2). As shown, these values are approximately the mean
values for a shod condition: preload was approximately
equal to Fzmin and impact peak was equal to Fzmax
minus Fzmin. With these values, the materials were
studied with loads similar in level and in frequency
content to those acting in use conditions.
An analysis of variance of the data of loss tangent
for all the thicknesses and frequencies, considering
material as a factor, shows significant differences be-
tween materials (P < .001). A multiple range test with
a significance of 95% showed that Noene is significantly
different from the rest of the materials, with the highest

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Foot & Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994 INSOLE MATERIAL DYNAMIC STUDY 317

THICKNESS 2mm THICKNESS 4mm THICKNESS 6mm

B
. .1 .1 .1 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. . . .1 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1:.....1:.. ...:..
0.64 :. .. :... ...........................
.. ......... .. .. .. .. .:. .. ...:......:.. ...... :... ... .. ...........................
: . . . . . . .
.. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
I..

. . . . . . . . . .
... ... ... ... . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. .
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. .. :. :. j ;
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . .
0.54 ..: .......... ;
.. .. .. .. :...... :......:..
.. ...............................
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
. . . . . . . . . .
I- ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
z ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
W
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . .
(3 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
z .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
2 0.44 .:........ . ..: ..............................
. . . . :.. . ..:....
. :.

v) ..
v) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
0
1

..................................................
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

:l
0.34
. . . . . . . .
.. .. .
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
.. ..
... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

.. .. .. .. .. . . .
.................................................
0.24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' I I I # I I I
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 58. Results of rigidity for each thickness as a function of frequency: 6 ,Sorbothane.

loss tangent and therefore the highest energy-absorb- and Noene, which remains the most energy absorbent.
ing capacity. Poron 1 showed the lowest loss tangent Results of multiple range tests are shown in Table 3,
of all the materials. lmplus has a loss tangent similar to and in Figure 4, the results of loss tangent are shown
Poron 5 and Sorbothane, which were significantly dif- for each thickness and material.
ferent from each other, with Sorbothane being the more The changes in shock-absorbing capacity according
energy absorbent. The results of loss tangent for all to thickness are due to the unexpected reduction of
the materials, frequencies, and thicknesses are shown loss tangent with thickness displayed by lmplus and
in Figure 3, and the multiple range test results are Poron materials. To investigate the reduction of energy-
shown in Table 3. absorbing capacity observed in Poron and Implus, sam-
If the same study is done for each thickness, inter- ples of two and three 2-mm thick layers were measured.
esting results are obtained. For example, for a thick- This was done because it was observed that thicker
ness equal to 2 mm, there are three clearly distinct samples of these materials had a lower density. In the
groups: Noene with the higher loss tangent; Implus, multilayer samples, the reduction of energy-absorbing
Poron 1, and Poron 5 with similar values; and Sorbo- capacity with thickness disappeared.
thane with the lowest values. If the thickness is higher, In regard to variation of loss tangent with frequency,
4 mm, Poron 1, Poron 5, and lmplus reduce their three types of behavior were encountered. Implus, Po-
energy-absorbingcapacity, showing a significant differ- ron l , and Poron 5 showed a significant (P < .001)
ence with respect to Sorbothane. When the thickness reduction of energy-absorbingcapacity with frequency,
is 6 mm, this reduction creates three distinct groups: while Noene showed an increase of energy-absorbing
Poron 1 and Poron 5 with the lowest loss tangent, capacity with frequency. Sorbothane did not show a
lmplus and Sorbothane with a medium loss tangent, clear variation of energy-absorbing capacity with fre-

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318 GARCiA ET AL. Foot ?L Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994

THICKNESS 21nm THICKNESS 4mm THICKNESS 6mm

C ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
.. . . . . . . . . ..
.I .I .I .I .I .I
............................................... .I I.
0.48 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
.. . . . . . . . . .
.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
0.43

I-
Z
w 0.38
c3
Z
a
I-
v)
cn 0.33
0
-I

0.28

:. :. :. :. :. : : :
..
.
..
..
.. . . .
.. ... ... .. .. .. .
; ; Il i
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
... .
0.23 . ..,.. ...,.. ....................................
I . ,
. . . . . . *, . . . . ....................................
. . . . . . . . I . .
. . . . . . .
I I I I I I I I ’ I I I I I I I I ’
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 5C. Results of rigidity for each thickness as a function of frequency: C, Irnplus.

quency (P > .7) (see Table 4 for slopes and regression
coefficients). For example, the results of Noene, Sor-
bothane, and lmplus as a function of frequency and
thickness are presented in Figure 5.
An analysis of variance of rigidity for all the materials,
thicknesses, and frequencies, considering material as
a factor, shows significant differences between mate-
rials (P < .OOl). A multiple range test with a significance
of 95% showed that there are three groups of materials:
Poron 1 and Poron 5, with no significant differences
between them and with the lower rigidity, Noene and
Implus, with a rigidity significantly higher than Poron,
and Sorbothane, which showed the highest rigidity (see
Table 5). The dispersion of the results is very small for
Poron, a bit higher for lmplus and Noene, and very high
for Sorbothane. This is clear in Figure 6, where the
results of rigidity for all the materials are shown. As we
will see, this is due to the significant bottoming out of
Sorbothane, moderate bottoming out of lmplus and
Noene, and mild bottoming out of Poron. “Bottoming
out” means an increase of rigidity due to a flattening of
the material. This phenomenon makes a material that
appears to be soft actually behave as a hard material
when it is completely flattened. The bottoming out
phenomenais clear when a material increases its rigidity
in an unexpected amount for thinner samples.
If the same study is done for all the thicknesses, the
increase of rigidity of Sorbothane, when the thickness
decreases, is clear (Fig. 7). For thicknesses of 2 and 4
mm, the groups stated above are maintained, but at 6
mm, the rigidity of Sorbothane is lower than that of
Implus, and four groups appear: Poron 1 and 5 with
the lower rigidity, Noene with a rigidity similar to Poron
5, Sorbothane with a rigidity between Noene and Im-
plus, and the latter with the highest rigidity (see Table
5).
To investigate the variation of rigidity with thickness
and frequency for each material, an analysis of variance
was done, considering thickness as a factor and fre-
quency as covariant. All the materials showed a normal
decrease of rigidity with thickness except Sorbothane,
for which the rigidity of thinner samples is higher than
expected. In Figure 7, the rigidity variations for each
material as a function of thickness can be seen.

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Foot & Ankle Intemational/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994 INSOLE MATERIAL DYNAMIC STUDY 319
TABLE 5 developed in the typical movements of the sport con-
Multiple Range Tests of the Rigidity for All Materials and
sidered should be done. The latter is very important
Thicknesses’
because in sport movements, such as running and
Homogeneous
Count Average jumping, the vertical forces developed are much higher
groups
than those of gait.” Then, a material that does not
All thicknesses
show bottoming out for forces in walking can be com-
Poron 5 72 896885.6
Poron 1 72 909995.1 pletely flattened under the loads developed in jumping.
Noene 72 2237338.6 The use of devices for measuring pressure plantar
lrnplus 72 2507190.9 distribution can also be of great interest in the study of
Sorbothane 72 6399179.2 footwear materials. It would allow the study and design
2 rnrn thickness
of midsoles and insoles with different distributions of
Poron 1 24 1224482
Poron 5 24 1247298 materials whose characteristics can be precisely deter-
Noene 24 3830255 mined for the loads developed in each region.
lrnplus 24 4165294 Both rigidity and loss tangent of the materials have
Sorbothane 24 12077480 been studied. These mechanical parameters are classic
4 rnrn thickness
in the study of viscoelastic materials and are the ones
Poron 5 24 769025.2
Poron 1 24 965004.7 that have a clear physical meaning. Knowledge of the
lrnplus 24 1853488.7 mechanical characteristics of the materials used in foot-
Noene 24 21 18481.2 wear can permit, by using adequate models, the study
Sorbothane 24 5923530.5 of the foot-footwear system. This would help to clarify
6 mrn thickness
the relationship between the mechanical characteristics
Poron 1
Poron 5
24
24
540498.4
674333.3 .. of the materials and the effect that they have on the
Noene 24 763279.7 loads applied to the foot and its movements during
Sorbothane 24 1196526.6 locom~tion.~ The depth of penetration of the probe in
lrnplus 24 1502790.0 the shore A test, or the maximum peak of acceleration
a 95% Confidence intervals. in the drop test, does not allow us to go any further
than trying to find relationships between these param-
In all the materials, as expected, an increase of eters and the forces or movements developed. Never-
rigidity with frequency was observed. This increase was theless, these results cannot be used to a better un-
higher for thinner materials and for the materials that derstanding of the biomechanics of foot-footwear inter-
showed a higher energy-absorbing capacity. In Table actions. Sometimes, when only these parameters can
6, the slopes and regression coefficients for all the be determined, surprising results can be found, such
materials and thicknesses are shown and, in Figure 8, as that mechanical characteristics of the materials do
variations of rigidity with frequency and thicknesses for not influence the loads developed in the shoeground
Noene materials are shown. interface.12 These problems, usually found in the liter-
ature, can be attributed to the fact that cushioning is
probably badly related to shore A level or acceleration
DISCUSSION in a dropping test. Nevertheless, it is probably better
related to the rigidity and shock-absorbing capacity of
A new methodology for the biomechanical study of the footwear materials under the loads developed. Fur-
footwear materials is presented. It is based on the ther investigationsare needed for studying the relation-
determination of the loads applied to the materials in ship between rigidity and loss tangent of the materials
real situations and its simulation by means of a dynamic with the loads applied upon the foot. Also, studies to
testing machine. A biomechanical study of the impact determine the levels of rigidity and loss tangent opti-
peak of vertical force during gait of a subject that mum for each foot region and each movement are
showed a marked impact peak was done. This provides needed.
the parameters used for the definition of the test (max- An important fact that should be considered is the
imum vertical force, time of maximum vertical force, frequency-dependent behavior of these materials. This
and preload). In general, a systematic study of the knowledge can be very important in improving modeling
levels of load developed by the population for whom of the materials and in determining which frequencies
the footwear is intended should be done if high nonlin- are preferably absorbed or cushioned.
earity of the materials studied is encountered. In the The methodology proposed in this article can help
same way, if the materials are intended for special the biomechanic specialist to better understand the
footwear, such as for sport shoes, a study of the loads materials used in footwear and their effect on the

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320 GARCiA ET AL. Foot & Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994

19

15.2

-
\
E
11.4

t
En 7.6

3.8

MATER IALS
Fig. 6. Results of rigidity for all the materials, frequencies, and thicknesses.

movements and loads applied to the foot, as well as
help the physician or shoemaker to select the best
material for a particular application. Significant differ-
ences between materials and different behavior with
thickness and frequency can be found that can help
them in their selection.
CONCLUSIONS
A new method for studying footwear materials has
been proposed. This method has been applied to the
study of some commercially available viscoelastic ma-
terials intended for shoe inserts. The main results of
this study can be summarized as follows.
Of the materials studied, Noene showed the best
energy-absorbing capacity for all the thicknesses and
showed an increase of energy-absorbing capacity with
frequency. Relating to stiffness, Noene showed higher
rigidity than Poron and rigidity similar to that of Implus.
Poron materials were the least rigid of all the materials
studied for all the thicknesses. Its low rigidity makes it
useful for applications that require adequate pressure
distribution. Sorbothane is a good shock-absorbing
material, but it presents a significant bottoming out
phenomena, which requires careful selection of thick-
ness to avoid flattening of the material.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Scholl International Research and
Development for financial support, and the Spanish
Interministry Commission for Science and Technology
(ref. no. 3697) for general support in research on bio-
mechanics applied to shoe design.
APPENDIX
Information on the rigidity and shock-absorbing char-
acteristics of a material can be obtained from its com-
plex impedance.

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foot & Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994
I MPLUS

..
.
.
NOENE

.............................

.
.
..
PORON1

............................. -
INSOLE MATERIAL DYNAMIC STUDY
PORONJ

I ;
SORBOTHANE
!

.
.
I

.
.
!
............... ...... ....... ............................
:
:
321

:I

..............................
. . ............................ ............................
. .
. .

................................ .......... ........... ............

.. ..
. .
. .
..... ...... . .:.. .....:. .....;
..............
. .
. .

>
...... ...... ..............................

;
.............................. ............................. I

1 I 1 I I I I
2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6

THICKNESS (mm)
Fig. 7. Results of rigidity for all the materials and for each thickness.

Assuming a material has linear behavior, its complex

impedance is defined as the stress to strain ratio:
TABLE 6 G ( w ) = a(w)/t(w).
Slope and Regression Coefficients of Rigidity as a Function of
Freauencv Considering a harmonic stress excitation of frequency
Material
Thickness Regression equal to w , let the stress be given by:
(mm) Slope (s) coefficient
~ ( w=) c0 sin (wt).
Noene 2 74 f 3 E-3 0.95
4 42.7 f 1.5 E-3 0.97
6 17.2 + 0.7 E-3 0.97 Then, the steady-state strain is:
lmplus 2 67 f 6 E-3 0.93
4 27.6 f 1.1 E-3 0.96 t(w)= to sin (wt - 6(w))
6 23 f 3 E-3 0.76
Poron 1 2 21.8 f 0.7 E-3 0.97 with 6(w) as the phase shift angle. In complex repre-
4 *
11.1 0.7 E-3 0.91 sentation,
6 8.0 f 0.5 E-3 0.92
Poron 5 2 21.6 f 0.8 E-3 0.96
G ( w ) = ao(w)/to(w)e jNW) = G + jG2
4 12.4 f 0.8 E-3 0.92
6 10.2 f 0.5 E-3 0.94 = ~ ~ ( w ) / t , ( cos
w ) 6(w) ~c,(w)/E,(w)sin 6(w)+
Sorbothane 2 15f4 E-4 0.39"
4 10f7 E-4 0.907 where the real part is related to the stored energy in
6 20.3 + 1.5 E-3 0.89 each cycle and the imaginary part to the lost energy in
' High dispersion between samples. each cycle. 4.1

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322 GARCiA ET AL. Foot & Ankle International/Vol. 15, No. 6IJune 1994

THICKNESS 2mm THICKNESS 4mm THICKNESS 6mm

. .I .I I. I. I. I. I. I. . .. . . . . . 1.. 1.. 1.. ..

.1 .1 1. 1. 1.
.; .... :.. ... :.. ............................
. . . . .....:.....:.. ..................................................
: .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .
:. .: :. :. :.
............................
:. :. i j
,....,...., ....,......
;j
n
(D
u1
F

X
Y

n
E
t
Y

>
!I
-
n
-
(3 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .
U
Iti ..
...
..
.
..
: ..../-.....-l

..
:
.
..
:
..
..
.
..
:
..
.
..
:
..
.
..

. .
:
..
.
..

. ... ... ... .. ... ..

:
..
.
..
:
..
.
..
..
.
..
I 4
..
:

. .
. -. . . . .. .. .. .. .
. . .
. .. . .. . .. . .. . ... ... ... . .. . .. . .. .
. ..................................................
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
_ I

I I I I 1 I I I ..
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 48 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 8. Results of rigidity of Noene for each thickness as a function of frequency.

The ratio of imaginary part to real part is equal to the
ratio of energy lost to energy stored in one cycle and
is usually called "loss tangent." The loss tangent is then
a parameter that expresses the energy-absorbing ca-
pacity of a material in the sense of energy not trans-
mitted to the body.
The module of the complex impedance I G I = ao(w)/
to(w)gives the rigidity of the material.
As any given timedependent signal can be ex-
pressed as a linear superposition of infinite harmonic
signals by means of the Fast Fourier transformation,
the complex impedance of a material as a function of
frequency can be obtained by means of two main
methods: (1) exciting the materials with successive
harmonic signals of the frequencies required6-'and (2)
exciting the material with any load containing significant
components at the frequencies required and computing
the Fast Fourier transformation of the load and dis-
placement signals. The complex impedance can then
be obtained as the transfer function at each frequency
defined as the ratio between the components of load
and displacement at that freq~ency.~
The second method has the advantage of being
much more rapid and the exciting load can be the load
measured in real situation^.^
According to the methodology used here, the study
of footwear materials should be done in four stages:
(1) a biomechanical study of the movement involved,
(2) design of the test, (3)development of the tests, and
(4) statistical treatment of the results.
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