LWDmod Program Guide

for
DYNATEST 3031 LWD
Light Weight Deflectometer

OWNER’S MANUAL
Version 1.0.0
This document is subject to change without notice. No part of this document may be reproduced
in any form without written permission of Dynatest.

© 2006 Dynatest International A/S. All rights reserved

Arial and Times New Roman are registered trademarks of The Monotype Corporation PLC.
IBM is a registered trademark of International Business Machines Corporation.
Any other trademark is a registered trademark of the respective company.

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 Table of Contents
1 Unlicensed use of LWDmod.................................................................................................5
2 Registration.........................................................................................................................6
3 General.................................................................................................................................8
3.1 Field Test Procedures................................................................................................8
3.2 Testing.......................................................................................................................8
3.3 Raw Data Files..........................................................................................................9
3.4 Preparing Data for Analysis......................................................................................9
3.5 Deleting Drops and Points........................................................................................9
3.6 Analysis Techniques................................................................................................11
3.6.1 Selecting drops............................................................................................11
3.6.2 Structural input............................................................................................11
3.6.3 Seed values..................................................................................................12
3.6.4 Tests with multiple geophones....................................................................12
3.6.5 Results.........................................................................................................12
4 Main Menu........................................................................................................................13
5 Settings...............................................................................................................................15
5.1 Language.................................................................................................................15
5.2 Units........................................................................................................................15
5.3 Sort Points by..........................................................................................................15
5.4 Import Load/Deflection History.............................................................................16
5.5 Default Analysis Settings........................................................................................16
6 Project and File Handling................................................................................................17
6.1 Create and Open Projects........................................................................................17
6.2 To import LWD raw data files................................................................................18
6.3 Open a File from Project.........................................................................................19
6.4 To Compact a database...........................................................................................20
6.5 Delete Options........................................................................................................20
7 Edit Data............................................................................................................................21
8 Analysis of Data................................................................................................................22
8.1 Selecting Point........................................................................................................23
8.2 File Settings............................................................................................................24
8.3 Structure and Seed Values.......................................................................................26
8.4 Graphical View.......................................................................................................29
8.5 Calculation of Elastic Moduli.................................................................................29
8.6 Calculation of Required Overlay Thickness...........................................................32
9 Report................................................................................................................................33
10 Plot......................................................................................................................................35
10.1 Plot - Options..........................................................................................................35

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 10.1.1 Normalize to................................................................................................35
10.1.2 Select sensor................................................................................................35
10.1.3 Show drops..................................................................................................36
10.1.4 Mean and Deviation....................................................................................36
10.2 Plots - Rawdata.......................................................................................................36
10.2.1 Plots - Deflections.......................................................................................36
10.2.2 Plots - Surface Deflection Moduli...............................................................39
10.2.3 Plots - Time History....................................................................................41
10.2.4 Hysteresis....................................................................................................42
10.2.5 Plots - Drop Statistics..................................................................................43
10.3 Plots - Backcalculation...........................................................................................43
10.3.1 Elastic Moduli.............................................................................................43
10.3.2 Non-linearity...............................................................................................44
10.3.3 Compare deflections....................................................................................44
10.3.4 RMS............................................................................................................45
10.4 Plots - Design..........................................................................................................46
10.5 Plots - Copy Graph..................................................................................................46
10.6 Plots - Sectioning....................................................................................................46
11 Demo File...........................................................................................................................48

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1 Unlicensed use of LWDmod
LWDmod is delivered as standard with the LWD 3031 equipment. It can be installed on any
computer running Windows 2000 (SP4) or Windows XP.

As long as the software installation is not licensed (unlicensed mode), the functionalities are
limited to report facilities, except for the included DEMO database, where all functionalities
are available. On the first 10 starts of LWDmod a registration window is displayed at start up.
If you have not purchased a license to full use of the software then just click OK to proceed to
the Main window. If you have purchased a license then use the registration window to request
the license file (see: 2 - Registration).

On the first 10 starts all functionalities are available in unlicensed mode, hereafter only the
DEMO database will allow access to all functionalities.

License to LWDmod can at any time be purchased from Dynatest. (Just send an e-mail to your
contact person, or to softwaresales@dynatest.com.

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2 Registration
Each installation on a new computer requires a request for a license file for the specific
computer to make LWDmod run in full mode. When starting the LWDmod program, a
registration form will automatically pop up, if no license is present for the computer. This
registration form must be used when requesting the license from Dynatest. When the window
no more popup automatically, you can access it from: Help > Registration

If you do not wish to register at this point, you can press the OK button, and the program will
continue to the main menu. The first 10 times you start the program without a license file, you
can use it with all facilities. Hereafter the program will convert to "Unlicensed mode". In
"Unlicensed mode" the Analysis and Plot functionalities will only work with a DEMO
database located in the LWDmod program folder (see: Demo File). The Import and Report
facilities will still work with all files.

If you would like to request the license file, then press the button "Mail to Dynatest". You will
then be asked to enter the name of your company or institution, and to identify your home
country from a list.

Next you will have the window, as shown below, where you can accept or reject the license
conditions.

Please use the scroll button at the right to see all text in the license agreement.

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If you accept the agreement the program will start up your default e-mail service, and prepare
a new e-mail with certain information placed in the header lines. All you have to do is send
the e-mail. Dynatest will mail back the license file, normally within 24 hours. If you choose
not to accept the agreement, then the program will convert into a DEMO version.

If one of these situations occurs:

 You don’t have e-mail service on the computer.

 The e-mail service does not start automatically.
 The wrong e-mail service is starting.
 The header line is empty.

Then please use the other button "I don’t have email facilities on this computer". This
procedure will save the necessary information to a text file "Mail_to_Dynatest.txt" in the
Elmod5 Program directory. Next you can attach this file to an email to Dynatest using your
normal e-mail service.

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3 General
3.1 Field Test Procedures
Before doing the field testing it is recommended to have and to follow general guidelines for
the field tests. This will ensure that the collected data are of best possible quality and that they
are representative regarding the purpose of the testing. It will also be beneficial in case of later
testing where results have to be compared.

The Danish Road Directorate has in cooperation with manufacturers and consultants worked
out some general description of the technology and guidelines for testing, analysis and
reporting: Vejteknisk Institut: Måling af overflademodul med minifaldlod. Udkast til
provisorisk prøvningsmetode. Maj 2006.

This is a draft only available in Danish. The following contains extracts from this guide.

In general it is advisable to measure each test point with a variation in plate size and load
levels.

LWDmod is able to utilize this in estimation of layer thickness, and determination of non-
linearity in the subgrades. When testing on unbound materials following stress levels should
preferable be obtained:

Granular base layers: 200 – 300 kPa

Sub base layers: 100 – 200 kPa
Solid subgrades: 50 – 100 kPa
Soft subgrades: 10 – 60 kPa

The centre deflections should be in the range from 300 microns to 2200 microns, preferable in
the range from 500 microns to 1500 microns. It should also be ensured that the pulse duration
time is as expected, by having the correct buffer configuration. Normal pulse times will be in
the range from 15 to 25 ms. The pulse time will change with the types of buffers used.

3.2 Testing
To get a correct and useful test results, it is very important to make sure, that there is a good
contact between the plate and the surface, to obtain an even stress distribution under the plate.
Remove stones and other objects that could be disturbing. If the surface is uneven, it is
recommended to put a thin layer of well graduated sand to make the surface even, and so the
plate will be positioned as horizontal as possible.

Before the drop is released, use the geophone repositioning device to re-centre the sensor.
Check also that the input values on the computer are set correctly, especially for the plate
radius.

Do the number of drops as required, use different drop heights and as many drops as
necessary to get stable readings for the deflections.

During testing check regularly that the essential parts of the testing device is free of dirt.

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Tests on very cohesive or moistened soft subgrades can cause difficulties. For this purpose the
plug to put in the centre of the plate for locking the centre geophone can be used.

3.3 Raw Data Files

LWDmod can import two types of raw data files. The normal type to use is the *.kdb file
generated on the PDA during testing. Alternatively raw data can be imported from Excel files,
which have the format of the Excel export from the previous Keros Toolbox program. This
option is mainly to secure backwards compatibility, although older versions of the KDB files
also can be imported.

Regarding the import from Excel files you must be very careful not to change anything in the
format or structure of the file. Please follow these main rules:

 Changes in column headings or name of the sheets are not allowed.

 Do not delete points or drops in the Excel file. This must be done from the
LWDmod program.
 Fields with time or date must not be edited.
 Inserting or deleting columns or rows is not allowed.

3.4 Preparing Data for Analysis

Before doing any analysis it is important to ensure that the data are of the best possible
quality, and structured in an appropriate manner.

5 steps are involved to secure the quality:

1. Prepare the field testing accurately and preferable follow a standard procedure.
See: 3.1- Field Test Procedures

2. Correct mistakes from the field testing resulting in poor or wrong data.
See: 7 - Edit Data

3. Name points (locations) and files logically, to avoid identification problems.

4. Use the facilities in LWDmod to eliminate points or drops with test results that are
obviously not suited for analysis. See: Deleting Drops and Points

5. Use the facilities in LWDmod to select the drops for analysis that are suited for the
purpose of the analysis. See: 8.2 - File Settings and 3.6 - Analysis Techniques

3.5 Deleting Drops and Points

The deflections varies according to physical laws with load size and plate size, but other
effects could also influence the deflection reading like compaction of material during load
pulse, contact area between surface and plate, transversal movements of the geophone sensor
during the impact and cut-offs due to maximum values exceeded for the deflection.

An important step in the process of the results is therefore to eliminate drop which are not
suited for analysis. LWDmod provides facilities for detecting these drops and to remove them.

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From the Plots - Deflections facility it is possible to delete drops from the graphical interface.
Deflections that are unusual high will be seen from graphs. Remember first to normalize the
deflections.

From the Plots - Surface Deflection Moduli facility drops can be deleted as well. From these
graphs it is possible to see unusual high surface moduli, reflecting unusual low deflections.

From it is possible Edit Data it is possible both to delete single drops, and to delete a
complete test point, including all drops.

Use also the Plots - Time History graphs to find abnormalities. Drops with negative Offset
(the deflection curve settles below zero), and drops with significantly odd shapes should be
removed.

Following are examples of drops, and drop series which should be considered to be deleted:

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3.6 Analysis Techniques
This topic summarizes the tools and possibilities you have for analyzing the data to get the
most useful results. Please read first the Preparing Data for Analysis chapter.

3.6.1 Selecting drops

Be careful about which drops from a test point that are selected for the analysis. The selection
can be controlled from File Settings and by disabling single drops from the grid in the
analysis window. In general be aware of not using seating drops and drops with abnormal
deflection readings. If possible, include drops made with various load levels and plate sizes as
this information allows the analysis to calculate non-linearity and layer thickness.

It is easy and quick to change the drop selection, so use the facilities to experiment with
various settings to compare and select the most beneficial setup.

3.6.2 Structural input

For multi-layer systems the layer thickness should preferable be known from measurements
or construction data. In many cases when testing on older constructions the information is not
available, and the input may be based on the best guess. It may be useful to run the analysis

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with various input for the layer thickness to evaluate what gives the best fit and most reliable
E-values.

If drops are made with various plate sizes, the analysis will allow calculation of the top layer
thickness; however in some situations the iterations can go in the "wrong" direction and
produce unrealistic results.

3.6.3 Seed values

Seed values are the start values in the iteration procedures, and the results are often depending
on the choice of seed values. It is therefore important to enter these values as realistic as
possible. In some cases you may want to fix the value, by unchecking the box left to the input
field. If tests are made on sites, where bedrock close to the surface is a possibility, you should
include this option in the input values.

You have also the option to run new analysis, where the previous results are used as seed
values.

3.6.4 Tests with multiple geophones

Up to 3 geophones can be attached to the equipment. How valuable the input from the
additional geophones are will vary with the construction, the materials, the surface, the
contact and probably other factors. A first hint can be seen from the consistency of the
deflections from multiple drops. Remember to normalize, and to compare only drops with the
same plate size.

If results from the analysis using all geophone look suspicious, then try to analyze using only
the centre deflection. This option is available from File Settings.
If drops are made with multiple geophones, and various plate sizes, then it may be useful to
only use centre deflection for estimating top layer thickness, and following enable all
geophones and use the calculated top layer thickness as fixed input for a new analysis.

3.6.5 Results
Study the results both in the grid and in the result frame to evaluate the quality. In the grid
notice if any drops come out with especially high RMS values. It may then be appropriate to
run the analysis again without these drops included. Compare the results with any other
information you have about the tested structure to validate if they are within a reasonable
range.

You can try if results can be improved by increasing the input values to the iterations in terms
of Width, Steps and Alternate.

When running analysis for all points, remember to check the results for all points, and if some
come out with doubtful values, then try to redo analysis for these specific points, changing
some of the input parameters.

When evaluating the results for all points, then use the facilities for statistics and sectioning in
the PLOT feature.

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4 Main Menu

Some of the menu items may be disabled, if they have no relevance at the current stage, e.g.
you can not edit or analyze a data file before you have opened one.

In the example you see all menus are enabled, due to a file with analysis results is open. In the
title bar you can view information about project name and file name.

Following is a short description of each menu item:

 Clicking Project brings up this submenu:

Select Database to create a new database (project) or to open an existing one.

Select Datafile to open a data file from the current project or to import new LWD data
files.

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 Delete Options gives access to remove results or files from the project database.

At the bottom of the submenu there are shortcuts to access previously opened files.

See: 6.3 - Open a File from Project

 Clicking Edit Data gives access to view and edit information from an opened data
file.

See: 7 - Edit Data

 Select Analysis when a data file is open and ready to be analyzed. The analysis feature
gives possibility to calculate layer properties, and to perform overlay design based on
specifications to surface deflection modulus.

See: 8 - Analysis of Data

 In Plot you can view graphical presentations of test data and results generated from
the analysis. You have facilities to delete single points or drops from the data, to study
detailed drop information, and to export data tables, results and graphics.

See: 10 - Plot

 From Settings you can control some general parameters, like unit system, language
setup and import options.

See: 5 - Settings

 Report: This facility is used for generating data export to Excel sheets or Word
document.

See: 9 - Report

 From the Help menu you have following submenu:

Help opens the contents page of the Help file.

Registration opens the window for applying the license file to LWDmod. See: 2
-Registration.

The About menu displays information about the provider and version of software.

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5 Settings
When selecting Settings from the Main menu, some global setup parameters can be changed.
These settings are defaults, which will be used when new projects are created and new data
files are imported.

Do not confuse this option with File Settings accessible from the Analysis window for
defining parameters for the specific opened data file.

5.1 Language
Selecting a language will change all texts in the user interface to the language selected in the
drop down list box. Not all listed language options are available, as they have not yet been
translated. The Help file is only available in English.

5.2 Units
You can set to import data either in SI (Standard International) units or in US (US Customary
or Imperial) units. This will have effect when data are imported from the LWD raw data files
(*.kdb). If data are imported from Excel files, this setting has no effect, as LWDmod assumes
data already are in the correct units. The same project database can hold files in different unit
systems.

5.3 Sort Points by

This will define the sorting order of the points (locations) in the data file, when importing new
raw data. After import the sorting order cannot be changed, unless the raw file is re-imported.

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If the locations are entered as a numeric type format, then the file can be sorted according to
the numerical value of the location. Like for instance if chainages are used, then it will ensure
that 2.100 comes before 10.100. If instead Location was chosen, then 10.100 would come
before 2.100. Sorting by Time of Measurement means the order in the imported data file, will
be same as in the raw data file.

Test drops within a location, will always be sorted according to the time of measurement.

5.4 Import Load/Deflection History

This defines if the single drop’s time history should be imported when importing new raw
data. This makes it possible to generate the full load and deflections curves over time of the
load impact. In the PLOT features these curves can be studied and often they give valuable
information about the pavement and/or possible disturbing factors that could have influenced
the results. The disadvantage by importing these data is that they make the project database
bigger.
For more details see: 10 - Plot

5.5 Default Analysis Settings

The settings are defaults applied to new files imported to the project database. The values can
later be changed locally for a single file, using the menu File Settings from the Analysis
window.

For Design Parameters you can enter default values for both SI units and US units by
selecting the appropriate option button.

For more detailed information please see: 8.2 - File Settings.

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6 Project and File Handling
A project (project database) is a physical collection of imported data files in Microsoft Access
format. When using LWDmod all import and export goes from and to this database. Before
you can do anything else, you have to create a new project database or open and existing
project. Next step is then to either import new data files, or to open already imported files
from the project database.

The idea is to collect all data files belonging to a project into one physical location. A
reasonable number of files in one project database would be from 1 to 50 or 100, but there is
no upper limit, except that the size of the database could grow to an unmanageable size or the
performance would slow down at some stage.

6.1 Create and Open Projects

To create a new project database select: Project > Database > Create New

This will open the File Dialog Box:

Browse to the Folder where you want to save the Project and following apply a name to the
Project database. The standard extension .MDB should not be changed. Click Save. If the
filename already exists, you will be asked if you want to open the existing Project database. If
you select No, you will be asked if you want to overwrite the existing Project database.

The program will now create the new project database, which is empty except for some
default settings. The new project database will automatically become the current opened one,
so you do not have to open it before importing files.

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In the Windows Title Bar you will see the name of your database:

You are now ready to import LWD data files.

To open a project database select: Project > Database > Open

This will open the file dialog box:

When you browse you will see a list of *.MDB files (the standard extension for Access
databases). Select the appropriate project database by clicking the filename, and click Open.
Notice: If you select an Access database that is not created with LWDmod the program might
crash.

The database is now the current project and the name of the database is displayed in the
Windows Title Bar. You are now ready to open a file, or to import new files.

6.2 To import LWD raw data files

To import LWD raw data files select: Project > Datafile > Import

LWD Raw Data (kdb). You have also the possibility to import raw data from Excel files, in
case they are generated by the earlier Keros Toolbox program. (See 3.3- Raw Data Files)

You will get the file open dialog box:

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Browse to the folder, where you have the raw data files with LWD data, and select the
appropriate file. You will then have the opportunity to change the name under which the data
are stored in the project database:

Click OK and the import will begin. If a file with the specified name already exists in the
Project database, you will be asked if the existing file should be overwritten. The imported
file will be the current file as you will see in the Windows Title Bar.
To make another file from the current database the current file select:

6.3 Open a File from Project

Project > Datafile > Open from database file

You will then be presented for a list of all imported files in the current project database:

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Click the desired file, and it will open.

To make a copy of a datafile from the database to a new name, you will first open the
appropriate file, and then select Project > Datafile > Save file as

6.4 To Compact a database

To Compact a database select Project > Database > Compact.
This is only possible when a project database is open. When a project database has been used
for a while, with lots of imports and analysis, it grows bigger than necessary. Using this
option will reduce the physical size of the database.

6.5 Delete Options

Selecting Project > Delete Options gives access to remove results or files from the project
database or the complete project database with all files.

To delete a file, the file must be current. Deleting results will delete all results in terms of
back calculated moduli and overlay thicknesses from the current file.

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7 Edit Data
When a file is opened, you have the option of selecting Edit Data from the Main Window
for viewing and editing the raw data.

Editing data will only affect the imported data in the project database. The raw data from the
imported files can be re-imported to generate the original data.

All cells with white background can be edited by clicking the cell and entering a new value. A
complete point with all drops can be removed by using <Alt> + <Left Click> a Point No. A
single drop can be removed by selecting <Alt> + <Left Click> a Drop No.

In the Notes block you can add notes on file level. Point related notes can be added in the
Analysis window

Click Save when all changes are done or Cancel to regret.

Facilities for deleting drops are also available from Plots - Deflections. It is usually more
convenient to pinpoint the bad drops from this graphical interface, where also deflections
normalized to a specific stress level can be shown.

An example of a typical mistake is, if a wrong radius has been recorded in the field. This
should be corrected by changing the Radius for the appropriate drops. Making changes to
Radius or Load will automatically recalculate and update the Stress value.

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8 Analysis of Data
Selecting Analysis from the Main menu gives access to E – moduli calculations and design
calculations, statistics a.o. In unlicensed mode the facility is only available for the Demo
database. The menu item is enabled when a data file is open.

Before doing analysis, ensure that the data to be used are of the best possible quality (see:
Preparing Data for Analysis)

To do analysis you start selecting a single point from the file, and use the facilities in File
Settings to control number of drops to be included and other settings. You can then enter
pavement structure and seed values and following do the analysis. When you are satisfied
with the analysis for this point, you can select to calculate all points, based on the same input
values and settings.

If you later, after evaluating the results, wish to change some input values for specific points,
you can go back to the analysis windows, and handle these points individually, only saving
the results for the single point.

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8.1 Selecting Point
Click Analysis from Main menu.

Select Point to load test data from a point (location) into the analysis window:

The locations are listed in the window, and you can click a specific point to load the data:

The number of drops you will see in the grid depends on your current settings in File
Settings.

Each line in the grid presents the test results for the drop. You can use the command buttons
and Next point and Previous point to scroll through the points.

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8.2 File Settings
Click Analysis > File Settings to open the window. It can also be accessed from the Options
menu item in the Plot feature for some graph types.

These settings should be checked every time before doing analysis, as it besides settings for
drop selections, also contains important values used for calculation of Elastic moduli and
overlay design thicknesses.

In Drop Selection you have a range of options for selecting the drops to be used with the
analysis. Usually it is not recommended to use all drops, because a number of the drops can
be regarded as seating drops, where the structures changes due to the load impacts. Which
options you want to use depends on the structure, the drop sequences and the purpose of the
analysis. Use the facilities available in the Plots > Rawdata functions, to evaluate which
drops that are suited for the analysis. This will give information about seating, abnormalities
etc.

It may often be appropriate to try out different drop selections, and compare the results.
Notice that you have the possibility to only use drops from tests with a specific plate radius.
To evaluate the thickness of the top layer in a multi-layer system, it is necessary to have
measurements done with different plate sizes, and for that reason they should also be included
in the analysis. However, in some situations you may have problems with the stability of the
equipment, doing tests with the small plate size, and for that reason you may want only to
include drops made with the big plate.

At the bottom you have an option for selecting Last drop in each sequence. A sequence of
drops is defined by same load range, plate size and geophone distances. Selecting this option
will skip all drops where the next drop has the same configuration.

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When you click Save the lines in the data grid will change reflecting the new setup, so you
can easily see if you got the selection that you wanted.

Stress distribution and Poisson’s ratio is used during calculation of elastic moduli. The effect
on the calculated surface deflection modulus is seen from the equation:

In LWDmod a factor of 2 is used for uniform distributions and pi / 2 is used for the rigid case,
which may be more correct for cohesive materials.

For Poisson’s ratio 0.35 is regarded as a reasonable value for granular materials. Some
literature suggests 0.50, but it is probably more reflecting older standards more than a correct
value.

The Design frame contains values used with the estimation of overlay thickness. The surface
modulus must be calculated at a specific Radius and Contact Stress. When specifying a design
surface modulus, it must be connected to the plate radius. The contact stress only matters in
case of the presence of nonlinear elastic materials, where this will influence the calculated
surface deflection.

Modulus of design material should be set to a value that reflects the properties of the material
that is supposed to be used for overlay.

When saving these material values, they are saved with the current file. They will not change
the default values that are set in Settings from the Main menu.

Use only centre deflection can be checked, in case tests have been made with more than one
geophone, but only the deflections from the centre geophone should be used in the analysis.
In some cases the use of multiple geophone output could be more a disadvantage rather than a
useful contribution to the analysis. This could be the case when testing on granular materials
with low compaction, where movements in the material could cause influence on the
deflection readings away from the centre. Looking at the surface moduli plot can give an
indication of whether it is reasonable to use the additional geophone readings, like having
increasing values with geophone distance.

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Use centre deflection – offset should be checked when permanent deformation seems to occur
during the tests (see 10.2.3 - Plots - Time History). Use the Time History from Plots to
study this in details.

8.3 Structure and Seed Values

Before any analysis can take place, structural information must be entered in terms of
definitions of layers and seed values.

By default the frame for entering this information look like this:

The subgrade is predefined and count as one layer. If the construction consists of more layers
than the subgrade, then the number of layers should be entered in the field No. of layers. By
changing this value to "2" the input frame will change: It is also possible to enter 3 layers, but
back-calculation can only be performed on the top layer and the subgrade. In this case the
entered seed E-value will be regarded as a fixed value:

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For a 3-layer structure the Fix E1/E2 can be checked, in which case the ratio between E1 and
E2 will remain the same as indicated by the entered seed values.

All thickness fields and E-value fields must be filled in with values. For the check boxes left
of the fields, checked means LWDmod will calculate a best fit value based on the seed value
entered, otherwise it will be regarded at a fixed value, and not being changed during
backcalculation.

The modulus of subgrade is entered as a stress dependant equation:

If a linear-elastic subgrade is desired, then n should be entered as 0, and the checkbox must be
unchecked. Following is an example of input data for a 2-layer system:

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Notice that the checkbox for calculating thickness of the top layer is disabled. This means the
thickness is fixed to the entered value. Only if drops for the test point is made with various
plate sizes, it is possible to let the program try to estimate the thickness during back-
calculation. In any case it is recommended to get the best possible information about the
structure, so the best input values can be selected.

Depth to bedrock is an option to allow for influence from bedrock. Again it is possible to fix
the value by leaving the checkbox empty, or to calculate the value by marking the checkbox.
To calculate the values demands tests with more than 1 geophone, so in this case the checkbox
is disabled because only one geophone was present.

In the input frame for structures there is a Deflections button. This will calculate the surface
deflection based on the input values and display them in the grid:

The measured and calculated deflections can then be compared. The RMS value is calculated
as either the percentage or absolute difference between the deflections. The option can be set
in the checkbox beneath the grid.

Em is calculated as the subgrade modulus at the top of the subgrade, and is the value normally
used with strain/ stress related design criteria for subgrade materials. The surface modulus of
the subgrade can be found from this values by multiplying with (1 – 2 * n), where n is the
non-linearity.

Eo is the surface deflection modulus on the top of the construction. In case of a 1-layer
construction (subgrade only) and linear elastic subgrade (n = 0) then Em and Eo will be the
same.

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To do back-calculation for a single point click the Calculate point button. See more in the
topic Calculation of Elastic Moduli.

8.4 Graphical View

During the analysis it is always possible to activate the graph window from the Analysis
windows menu item Show graph.

This can help giving a quick graphical overview of test data and results.

The window can be switched off again by clicking Hide graph from the menu.

If the window is activated during calculations, it will show constantly the results generated
during the iterations. This will slow down the calculation time.

The red markers show the test data, and the blue markers show results for respectively
deflections and surface deflection modulus.

8.5 Calculation of Elastic Moduli

When structural information and seed values have been entered in the Analysis window (see:
8.3 - Structure and Seed Values), then the calculation of layer properties can be started.
Below is an example of input information:

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The last 5 drops from a series of 18 have been selected for the analysis (see: 8.2 -File
Settings). This means the analysis will try to create the results that will make the best fit with
the test results for these 5 drops. Single drops can be omitted by clicking in the grid in the Use
column.

A 2-layer system has been entered, and some seed values inserted. The seed values are start
values for the iteration procedures, and should be selected as realistic as possible.

Start the analysis for the selected point by clicking Calculate point. When finished the results
are seen from the grid and from the Result frame:

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The results inserted in the grid are now reflecting the calculated values in the Result frame,
rather than the input values from the Structure frame as described in Structure and Seed
Values when clicking the Deflections button. Follow this link to get information about the
columns in the grid.

In the Result frame you see the calculated values for each layer. These results reflect the
values found from the back-calculation iterations, that fit best (minimize RMS) to all drops
included in the analysis. It is only an advantage if the drops included are done with various
load levels and plate sizes. The overall RMS is listed below the grid, and the overall Eo,
surface deflection modulus is listed in the Surface Modulus Design frame.

When calculating only for the single point, then no results are saved before you press the Save
button, next to the Calculate point button.

This allows doing experiments and consequence analysis for a single point before saving and
before running all points.

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When you click the Calculate Project button, then all points will be calculated and all
results saved automatically.

At any time you can go back to a single point and do single point analysis, and save new
results for that specific point.

New values as seeds can be clicked to transfer the results to seed values for preparing another
analysis. This can in some cases improve the results.

Width, Steps and Alternate are input to the iteration procedures. The higher values for width
and steps, the more wide and detailed iteration, which in some cases can improve the RMS
value, but will also increase the calculation time. Alternate indicates shifts between iteration
based on minimizing the percentual difference and the absolute difference between measured
and calculated deflections. The default is to alternate 2 times based on the checkbox input
next to the RMS value which makes the iteration run consecutively, shifting between absolute
and percentual, the number of times indicated. Higher values will increase the calculation
time, but can in some cases improve the RMS value. The fastest calculation will be for the
minimum allowable values, which are Width = 1, Steps = 1 and Alternate = 0.

To continue with design calculation, see 8.6 - Calculation of Required Overlay Thickness.

8.6 Calculation of Required Overlay Thickness

When analysis of layer properties has been done for a point (see 8.5 - Calculation of Elastic
Moduli), then a design overlay thickness can be calculated.

The design overlay thickness is calculated as the thickness of an overlay material with a given
elastic modulus, which will result in a design surface modulus.

The modulus of the overlay material is set in File Settings, where standard plate radius and
stress level is also entered.

From the analysis of layer properties the field Existing surface modulus is filled in, and you
will then have to enter the Required surface modulus.

When clicking Calculate point, the required overlay thickness is calculated and shown in
Required thickness field.

You can then click Save to save the results only for this point, or click Calculate project to
calculate and automatically save results for all points in the file.
Please notice that you must not enter a required surface modulus that is higher than the
modulus of the design material.

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9 Report
Selecting Report from the Main menu gives possibilities to have test data and analysis
results listed in tables, and following export them to Excel or Word for further processing or
printing.

At the top of the window you have options for which columns you want to include in the
report. As default is included what was used previously.

Either Point No. or Location must be included. Click the Create button to generate the
tables with data. If no analysis results are present this table will be left empty.

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You can now create the export by clicking Send to Excel or Send to Word.

Export to Excel will automatically load the Excel application and create a sheet with test
results and a sheet with analysis results. The Excel file is not saved automatically. If you want
to save it, you must do it manually from the Excel menu.

Export to Word will automatically load a Word document and create pages with test results
and analysis results. The Word document is not saved automatically. If you want to save it,
you must do it manually from the Word menu.

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10 Plot
Selecting Plot from the Main menu gives access to a range of graphical presentations,
statistics a.o. In unlicensed mode the facility is only available for the Demo database. For a
number of the graphics Options can be activated from the Plot menu for selecting various
settings for the current graph. Below the graph window a table with the relevant data is
available, and for graphs with location along the x-axis, sectioning feature and statistics in
table form is available.

The contents of the tables can be copied and pasted to other applications, like Excel

Click the button to copy the table to the clipboard. The button is located close to the
table that will be copied. Follow the links above to see more detailed information for the
various graphs and functionalities.

10.1Plot - Options
For most graphs in the PLOT facility, it is possible to select Options from the menu to enter
various settings affecting the graphic presentation.

The possibilities you have in Options depends on the current graph displayed. In the example
below you see the options for deflection graphs.

10.1.1Normalize to
Since the drops for a test points often are made with various load levels, it is necessary to
normalize the deflections to a specific load level for comparison purposes. The load level is
entered as the stress level under the plate. From the Stress column in the deflection table, you
can get an idea of the magnitude of stresses obtained during testing.

10.1.2Select sensor
If tests have been carried out with more than 1 geophone sensor, it is possible to select which
sensor output that should be used in the graphics.

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10.1.3Show drops
You can select to display results from all drops from a test point, or you can limit it according
to the other choices. Often in the analysis you restrict the drops to be used according to some
criteria set up in File Settings. If you select the option As used in File Settings, the graph will
reflect the same restrictions. You can click the button File Settings to view the setup, and also
to change the settings. If you do changes and save these, then be careful, because the new
settings will be used also in following analysis. In File Settings you can also select to
compensate the centre deflection with the Offset, which will influence both the deflection
graphs, and the surface deflection moduli graphs based on centre deflections.

You can also select to view only drops, where the Offset percentage is higher than a specific
value. The Offset percentage is 100 * offset/centre deflection. Do not use this in combination
with centre deflection compensation for offset.

10.1.4Mean and Deviation

This option can be used with the graphs including all locations displaying deflections or
surface deflection moduli. This will for each location calculate mean value and standard
deviation, and show these values on the graph. For the deflection graph it should be used in
combination with normalizing the deflections.

10.2Plots - Rawdata
Under Plot > Rawdata a collection of various graphs are available to present the measured
data. They can be very useful to get an overview of the contents of the file, and further to give
a first expression of the quality of the data, and the condition of the tested structures. Features
for deleting obviously useless drops are available. There are possibilities to do selective
viewing, to normalize deflections and to do both general views as well as viewing details for
selected drops.

Follow the links above to get more detailed descriptions of the various graphs.

10.2.1Plots - Deflections
Select Plot > Rawdata > Deflections > All Points to view and compare all measured
deflections in the current file.

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In the example you see the locations (7 test points) along the x-axis, and for each location a
number of deflection readings, a green dot for each drop. There is a lot of scatter in the
deflections due to that different load levels have been applied. If you would like to see the
deflections normalized to a specific load, you can select Options from the Plot menu:

In the example it has been chosen to view deflections normalized to 100 kPa. Click OK to
refresh the graph:

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And you will now have a better possibility to compare the deflections.

Notice at the location 1122-6 there is a deflection much higher than the other deflections for
that location. This could be considered as an outlier. If you <Left Click> the graph placing
the mouse at location 1122-6, you will have another graph showing the deflections only for
this location, with increasing drop No. along the x-axis: From this graph you see that the
outlier is for drop No. 7. You may want to remove this drop from the file to avoid that it will
disturb later analysis. If you <Left Click> anywhere on this graph you will be taken back to
the graphs with all locations included, from where you can delete the drop. You can also scroll
through the locations by using the arrows in the upper left corner of the graph window.

If you want to delete a drop from a location you have to be at the graph displaying all
locations. To delete a drop, hold down the <Delete> key while clicking on the appropriate
green dot. The drop will immediately be removed from the file, and the graph will refresh. It
is possible that the scaling of the graph will change. You can also delete a drop by pressing
<Delete> and left click the appropriate line in the data table below the graph.

When making decisions about which drops that should be removed, you have to consider that
variations in the normalized deflections may often be due to seating while testing on the same
location. If you look at the deflections for point 1122-2:

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you will see smoothly decreasing deflections vs. drop No. There is no reason to start deleting
the first points, as they indicate the amount of compaction during testing. In these cases it will
be better to keep all drops, and following when doing the analysis, only include the last drops.
This can be defined from File Settings in the Analysis window.

10.2.2Plots - Surface Deflection Moduli

Select Plot > Rawdata > Surface Deflection Moduli > All Points to view and compare all
measured drops in the current file.

The term "Surface Deflection Moduli" is used rather than just "Surface Moduli" to underline
that it is the surface moduli calculated solely on the measured deflection on top of the
pavement surface.

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In the example you see the locations (7 test points) along the x-axis, and for each location a
red dot for each drop indicating the calculated surface deflection modulus.

Notice at the location 1122-6 there is a surface deflection modulus much higher than the other
values for that location. This could be considered as an outlier. If you <Left Click> the graph
placing the mouse at location 1122-6, you will have another graph showing the surface
deflection moduli only for this location, with increasing drop No. along the x-axis: From this
graph you see that the outlier is for drop No. 1. You may want to remove this drop from the
file to avoid that it will disturb later analysis. If you <Left Click> anywhere on this graph you
will be taken back to the graphs with all locations included, from where you can delete the
drop. You can also scroll through the locations by using the arrows in the upper left corner of
the graph window.

If you want to delete a drop from a location you have to be at the graph displaying all
locations. To delete a drop, hold down the <Delete> key while clicking on the appropriate
green dot. The drop will immediately be removed from the file, and the graph will refresh. It
is possible that the scaling of the graph will change. You can also delete a drop by pressing
<Delete> and left click the appropriate line in the data table below the graph.

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10.2.3Plots - Time History
Select Plot > Rawdata > Deflection details > Deflection vs Time to view the time history
for a single drop.

The graph displays the load and the deflection as a function of time during the pulse. In the
upper left corner navigation buttons are available for shifting between locations and drops
within a location.

The load curve is rescaled to match the deflection curve for better viewing. The scale factor is
seen at the bottom text.

In the example above the curves are close to ideal, but very often you will see curves
deviating in different ways. The most usual deviation is due to that the deflection sensor does
not reset to the start level as shown in this example:

The difference between start and end level for the deflection curve is called the Offset .The
offset is normally due to either compaction of the material or a small transversal movement of

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the deflection sensor during the load impact. The offset values for all drops for a location can
be seen by selecting Plot > Rawdata > Deflection details > Offset vs Drop.
In File Settings it is possible to correct the deflections for offset, by checking Use centre
deflection – offset. This will affect the display of graphs for deflections and surface
deflection moduli, as well as the analysis. It is advisable trying to run the analysis both with
and without this correction to view, what will give the most reliable and useful results.

10.2.4Hysteresis
By clicking the Hysteresis button below the graph window it is possible to view a graph
displaying the Load vs. Deflection graph for the current drop:

The graph indicates the level of energy transmitted to the pavement during load impact. The
bigger area of the graph the more energy is absorbed in the pavement, with expected higher
damage effect. In the lower right corner the energy is calculated as the area of the graph.

By selecting Plot > Rawdata > Deflection details > Energy Loss vs Drop the values can be
viewed for all drops for each location:

The red curve is the values calculated from the measured deflection curve, while the green
line is based on normalized deflections at a specific load level.

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10.2.5Plots - Drop Statistics
Click Plot > Rawdata > Drop Statistics to access a couple of graph types giving an overview
of the number of locations and drops in the file, and the used load levels.

10.3Plots - Backcalculation
Selecting Plot > Backcalculation three graph types are available to see the results of the
analysis of the layer properties:

 Elastic Moduli
 Non-linearity
 Compare deflections
 RMS

This menu option will be disabled if no results have been saved for the file.

10.3.1Elastic Moduli
This will give a graph for all test points with a curve for each layer indicating the calculated
elastic moduli:

In the example the graph shows results from a two layer analysis, where the red line is for the
subgrade and the blue line is for the sand layer.

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10.3.2Non-linearity
This graph shows the non-linear properties of the subgrade in terms of the C and n values:

A high negative value for n indicates high non-linearity.

10.3.3Compare deflections
This graph shows the measured and calculated deflections for the drops belonging to one
location, and where deflections have been calculated:

The buttons in the upper left corner are used to scroll through the locations. This example
shows the comparisons for a file, where 3 geophones have been used.

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Select Options to control how many geophones that should be included in the graph.

10.3.4RMS
This graph shows the Root Mean Square values of the back-calculation. This means for each
location the total RMS for the drops used in the analysis. It can be based on the absolute
difference between measured and calculated deflection, or it can be the relative difference in
percentage as shown in the example below. The choice can be set from Options

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10.4Plots - Design
From Plot > Design the results of design calculations are shown.

In the example the required overlay with a standard material is given for each location in the
file. The settings for the standard material can be viewed from File Settings. The design
calculation is based on specifications to the final surface deflection modulus, which is a part
of the input in the Analysis window. From the statistics at the lower right corner, it is seen
that mean value + standard deviation gives approximately 260 mm.

10.5Plots - Copy Graph

Selecting Plot > Copy Graph gives possibility to send the graphics to the default printer or to
copying it to the clipboard and following paste it to other applications like Excel o or Word.
To copy the data tables use the button located at the tables.

10.6Plots - Sectioning
For graph types with location along the x-axis it is possible to use the sectioning feature.
When an appropriate graph is displayed select Sectioning > View.

This gives possibility to insert section dividers at points for the purpose of defining uniform
subsections.

To the left in the graph window a marker with a yellow text box at the top is displayed. This
can be dragged and dropped at the proper location by positioning the mouse pointer in the

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yellow square. During dragging the locations changes in the text box, indicating the location
of the current point that will be the first point in the section to the right of the marker position.
When releasing the mouse button the current section is divided into two new sections. Repeat
the procedure if more subdivisions are required. In the example below 3 subsections have
been defined.

The statistics window at the lower right corner has changed to reflect the new subsections.
New tabs are created with statistical information of the new subsections.

For temporarily hiding the markers click Sectioning > Hide and displaying them again with
Sectioning >View.

For saving the information permanently you must select Sectioning > Save.
Select Sectioning > Reset to remove the section divider settings.

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11 Demo File
A demo database to be used for demonstration and for practicing is located in the LWDmod
program folder with the name Demo.mdb. This can be used with the program also in
unlicensed mode and when the program is running in DEMO mode with all program
functionalities available.

The database has the Demo data in both SI units and US units under the file names Sand (SI)
and Sand (US).

When running the DEMO database the raw data cannot be changed or deleted.

The demo data contains tests from 5 test points with numerous drops in each test point with
variations in load size.

The structure is about 100 mm (4 in.) of sand/gravel upon the subgrade.

For the first two test points drops have been made on various plate sizes

Open the database and the data file as described in 6.1 - Create and Open Projects, 6.2 - To
import LWD raw data files and 6.3 - Open a File from Project

Use the features in 7 - Edit Data and 10.2 - Plots - Rawdata to get an overview of the test
data.

Select Analysis and select the first test point to enter the structure and do analysis. An
example of input data to the analysis is shown below:

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As you see not all drops are included in the analysis, because from File Settings it has been
marked that only last drop in each sequence should be used. For details about selecting drops
see File Settings8.2 - File Settings.

You can now click Calculate Point to get the results for this point only. Using Calculate
Point will not save any results. Click Save to save results for a single point, or click Calculate
Project to calculate and save results for all points in the file. When calculation of E-values has
been done, you can continue to do Surface Modulus Design. For more details about analysis
see 8 - Analysis of Data.

At any time you can go to Plot from the Main menu to view results in both tabular and
graphics form. See 10 -Plot for details about features.

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