Engineering

Informatics
Course Material

MIT Academy of Engineering

 Unit No 1
Evolution of Information

Outcome:
After completion of the course, students will be able to:
IT201.CO.1: Interpretation of Data, Information and Knowledge. [Apply]

Intended Learning Outcomes:

 Define data , types of data
 State Primary data and Secondary data, Operational and derived data.
 Explain the information and Information Life cycle
 Differentiate data , information and Knowledge for a given system
 Elaborate semantics and pragmatics.
 Narrate the evolution in man machine interaction for any given application

Contents:
Data, Types of Data: Primary data, Secondary data, Meta data, Operational data and Derived data;
Information: Life Cycle, Semantics of information, Knowledge; Case study: Grade Sheet Generation
system; Data forms: Analog and Digital (Telephone and Stenography) ADC, DAC; Evolution of
Information- Railway reservation, Inventory machine, Man Machine Interaction
 UNIT I
Evolution of Information
1 Introduction: We live in the information age. In the same way that the development of
industry created the industrial age, the development of information technology systems,
and especially the internet, has created the information age. It has been a long-held
belief by many philosophers that knowledge is power and that knowledge stems from
understanding of information; information, in turn, is the assigning of meaning to data.
2 Data, Information and Knowledge
2.1 What is Data?
The concept of data as it is used in the syllabus is commonly referred to as ‘raw’
data – a collection of text, numbers and symbols with no meaning. Data therefore
has to be processed, or provided with a context, before it can have meaning.
Example:
• 3, 6, 9, 12
• cat, dog, gerbil, rabbit, cockatoo
 161.2, 175.3, 166.4, 164.7, 169.3
These are meaningless sets of data. They could be the first four answers in the 3 x
table, a list of household pets and the heights of 15-year-old students but without
a context we don’t know.
2.1.1 Types of Data
Primary data is data originated for the first time by the researcher
through direct efforts and experience, specifically for the purpose of
addressing his research problem. Also known as the first hand or raw data.
Primary data collection is quite expensive, as the research is conducted by
the organization or agency itself, which requires resources like investment
and manpower. The data collection is under direct control and supervision
of the investigator.
The data can be collected through various methods like surveys,
observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires, questionnaire filled
and sent by enumerators, personal interviews, telephonic interviews, focus
groups, case studies, etc.
Secondary data implies second-hand information which is already
 collected and recorded by any person other than the user for a purpose,
not relating to the current research problem. It is the readily available
form of data collected from various sources like censuses, government
publications, internal records of the organization, reports, books, journal
articles, and websites and so on.
Secondary data offer several advantages as it is easily available, saves time
and cost of the researcher. But there are some disadvantages associated
with this, as the data is gathered for the purposes other than the problem
in mind, so the usefulness of the data may be limited in a number of ways
like relevance and accuracy. Moreover, the objective and the method
adopted for acquiring data may not be suitable to the current situation.
Therefore, before using secondary data, these factors should be kept in
mind.
Structured data refers to any data that resides in a fixed field within a
record or file. This includes data contained in relational databases and
spreadsheets.
Unstructured data is all those things that can't be so readily classified and
fit into a neat box: photos and graphic images, videos, streaming
instrument data, webpages, PDF files, PowerPoint presentations, emails,
blog entries, wikis and word processing documents.
2.1.2 Meta data: Data about data. Metadata describes how and when and by whom
a particular set of data was collected, and how the data is formatted.
Metadata is essential for understanding information stored in data
warehouses and has become increasingly important in XML-based Web
applications. Consider how retailers store information about their products
and their customers; employers about their employees and their operations;
organizations about events they manage; research institutions about trends
and notable people in their area; libraries, archives, and museums about the
materials in their care; governments about their citizens, their allies, and their
enemies—this is all metadata. Metadata, the information we create, store,
and share to describe things, allows us to interact with these things to obtain
the knowledge we need. Metadata is pervasive in information systems, and
 comes in many forms. The core features of most software packages we use
every day are metadata-driven. People listen to music through Spotify; post
photos on Instagram; locate video on YouTube; manage finances through
Quicken; connect with others via email, text, and social media; and store
lengthy contact lists on their mobile devices. All of this content comes with
metadata—information about the item’s creation, name, topic, features, and
the like. Metadata is key to the functionality of the systems holding the
content, enabling users to find items of interest, record essential information
about them, and share that information with others.
There are three main types of metadata:
• Descriptive metadata describes a resource for purposes such as
discovery and identification. It can include elements such as title, abstract,
author, and keywords.
• Structural metadata indicates how compound objects are put together,
for example, how pages are ordered to form chapters.
• Administrative metadata provides information to help manage a
resource, such as when and how it was created, file type and other
technical information, and who can access it. There are several subsets of
administrative data; two that are sometimes listed as separate metadata
types are:
− Rights management metadata, which deals with intellectual property
rights,
and
− Preservation metadata, which contains information needed to archive
and preserve a resource.
2.2 What is information?
Information is the result of processing data, usually by computer. This results in
facts, which enables the processed data to be used in context and have meaning.
Information is data that has meaning.
2.2.1 When does data become information?
Data on its own has no meaning. It only takes on meaning and becomes
information when it is interpreted. Data consists of raw facts and figures.
 When that data is processed into sets according to context, it provides
information.
Data refers to raw input that when processed or arranged makes
meaningful output. Information is usually the processed outcome of data.
When data is processed into information, it becomes interpretable and
gains significance.
In IT, symbols, characters, images, or numbers are data. These are the
inputs an IT system needs to process in order to produce a meaningful
interpretation. In other words, data in a meaningful form becomes
information. Information can be about facts, things, concepts, or anything
relevant to the topic concerned. It may provide answers to questions like
who, which, when, why, what, and how.
Data + Meaning = Information
Example:
• 3, 6, 9, 12 • cat, dog, gerbil, rabbit, cockatoo • 161.2, 175.3, 166.4, 164.7,
169.3 Only when we assign a context or meaning does the data become
information. It all becomes meaningful when we are told:
• 3, 6, 9 and 12 are the first four answers in the 3 x table
• cat, dog, gerbil, rabbit, cockatoo is a list of household pets
• 161.2, 175.3, 166.4, 164.7, 169.3 are the heights of 15-year-old students.
2.3 What is knowledge?
When someone memorizes information this is often referred to as ‘rote-learning’
or ‘learning by heart’. We can then say that they have acquired some knowledge.
Another form of knowledge is produced as a result of understanding information
that has been given to us, and using that information to gain knowledge of how to
solve problems.
Knowledge can therefore be:
• acquiring and remembering a set of facts, or
• The use of information to solve problems.
2.3.1 Types of Knowledge:
The first type is often called explicit knowledge. This is knowledge that
can be easily passed on to others. Most forms of explicit knowledge can be
stored in certain media. The information contained in encyclopedias and
textbooks are good examples of explicit knowledge.
The second type is called tacit knowledge. It is the kind of knowledge that
is difficult to pass on to another person just by writing it down. For
example, saying that Paris is the capital of France is explicit knowledge
that can be written down, passed on, and understood by someone else.
However, the ability to speak a foreign language, bake bread, program a
computer or use complicated machinery requires additional pieces of
knowledge (such as that gained through experience) that are not always
known explicitly and are difficult to pass on to other users.
The third type of knowledge is Declarative knowledge. Declarative
Knowledge refers to facts or information stored in the memory that is
considered static in nature. Declarative Knowledge, also referred to as
conceptual, propositional or descriptive knowledge, describes things,
events, or processes, their attributes, and their relation to each other. It is
contrary to Procedural, or Implicit Knowledge, which refers to the
knowledge of how to perform or operate. Mathematical equations could be
an example of Declarative Knowledge, because it is knowledge of
something, as opposed to knowledge of how to do something.
The forth type of knowledge is Procedural Knowledge. Procedural
Knowledge also known as Interpretive knowledge, is the type of
knowledge in which it clarifies how a particular thing can be accomplished.
It is not so popular because it is generally not used.
It emphasize how to do something to solve a given problem. E.g. ride a bike

Procedural knowledge Declarative knowledge

1. It is also known as It is also known as Descriptive

Interpretive knowledge. knowledge.

2. Procedural Knowledge While Declarative Knowledge

means how a particular thing means basic knowledge about
can be accomplished. something.

3. Procedural Knowledge is Declarative Knowledge is more

generally not used means it is popular.
not more popular.
 4. Procedural Knowledge can’t Declarative Knowledge can be
be easily communicate. easily communicate.

5. Procedural Knowledge is Declarative Knowledge is data

generally process oriented in oriented in nature.
nature.

6. In Procedural Knowledge In Declarative Knowledge

debugging and validation is debugging and validation is easy.
not easy.
2.4 How are data, information and knowledge linked
Data + Meaning = Information
If we put Knowledge into an equation it would look like this:
Information + application or use = Knowledge
Example:
Looking at the examples given for data:
• 3, 6, 9, 12
• cat, dog, gerbil, rabbit, cockatoo
• 161.2, 175.3, 166.4, 164.7, 169.3
Only when we assign a context or meaning does the data become information. It
all becomes meaningful when we are told:
• 3, 6, 9 and 12 are the first four answers in the 3 x table
• Cat, dog, gerbil, rabbit, cockatoo is a list of household pets
• 161.2, 175.3, 166.4, 164.7, 169.3 are the heights of the five tallest 15-year-old
students in a class.
If we now apply this information to gain further knowledge we could say that:
• 4, 8, 12 and 16 are the first four answers in the 4 x table (because the 3 x table
starts at three and goes up in threes the 4 x table must start at four and go up in
fours)
• The tallest student is 175.3cm.
• A lion is not a household pet as it is not in the list and it lives in the wild.
3 Information System: It is an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and
processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products.
Business firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and
manage their operations, interact with their customers and suppliers, and compete in
the marketplace.
Information systems are used to run interorganizational supply chains and electronic
markets. For instance, corporations use information systems to process financial
accounts, to manage their human resources, and to reach their potential customers with
online promotions.
Many major companies are built entirely around information systems. These include
eBay, a largely auction marketplace; Amazon, an expanding electronic mall and provider
of cloud computing services; Alibaba, a business-to-business e-marketplace; and Google,
a search engine company that derives most of its revenue from keyword advertising on
Internet searches. Governments deploy information systems to provide services cost-
effectively to citizens. Digital goods—such as electronic books, video products, and
software—and online services, such as gaming and social networking, are delivered with
information systems. Individuals rely on information systems, generally Internet-based,
for conducting much of their personal lives: for socializing, study, shopping, banking,
and entertainment.
3.1 How many different kinds of Information System are there?

Figure 1 Three level pyramid model based on the type of decisions taken at
different levels in the organization
 Figure 2 Five level pyramid model based on the processing requirement of
different levels in the organization
3.2 Types of an Information System:
3.2.1 Transaction Processing Systems: Transaction Processing System are
operational-level systems at the bottom of the pyramid. They are usually
operated directly by shop floor workers or front line staff, which provide
the key data required to support the management of operations. This data
is usually obtained through the automated or semi-automated tracking of
low-level activities and basic transactions.

Functions of a TPS
TPS are ultimately little more than simple data processing systems.

Functions of a TPS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs

Validation
Sorting Lists
Transactions Listing Detail reports
Events Merging Action reports
Updating Summary reports?
Calculation

Some examples of TPS

o Payroll systems
o Order processing systems
o Reservation systems
 o Stock control systems
o Systems for payments and funds transfers
The role of TPS
o Produce information for other systems
o Cross boundaries (internal and external)
o Used by operational personnel + supervisory levels
o Efficiency oriented
3.2.2 Management Information Systems: For historical reasons, many of the
different types of Information Systems found in commercial organizations
are referred to as "Management Information Systems". However, within
our pyramid model, Management Information Systems are management-
level systems that are used by middle managers to help ensure the smooth
running of the organization in the short to medium term. The highly
structured information provided by these systems allows managers to
evaluate an organization's performance by comparing current with
previous outputs.
Functions of a MIS
MIS are built on the data provided by the TPS

Functions of a MIS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs

Internal Transactions Sorting Summary reports

Internal Files Merging Action reports
Structured data Summarizing Detailed reports

Some examples of MIS

o Sales management systems
o Inventory control systems
o Budgeting systems
o Management Reporting Systems (MRS)
o Personnel (HRM) systems
The role of MIS
o Based on internal information flows
o Support relatively structured decisions
 o Inflexible and have little analytical capacity
o Used by lower and middle managerial levels
o Deals with the past and present rather than the future
3.2.3 Decision Support Systems: A Decision Support System can be seen as
knowledge based system, used by senior managers, which facilitates the
creation of knowledge and allow its integration into the organization.
These systems are often used to analyse existing structured information
and allow managers to project the potential effects of their decisions into
the future. Such systems are usually interactive and are used to solve ill
structured problems. They offer access to databases, analytical tools, allow
"what if" simulations, and may support the exchange of information within
the organization.
Functions of a DSS
DSS manipulate and build upon the information from a MIS and/or TPS to
generate insights and new information.

Functions of a DSS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs

Modelling
Internal Transactions Summary reports
Simulation
Internal Files Forecasts
Analysis
External Information? Graphs / Plots
Summarizing

Some examples of DSS

o Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)
o Computer Supported Co-operative work (CSCW)
o Logistics systems
o Financial Planning systems
o Spread sheet Models
The role of DSS
o Support ill- structured or semi-structured decisions
o Have analytical and/or modelling capacity
o Used by more senior managerial levels
o Are concerned with predicting the future
4 ILM Information life cycle management (ILM) is an approach to data and storage
management that recognizes that the value of information changes over time and
that it must be managed accordingly. ILM seeks to classify data according to its
business value and establish policies to migrate and store data on the appropriate
storage tier and, ultimately, remove it altogether. ILM has evolved to include upfront
initiatives like master data management and compliance.

The Three Stages in the Information Lifecycle

In general, there are three stages in the information lifecycle:
The creation and/or acquisition of the data.:- Information comes into the
organization either by being created by one or more individuals or by being acquired
through emails, faxes, letters, phone calls, etc.
The publication of the data. Some information needs to be published, either in print
form or on a company's intranet or a public Web site.
The retention and/or removal of the data.:- Some information must be archived for
later use, and some information has a finite purpose and can be discarded once it has
served its purpose or is no longer valuable to the organization.

ILM Functionality: For the purposes of business records, there are five phases
identified as being part of the lifecycle continuum along with one exception. These
are:
• Creation and Receipt: - deals with records from their point of origination. This
could include their creation by a member of an organization at varying levels or
receipt of information from an external source. It includes correspondence, forms,
reports, drawings, computer input/output, or other sources.
• Distribution: - is the process of managing the information once it has been
created or received. This includes both internal and external distribution, as
information that leaves an organization becomes a record of a transaction with
others.
• Use: - takes place after information is distributed internally, and can generate
business decisions, document further actions, or serve other purposes.
• Maintenance: - is the management of information. This can include processes
such as filing, retrieval and transfers. While the connotation of 'filing' presumes the
 placing of information in a prescribed container and leaving it there, there is much
more involved. Filing is actually the process of arranging information in a
predetermined sequence and creating a system to manage it for its useful existence
within an organization. Failure to establish a sound method for filing information
makes its retrieval and use nearly impossible. Transferring information refers to the
process of responding to requests, retrieval from files and providing access to users
authorized by the organization to have access to the information. While removed
from the files, the information is tracked by the use of various processes to ensure it is
returned and/or available to others who may need access to it.
• Disposition: - is the practice of handling information that is less frequently
accessed or has met its assigned retention periods. Less frequently accessed records
may be considered for relocation to an 'inactive records facility' until they have met
their assigned retention period. "Although a small percentage of organizational
information never loses its value, the value of most information tends to decline over
time until it has no further value to anyone for any purpose.

5 ADC: An electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog

(continuous) to digital (discrete) form. Analog signals are directly measurable
quantities. Digital signals only have two states. For digital computer, we refer to binary
states, 0 and 1.
The transducer’s electrical analog output serves as the analog input to the ADC. The ADC
converts this analog input to a digital output. This digital output consists of a number of
bits that represent the value of the analog input. For example, the ADC might convert the
transducer’s 800- to 1500-mV analog values to binary values ranging from 01010000
(80) to 10010110 (150). Note that the binary output from the ADC is proportional to the
analog input voltages so that each unit of the digital output represents 10mV. The digital
representation of the analog vales is transmitted from the ADC to the digital computer,
which stores the digital value and processes it according to a program of instructions
that it is executing
5.1 Need: Microprocessors can only perform complex processing on digitized signals.
 When signals are in digital form they are less susceptible to the deleterious
effects of additive noise.  ADC Provides a link between the analog world of
transducers and the digital world of signal processing and data handling.
5.2 Process: In order to change an analog signal to digital, the input analog signal is
sampled at a high rate of speed. The amplitude at each of those sampled moments
is converted into a number equivalent – this is called quantization. These numbers
are simply the combinations of the 0s and 1s used in computer language – this
called encoding.