Point defects are where an atom is

missing or is in an irregular place in the

lattice structure. Point defects include self
interstitial atoms, interstitial impurity
atoms, substitutional atoms and
vacancies. A self interstitial atom is an
extra atom that has crowded its way into
an interstitial void in the crystal structure.
Self interstitial atoms occur only in low
concentrations in metals because they
distort and highly stress the tightly
packed lattice structure.

A substitutional impurity atom is an atom

of a different type than the bulk atoms,
which has replaced one of the bulk atoms
in the lattice. Substitutional impurity
atoms are usually close in size (within
approximately 15%) to the bulk atom. An
example of substitutional impurity atoms
is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc atoms with a radius of 0.133 nm have
replaced some of the copper atoms, which have a radius of 0.128 nm.

Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix.
Interstitial impurity atoms fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of
the lattice structure. An example of interstitial impurity atoms is the carbon
atoms that are added to iron to make steel. Carbon atoms, with a radius of
0.071 nm, fit nicely in the open spaces between the larger (0.124 nm) iron
atoms.

Vacancies are empty spaces where an atom should be, but is missing. They
are common, especially at high temperatures when atoms are frequently and
randomly change their positions leaving behind empty lattice sites. In most
cases diffusion (mass transport by atomic motion) can only occur because of
vacancies.

Dislocations are another type of defect in crystals. Dislocations are areas

were the atoms are out of position in the crystal structure. Dislocations are
generated and move when a stress is applied. The motion of dislocations
allows slip – plastic deformation to occur.
Before the discovery of the dislocation by Taylor, Orowan and Polyani in
1934, no one could figure out how the plastic deformation properties of a
metal could be greatly changed by solely by forming (without changing the
chemical composition). This became even bigger mystery when in the early
1900’s scientists estimated that metals undergo plastic deformation at forces
much smaller than the theoretical strength of the forces that are holding the
metal atoms together. Many metallurgists remained skeptical of the
dislocation theory until the development of the transmission electron
microscope in the late 1950’s. The TEM allowed experimental evidence to be
collected that showed that the strength and ductility of metals are controlled
by dislocations.

There are two basic types of dislocations, the edge dislocation and the screw
dislocation. Actually, edge and screw dislocations are just extreme forms of
the possible dislocation structures that can occur. Most dislocations are
probably a hybrid of the edge and screw forms but this discussion will be
limited to these two types.

Edge Dislocations
The edge defect can be easily visualized as an extra half-plane of atoms in a
lattice. The dislocation is called a line defect because the locus of defective
points produced in the lattice by the dislocation lie along a line. This line runs
along the top of the extra half-plane. The inter-atomic bonds are significantly
distorted only in the immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.
Understanding the movement of a dislocation is key to understanding why
dislocations allow deformation to occur at much lower stress than in a perfect
crystal. Dislocation motion is analogous to movement of a caterpillar. The
caterpillar would have to exert a large force to move its entire body at once.
Instead it moves the rear portion of its body forward a small amount and
creates a hump. The hump then moves forward and eventual moves all of the
body forward by a small amount.

As shown in the set of images above, the dislocation moves similarly moves a
small amount at a time. The dislocation in the top half of the crystal is slipping
one plane at a time as it moves to the right from its position in image (a) to its
position in image (b) and finally image (c). In the process of slipping one plane
at a time the dislocation propagates across the crystal. The movement of the
dislocation across the plane eventually causes the top half of the crystal to
move with respect to the bottom half. However, only a small fraction of the
bonds are broken at any given time. Movement in this manner requires a
much smaller force than breaking all the bonds across the middle plane
simultaneously.

Screw Dislocations
There is a second basic type of
dislocation, called screw dislocation.
The screw dislocation is slightly more
difficult to visualize. The motion of a
screw dislocation is also a result of
shear stress, but the defect line
movement is perpendicular to direction
of the stress and the atom
displacement, rather than parallel. To
visualize a screw dislocation, imagine a
block of metal with a shear stress
applied across one end so that the
metal begins to rip. This is shown in the
upper right image. The lower right
image shows the plane of atoms just
above the rip. The atoms represented
by the blue circles have not yet moved
from their original position. The atoms
represented by the red circles have
moved to their new position in the
lattice and have reestablished metallic
bonds. The atoms represented by the
green circles are in the process of
moving. It can be seen that only a
portion of the bonds are broke at any given time. As was the case with the
edge dislocation, movement in this manner requires a much smaller force
than breaking all the bonds across the middle plane simultaneously.

If the shear force is increased, the atoms will continue to slip to the right. A
row of the green atoms will find there way back into a proper spot in the lattice
(and become red) and a row of the blue atoms will slip out of position (and
become green). In this way, the screw dislocation will move upward in the
image, which is perpendicular to direction of the stress. Recall that the edge
dislocation moves parallel to the direction of stress. As shown in the image
below, the net plastic deformation of both edge and screw dislocations is the
same, however.

The dislocations move along the densest planes of atoms in a material,

because the stress needed to move the dislocation increases with the spacing
between the planes. FCC and BCC metals have many dense planes, so
dislocations move relatively easy and these materials have high ductility.
Metals are strengthened by making it more difficult for dislocations to move.
This may involve the introduction of obstacles, such as interstitial atoms or
grain boundaries, to “pin” the dislocations. Also, as a material plastically
deforms, more dislocations are produced and they will get into each others
way and impede movement. This is why strain or work hardening occurs.

In ionically bonded materials, the ion must move past an area with a repulsive
charge in order to get to the next location of the same charge. Therefore, slip
is difficult and the materials are brittle. Likewise, the low density packing of
covalent materials makes them generally more brittle than metals.

Point Defects in Crystals

One more hard day of studying. So I was going
through point defects in crystals. Before reading
about point defects please understand what crystals
are and why you need to study their internal
structures and how defects effect the structure
sensitive properties of the material

This stuff is really interesting in itself. You gotta study

a lot from vacancy, interstitial defects, constitutional
impurity, Schotty defect, Frenkel defect and all such. 

Also study what enthalpy of formation is? How to

calculate the same? The effects of defects on the
bonds between atoms, on the stress and strain and
elasticity ....

The material science & Engineer by Raghavan & 

Material Science by RS Khurmi & RS Sedha are good
books for the same. I am following the later
The basics of point defects in crystals can be
summarzied as follows:
 Vacancy – missing atom at a certain crystal lattice
position; 
 Interstitial impurity atom – extra impurity
atom in an interstitial position
 Self-interstitial atom – extra atom in an interstitial
position; 
 Substitution impurity atom – impurity atom,
substituting an atom in crystal lattice; 
  Frenkel defect – extra self-interstitial atom,
responsible for the vacancy nearby.
The above summary is taken from
www.substech.com. Please refer to them for further
info. 

A lot more stuff has to be studied regarding effects of

defects in the crystal, the calculation of equilibrium
concentration of vacancies, drawing miller indices for
given plane and for given crystal direction and all
such.... Geez will this ever end???

Don't forget to grab a copy of Material Science and

Engineering book, which is essential for preparing for
AMIE, Material Science.
with warm regards
allmyposts
 Formation of a PN-
Junction
Overview
1. Joining n-type material with p-type material causes excess electrons in the n-
type material to diffuse to the p-type side and excess holes from the p-type material
to diffuse to the n-type side.
2. Movement of electrons to the p-type side exposes positive ion cores in the n-
type side while movement of holes to the n-type side exposes negative ion cores in
the p-type side, resulting in an electron field at the junction and forming the
depletion region.
3. A voltage results from the electric field formed at the junction.
P-n junctions are formed by joining n-type and p-type semiconductor
materials, as shown below. Since the n-type region has a high electron
concentration and the p-type a high hole concentration, electrons diffuse
from the n-type side to the p-type side. Similarly, holes flow by diffusion from
the p-type side to the n-type side. If the electrons and holes were not
charged, this diffusion process would continue until the concentration of
electrons and holes on the two sides were the same, as happens if two
gasses come into contact with each other. However, in a p-n junction, when
the electrons and holes move to the other side of the junction, they leave
behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites, which are fixed in the crystal
lattice and are unable to move. On the n-type side, positive ion cores are
exposed. On the p-type side, negative ion cores are exposed. An electric
field E forms between the positive ion cores in the n-type material and
negative ion cores in the p-type material. This region is called the "depletion
region" since the electric field quickly sweeps free carriers out, hence the
region is depleted of free carriers. A "built-in" potential Vbi is formed at the
junction due to E. The animation below shows the formation of the E at the
junction between n and p-type material.

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/pn-junctions/formation-of-a-pn-junction

The Great Smog of 1952 was a massive pollution event in London, England, where the

entire city experienced a heavy smog for over four days from December 5 to December
9, 1952. The smog was reported to be responsible for 4,000 deaths in following weeks,
however recent research puts this number more realistically at 12,000. [2]
On the night of December 5, 1952, the smog from the daytime thickened to the point
where pedestrians and vehicles could only see a few meters in front of them. In some
areas, the smog was so thick that people couldn't even see their own feet. [3] In central
London the visibility stayed below 500 meters for 114 continuous hours and below 50
meters continuously for 48 hours.[4] It remained this way until the 9th, when
the weather changed allowing the smog to disperse into the atmosphere.
Causes
Although London got regular smogs during this time, the Great Smog was drastically
worse than any other. There were many factors which caused the Great Smog to be so
remarkable:[3]

1. The event occurred in December, when many civilians were burning coal to stay warm.
Back then, indoor heaters running on natural gas or electricity were rare, which are
cleaner energy sources than coal (unless the electricity is generated from coal, of
course). The coal being burned during this time was very sulfur-rich, releasing vast
quantities of sulfur oxides into the environment.
2. Power plants and industrial buildings were also mainly burning coal.
3. An inversion layer lingered over the city, acting as a large lid on the pollutants. This
trapped the air over the city.
Since the winds were light with the air near the ground being moist, conditions were
perfect for the formation of radiation fog. Radiation fog forms when calm conditions with
clear skies are present. When the land cools after sunset by thermal radiation, it
produces condensation in the surrounding air by heat conduction. This causes a layer of
fog to form less than a meter deep but as turbulence in the calm skies arise, it can
promote thicker layers to produce.[4]
The fog formed as the night time temperature dropped, which formed a static layer of
cooler air closer to the ground. This is referred to as temperature inversion. Typically, air
closer to the ground is warmer than the air right above it which causes it to rise.
However, inversions are common during winter nights once the ground has cooled
during the night, which begins to cool the air closest to it often causing mist to form as
water vapour precipitates onto dust particles. Normally in the morning, the sun quickly
breaks through the mist and heats the ground, which breaks the inversion. However in
December 1952 the accumulation of smoke which was close to the ground was so great
that the sun could not break through, and the air stayed cool and static. Between the 4th
and 8th of December 1952, the National Gallery in London suggests smoke
measurements of particulate matter reached 14mg/m3 which was 56 times the level
normally experienced at the time and the levels of sulfur dioxide in the air increased by
7 times reaching at around 700ppb. [4]
Pollution quantities
The amount of pollutants released each day during the Great Smog:[3]

 1,000 tonnes of particulate matter
 2,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide
 370 tonnes of sulfur oxides, which converted into 800 tonnes of sulfuric acid
 140 tonnes of hydrochloric acid
 14 tonnes of fluorine compounds
Effects

Health problems
As mentioned above, 12,000 deaths were attributed to the Great Smog. [2] Many more
suffered from breathing problems due to the effects of the various pollutants on the
human body.[3]
Virtual shutdown
Public transit shutdown, as well as ambulance service. The underground rail system
remained running, however became extremely congested. The London airport was also
greatly affected, with hardly any flights making it into or out of London. [5]
Operas, concerts and sporting events were cancelled, as the smog seeped into most
buildings. Crime also broke out, as many took advantage of the incapacitated
population, breaking into shops and stealing from people on the street. [5]
Aftermath
The smog was so devastating that a series of laws and regulations were put in place to
prevent any such event from occurring in the future. This includes the Clean Air Acts of
1956 and 1968, which banned emissions of black smoke and limited the types
of fuels that could be used.[3]
These regulations made smogs such as the Great Smog a thing of the past in most
parts of the world, and it serves as a lesson for the future of energy production.

https://energyeducation.ca › encyclopedia › Great_smog_of_1952

KYOTO
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by
setting internationally binding emission reduction targets.
Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the
current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more
than 150 years of industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on
developed nations under the principle of "common but differentiated
responsibilities."

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and
entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the
implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh,
Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords." Its first
commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL

The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone
layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The
stratospheric ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, which is associated with an
increased prevalence of skin cancer and cataracts, reduced agricultural productivity, and disruption
of marine ecosystems. The United States ratified the Montreal Protocol in 1988 and has joined four
subsequent amendments. The United States has been a leader within the Protocol throughout its
existence, and has taken strong domestic action to phase out the production and consumption of
ODS such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons.

Stockholm Convention

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted by the Conference of
Plenipotentiaries on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden. The Convention entered into force on 17
May 2004.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a global treaty to protect human health
and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become
widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have
harmful impacts on human health or on the environment.

12. persistent pdf

Eleventh Congress

Republic Act No. 8749             June 23, 1999

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A COMPREHENSIVE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL POLICY AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress

assembled:

Chapter 1
General Provisions

Article One
Basic Air Quality Policies

Section 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999."

Section 2. Declaration of Principles. - The State shall protect and advance the right of the people
to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.

The State shall promote and protect the global environment to attain sustainable development while
recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal with environmental problems.

The State recognizes that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily
area-based.

The State also recognizes the principle that "polluters must pay".

Finally, the State recognizes that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and should,
therefore, be the concern of all.

Section 3. Declaration of Policies. - The State shall pursue a policy of balancing development and
environmental protection. To achieve this end, the frame work for sustainable development shall be
pursued. It shall be the policy of the State to:

(a) Formulate a holistic national program of air pollution management that shall be
implemented by the government through proper delegation and effective coordination of
functions and activities;

(b) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and industries through the
application of market-based instruments;

(c) Focus primarily on pollution prevention rather than on control and provide for a
comprehensive management program for air pollution;

(d) Promote public information and education and to encourage the participation of an
informed and active public in air quality planning and monitoring; and

(e) Formulate and enforce a system of accountability for short and long-term adverse
environmental impact of a project, program or activity. This shall include the setting up of a
funding or guarantee mechanism for clean-up and environmental rehabilitation and
compensation for personal damages.
Section 4. Recognition of Rights. - Pursuant to the above-declared principles, the following rights
of citizens are hereby sought to be recognized and the State shall seek to guarantee their
enjoyment:

(a) The right to breathe clean air;

(b) The right to utilize and enjoy all natural resources according to the principles of
sustainable development;

(c) The right to participate in the formulation, planning, implementation and monitoring of
environmental policies and programs and in the decision-making process;

(d) The right to participate in the decision-making process concerning development policies,
plans and programs projects or activities that may have adverse impact on the environment
and public health;

(e) The right to be informed of the nature and extent of the potential hazard of any activity,
undertaking or project and to be served timely notice of any significant rise in the level of
pollution and the accidental or deliberate release into the atmosphere of harmful or
hazardous substances;

(f) The right of access to public records which a citizen may need to exercise his or her rights
effectively under this Act;

(g) The right to bring action in court or quasi-judicial bodies to enjoin all activities in violation
of environmental laws and regulations, to compel the rehabilitation and cleanup of affected
area, and to seek the imposition of penal sanctions against violators of environmental laws;
and

(h) The right to bring action in court for compensation of personal damages resulting from
the adverse environmental and public health impact of a project or activity.

Article Two
Definition of Terms

Section 5. Definitions. - As used in this Act:

a) "Air pollutant" means any matter found in the atmosphere other than oxygen, nitrogen,
water vapor, carbon dioxide, and the inert gases in their natural or normal concentrations,
that is detrimental to health or the environment, which includes but not limited to smoke,
dust, soot, cinders, fly ash, solid particles of any kind, gases, fumes, chemical mists, steam
and radio-active substances;

b) "Air pollution" means any alteration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of
the atmospheric air, or any discharge thereto of any liquid, gaseous or solid substances that
will or is likely to create or to render the air resources of the country harmful, detrimental, or
injurious to public health, safety or welfare or which will adversely affect their utilization for
domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational, or other legitimate purposes;

c) "Ambient air quality guideline values" mean the concentration of air over specified periods
classified as short-term and long-term which are intended to serve as goals or objectives for
the protection of health and/or public welfare. These values shall be used for air quality
management purposes such as determining time trends, evaluating stages of deterioration
or enhancement of the air quality, and in general, used as basis for taking positive action in
preventing, controlling, or abating air pollution;

d) "Ambient air quality" means the general amount of pollution present in a broad area; and
refers to the atmosphere's average purity as distinguished from discharge measurements
taken at the source of pollution;

e) "Certificate of Conformity" means a certificate issued by the Department of Environment

and Natural Resources to a vehicle manufacturer/assembler or importer certifying that a
particular new vehicle or vehicle type meets the requirements provided under this Act and its
rules and regulations;

f) "Department" means the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

g) "Eco-profile" means the geographic-based instrument for planners and decision-makers

which present an evaluation of the environmental quality and carrying capacity of an area. It
is the result of the integration of primary and secondary data and information on natural
resources and anthropogenic activities on the land which are evaluated by various
environmental risk assessment and forecasting methodologies that enable the Department
to anticipate the type of development control necessary in the planning area;

h) "Emission" means any air contaminant, pollutant, gas stream or unwanted sound from a
known source which is passed into the atmosphere;

i) "Greenhouse gases" mean those gases that can potentially or can reasonably be expected
to induce global warming, which include carbon dioxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen,
chlorofluorocarbons, and the like;

j) "Hazardous substances" mean those substances which present either: (1) short-term acute
hazards such as acute toxicity by ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption, corrosivity or other
skin or eye contact hazard or the risk of fire explosion; or (2) longterm toxicity upon repeated
exposure, carcinogenicity (which in some cases result in acute exposure but with a long
latent period), resistance to detoxification process such as biodegradation, the potential to
pollute underground or surface waters;

k) "Infectious waste" means that portion of medical waste that could transmit an infectious
disease;

l) "Medical waste" means the materials generated as a result of patient diagnosis, treatment,
or immunization of human beings or animals;

m) "Mobile source" means any vehicle propelled by or through combustion of carbon-based

or other fuel, constructed and operated principally for the conveyance of persons or the
transportation of property goods;

n) "Motor vehicle" means any vehicle propelled by a gasoline or diesel engine or by any
means other than human or animal power, constructed and operated principally for the
conveyance of persons or the transportation of property or goods in a public highway or
street open to public use;
o) "Municipal waste" means the waste materials generated from communities within a
specific locality;

p) "New vehicle" means a vehicle constructed entirely from new parts that has never been
sold or registered with the DOTC or with the appropriate agency or authority, and operated
on the highways of the Philippines, any foreign state or country;

q) "Octane Rating or the Anti-Knock Index(AKI)" means the rating of the anti-knock
characteristics of a grade or type of automotive gasoline as determined by dividing by two (2)
the sum of the Research Octane Number (RON), plus the Motor Octane Number (MON); the
octane requirement, with respect to automotive gasoline for use in a motor vehicle or a class
thereof, whether imported, manufactured, or assembled by a manufacturer, shall refer to the
minimum octane rating of such automotive gasoline which such manufacturer recommends
for the efficient operation of such motor vehicle, or a substantial portion of such class,
without knocking;

r) "Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)" means those substances that significantly deplete

or otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects of
human health and the environment such as, but not limited to, chloroflourocarbons, halons
and the like;

s) "Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)" means the organic compounds that persist in the
environment, bioaccumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse
effects to human health and the environment. These compounds resist photolytic, chemical
and biological degradation, which shall include but not be limited to dioxin, furan,
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, such as aldrin, dieldrin, DDT,
hexachlorobenzene, lindane, toxaphere and chlordane;

t) "Poisonous and toxic fumes" means any emissions and fumes which are beyond
internationally - accepted standards, including but not limited to the World Health
Organization (WHO) guideline values;

u) "Pollution control device" means any device or apparatus used to prevent, control or abate
the pollution of air caused by emissions from identified pollution sources at levels within the
air pollution control standards established by the Department;

v) "Pollution control technology" means the pollution control devices, production process, fuel
combustion processes or other means that effectively prevent or reduce emissions or
effluent;

w) "Standard of performance" means a standard for emissions of air pollutant which reflects
the degree of emission limitation achievable through the application of the best system of
emission reduction, taking into account the cost of achieving such reduction and any non-air
quality health and environmental impact and energy requirement which the Department
determines, and adequately demonstrates; and

x) "Stationary source" means any building or immobile structure, facility or installation which
emits or may emit any air pollutant.