Bearings

Bearings are provided in bridges to transmit the load from superstructure to the
substructure in such a manner that the bearing stresses induced in the substructure are
within permissible limits and also to allow for certain movements of the superstructure.
The latter are usually due to one or more of the following:

 Longitudinal movement due to temperature variation.

 Rotation due to deflection of girders.
 Vertical movement due to sinking of supports.

Forces on bearings
 Reactive forces
 Longitudinal forces
 Uplift forces
 Transverse forces

Types of Bearings
 Sliding bearings
 Rocker and pin bearings
 Roller bearings
 Elastomeric bearings

Sliding Bearings

Sliding bearing consist of two metal plates, commonly stainless-steel plates, that slide
relative to each other and hence makes room for translational movement and
lubricating material between them as shown in figure.

A friction force is generated in sliding bearing and it is imposed on substructure,

superstructure and sliding bearing itself. So, it may be required to provide lubricant such
as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) to decline generated friction. It is specified by ASSHTO
that sliding bearing cannot be used unless the bridge span is smaller than 15m. This is
because sliding bearing cannot be purely used if the bridge experiences rotation
movement.

However, the span restriction for sliding bearing utilization can be disregarded when it is
used in combination with other bearing types.

Rocker and pin Bearings

Rocker is an expansion bearing composed of curved surface at the bottom, which

accommodate translational movement and a pin at the top makes room for rotation
movement.

Rocker bridge bearing

Pin bearing is a fixed bearing that make room for rotation movement through the
application of steel pin. It has similar structure and component like rocker bearing apart
from the bottom of pin bearing which is flat and fixed to the concrete pier.

Pin bearings
Roller bearings

Roller bearing can be used in the construction of reinforced concrete and steel bridge
structure. There are two main configurations including single roller bearing which is
composed of one roller placed between two plates and multiple roller bearing that
consist of several rollers installed between two plates.

Regular inspection and rehabilitation should be conducted since roller bearing are
susceptible to corrosion and damages.

Single roller bridge bearing

Multi-roller bearing
Elastomeric bearings

It consists of elastomer manufactured from synthetic or natural rubber and can take
both translation and rotation movements through elastomer deformation. The ability of
elastomer to carry large vertical loads is because of reinforcement provision that
prevents lateral bulging of elastomer.

There are number of elastomeric bearing pads classified based on types of

reinforcements used. For example, steel reinforced, plain, fiberglass reinforced and
cotton duck reinforced elastomeric bearing pads.

Strength and response of each type is different, steel reinforced elastomeric bearing is
the strongest one and plain elastomeric pad is the weakest.

Elastomeric bearing is neither expensive nor requires considerable maintenance, that is

why it the most desired bearing type.

Elastomeric Bearing
Pier Cap
Pier Cap / Headstock are the component which transfers loads from the superstructure
to the piers. Pier cap provide sufficient seating for the Bridge girders and disperse the
loads from the bearings to the Piers.

Piers
Bridge Pier supports the spans of the bridge and transfers the loads from superstructure
to the foundation. Piers should be strong enough to take the both vertical and
horizontal load. Its main function is to transfer the load from the bridge superstructure
foundation below it. They are subjected to huge axial loads and bi-axial moments and
shear forces in transverse and longitudinal direction. Said that, pier are usually
compression elements of a bridge.

Types of Piers
1. Solid Piers-

These piers have solid and impermeable structure. The generally used materials used for
the construction of these types of piers are bricks, stone Masonry, mass concrete or
RCC, etc. They may be further classified as:

 Solid masonry piers

 Solid RCC piers

Solid masonry piers –

The piers which are constructed with brick masonry, stone masonry, concrete etc. are
known as solid masonry piers. Sometimes it is seen that in solid masonry piles the outer
portion is constructed with the stone masonry and the inner part is filled with the help
of mass concrete. In this way it can save the cost of construction.

Solid RCC Piers-

The solid piers which are constructed with the reinforcement are called RCC piers. These
piers are generally rectangular in cross-section and are generally used where the height
of the piers is more and the solid masonry piers will not be strong enough to bear the
load and can be uneconomical.

2. Open Piers –

The piers which are open i.e. which allows the water to pass through the structure are
called as open piers. Open piers can be classified into the following types:

 Cylindrical piers
 Column bents
 Trestle piers or Trestle bent
 Pile bents
 Special or typical framed piers

Cylindrical Piers-

The piers which are constructed with the mild steels or cast iron cylinder in which the
concrete are filled are known as cylindrical piers. These are used for bridges having
moderate height. Sometimes horizontal and diagonal steel bracing are also provided for
additional stability.

Cylindrical pier formwork

Column Bents-

These are generally used for the bridges of large height. These are generally constructed
over barge services.

Trestle piers or Trestle bent-

It consists of column with bent cap at the top. As per the latest recommendation the
hinges may also be provided. It is generally used for flyovers and elevated roads. These
are suitable for bridges where water current is slow and river bed is sufficiently firm.

Typical Framed Piers-

These are the latest type of piers used in the bridges. In these piers the effective span
length for girders gets reduced. Hence the construction will be economical. The
disadvantage of these types of piers is the accumulations of debris e.g falling trees large
floating materials, etc.
Other types of Piers are –

Hammerhead piers-

Multicolumn Pier-

It has two or more column that supports the cap. There is a problem of debris collection
when the water is allowed to flow between the columns. Combined footing may be
used where the column spacing is less & isolated footing where the spacing is greater. It
also known as frame bent.
Loads on Piers
 Dead load from superstructure and self-weight
 Live load from traffic
 Impact effect
 Longitudinal forces

Abutment
An abutment is a structure located at the end of a bridge. The basic functions of an
abutment are:

 Supporting the bridge deck at the ends.

 Retaining the approach road embankment.
 Connecting the approach road to the bridge deck

There are different types of abutments. The selection of a particular form of abutment
depends on the geometry of the site and size of the bridge. The simplest form of an
abutment is a wall of considerable thickness provided with bridge seating arrangements
at the top. A major difference between a conventional retaining wall and an abutment is
that, an abutment is always associated with additional walls called wing walls.

Types of Abutment
Gravity abutment -

It resists horizontal earth pressure with its own dead weight. To be stable, this leads to
massive-sized abutments. These may be of mass concrete or stone masonry.
U abutment –

When the wing walls of a gravity abutment are placed at right angles to the back wall,
the abutment is known as the U-abutment. The name U-abutment is due to the shape
of the abutment in plan.

U-abutment

Stub abutment -
They are relatively short abutments at the top of an embankment or slope, usually
supported on piles.

Counterfort abutment-

It is very much similar to a counterfort retaining wall. In counterfort abutments, a thin

wall called counterfort connects the breast wall to the footing. These counterforts are
spaced at regular intervals so that the breast wall is designed as a supported slab rather
than as a cantilever. Counterfort abutments are used when high abutments are
required.

Counterfort Abutment

Pile bent abutment-

A pile-bent abutment with stub wings is another type of spill-through abutment, where
a row of driven piles supports the beam.
 Pile bent abutment

Foundation
All engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to fulfill the
following objectives and purposes:

 To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring
intensity of loading within the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
 To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal
settlement.
 To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.
 To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.
 To increase the stability of the structure as a whole

Types of Foundations
Foundations are broadly classified into two categories:

1. Shallow Foundation-
 Strip footing
 Spread or isolated footing
 Combined footing Strap or cantilever footing
 Mat or raft Foundation
 2. Deep foundation-
 Well Foundation
 Pile Foundation

Well Foundation
Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below the
water level for bridges. Caissons or well have been in use for foundations of bridges and
other structures since Roman and Mughal periods.

The term ‘caisson’ is derived from the French word caisse which means box or chest.
Hence caisson means a box like structure, round or rectangular, which is sunk from the
surface of either land or water to some desired depth.

The caissons are of three types:

a) Box Caisson-

It is open at the top and closed at the bottom and is made of timber, reinforced
concrete or steel. This type of caisson is used where bearing stratum is available at
shallow depth.

b) Open caisson (wells):

Open caisson is a box opened both at top and bottom. It is made up to timber, concrete
or steel. The open caisson is called well. Well foundation is the most common type of
deep foundation used for bridges in India.

c) Pneumatic caisson :

Pneumatic caissons has its lower end designed as a working chamber in which
compressed air is forced to prevent the entry of water and thus excavation can be done
in dry conditions.

Shape of Wells –

The common types of well shapes are:

(i) Single circular

(ii) Twin circular

(iii) Dumb well

(iv) Double-D

(v) Twin hexagonal

(vi) Twin octagonal

(vii) Rectangular
Pile Foundation
A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed
into the ground to act as a steady support for structure built on top of it.

Following are the cases where pile foundation is used:

 Where a soil layer of adequate bearing capacity lies too deep for the economic
use of conventional footings.
 Where the soil layer(s) immediately underlying a structure are soft or poorly
compacted.
 Where the soil layer(s) immediately underlying a structure are moderately or
highly variable in nature.
 On sites where the soil strata, and in some cases the ground surface are steeply
inclined.
  On river or shoreline sites where tidal or wave action or scouring may vary the
amount of material near the surface.
 For structures transmitting very high concentrated loads.
 For structures transmitting significant horizontal or inclined loads.
 For structures which structurally or functionally may be sensitive to differential
settlement.

Types of Pile Foundation –

Pile foundations can be classified based on function, materials and installation process
etc. Followings are the types of pile foundation used in construction:

1. Based on Function or Use :

 Sheet Piles
 Load Bearing Piles
 End bearing Piles
 Friction Piles
 Soil Compactor Piles

Sheet Piles-
This type of pile is mostly used to provide lateral support. Usually, they resist lateral
pressure from loose soil, the flow of water etc. They are usually used for cofferdams,
trench sheeting, shore protection etc. They are not used for providing vertical support
to the structure. They are usually used to serve the following purpose-

 Construction of retaining walls.

 Protection from river bank erosion.
 Retain the loose soil around foundation trenches.
 For isolation of foundation from adjacent soils.
 For confinement of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of the soil.

Load Bearing Piles-

This type of pile foundation is mainly used to transfer the vertical loads from the
structure to the soil. These foundations transmit loads through soil with poor supporting
property onto a layer which is capable of bearing the load.

End Bearing Pile-

In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil
or rock. The load of the building is transferred through the pile onto the strong layer. In
a sense, this pile acts like a column. The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the
surface which is the intersection of a weak and strong layer. The load therefore
bypasses the weak layer and is safely transferred to the strong layer.

Friction Piles –

Friction piles work on a different principle. The pile transfers the load of the building to
the soil across the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the entire surface of
the pile, which is cylindrical in shape, works to transfer the forces to the soil.

To visualize how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal rod of say 4mm
diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you have pushed it in, it is strong enough
to support some load. The greater the embedment depth in the ice cream, the more
load it can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile works. In a friction pile, the
amount of load a pile can support is directly proportionate to its length.
Soil Compactor Piles-

Sometimes piles are driven at placed closed intervals to increase the bearing capacity of
soil by compacting.

2. Based on Materials and Construction Method :

 Timber Piles
 Concrete Piles
 Steel Piles
 Composite Piles
 Classification based on material

Timber Piles-

Timber piles are placed under water level. They last for approximately about 30 years.
They can be rectangular or circular in shape. Their diameter or size can vary from 12 to
16 inches. The length of the pile is usually 20 times of the top width.

They are usually designed for 15 to 20 tons. Additional strength can be obtained by
bolting fish plates to the side of the piles.

Concrete Piles-

a) Pre-cast Concrete Pile -

This type of piles is cast in pile bed in horizontal form if they are rectangular in shape.
Usually, circular piles are cast in vertical forms. Precast piles are usually reinforced with
steel to prevent breakage during its mobilization from casting bed to the location of the
foundation. After the piles are cast, curing has to be performed as per specification.
Generally curing period for pre-cast piles is 21 to 28 days.

b) Cast-in-Palace Concrete Piles -

This type of pile is constructed by boring of soil up to the desired depth and then,
depositing freshly mixed concrete in that place and letting it cure there. These types of
pile is constructed either by driving a metallic shell to the ground and filling it with
concrete and leave the shell with the concrete or the shell is pulled out while concrete is
poured.
Steel Piles-

Steel piles may be of I-section or hollow pipe. They are filled with concrete. The size may
vary from 10 inches to 24 inches in diameter and thickness is usually ¾ inches. Because
of the small sectional area, the piles are easy to drive. They are mostly used as end-
bearing piles.

Advantages of Steel Piles -

 They are easy to install.

 They can reach a greater depth comparing to any other type of pile.
 Can penetrate through the hard layer of soil due to the less cross-sectional area.
 It is easy to splice steel piles
 Can carry heavy loads.

Disadvantage of Steel Piles -

 Prone to corrosion.
 Has a possibility of deviating while driving.
 Comparatively expensive.
Typical Pile Foundation for Bridge Pier –

The total reaction on any pile due vertical reaction and moments is computed from the
following equation:

∑ V ∑ M1 d 1 ∑ M 2 d 2
P= ± ±
n ∑ d 21 ∑ d22

Where P = total pile reaction resulting from moment and direct load.

∑ V = sum of the vertical loads acting on foundation.

∑M= sum of moments about the c.g. of the group, the subscript denoting the centroidal
axis about which the moment acts.

n = number of piles in the group.

d = distance from c.g. of the group to the pile in question, the subscript denoting the
centroidal axis about which the moment acts.

∑d2 = sum of the squares of distances to each pile from c.g. of the group , the subscript
denoting the corresponding centroidal axis.