Water & Waste Treatment PDF

Lessons
Lesson 1: Wastewater (Nature's Way)

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Lesson 2: Watershed
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Lesson 3: Reactions
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Lesson 4: Treatment Well

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Lesson 5: Water Supplies

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Lesson 6: Water Treatment

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Lesson 7: Hydraulics
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Lesson 8: Distribution System

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Lesson 9: Water Tank Design

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Lesson 10: Cross-Connections

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Tips for Exam 1

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Lesson 11: Storm Water

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Lesson 12: Oxygen

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Lesson 13: Septic Tanks

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Lesson 14: Ponds

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Lesson 15: Package Plant Aeration

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Lesson 16: Oxidation Ditch

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Lesson 17: Trickling Filter

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Lesson 18: Efficiency

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Lesson 19: Disinfection

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Lesson 20: Chemistry

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Lesson 1:
Water/Wastewater Treatment
(Nature's Way)
Introduction
Hello, I'm Jay Blevins from Mountain Empire Community College. I would like to
introduce you to a subject called water and wastewater treatment. In water and
wastewater, there are many concepts to learn so I thought I would start out with the way
nature treats water - the hydrologic cycle.
The hydrologic cycle follows water as it evaporates from the earth's surface, forms
clouds, and then falls back to the earth's surface as rain. The diagram below shows an
overview of the process.
Evaporation and Rainfall
Water evaporates into the air due to the sun's warming the water and changing it into a
gas. The water escapes from plants as they breathe (a process called transpiration) or
evaporates from surface water. After evaporating the moisture disperses into the
atmosphere and forms particles which are collected in clouds.
Fog is an example of a cloud next to the earth's surface. As you drive through fog, you
can tell that there is water in the air because droplets collect on the windshield as a result
of the water's attraction (affinity) to the glass.
Water must collect together before it can fall out of the air. If clouds are in a dusty region,
water will collect on the dust in the air and cause precipitation. For example, in times of
war often there is often a grather than usual amount of rainfall because explosions on the
ground throw dust up into the atmosphere.
Dust particles form the centers of raindrops, but these drops usually fall only when the
clouds are cooled. As air cools, it becomes supersaturated, meaning that the air has more
water in it than it can hold. Clouds cool and become supersaturated when they gain in
elevation or come in contact with a cold front. When clouds are forced over mountains
they become extremely supersaturated and enormous amounts of precipitation can occur.
On one of the Hawaiian Islands, approximately 500 inches of rain may fall every year.
Purification in the Sky
Evaporating water can carry contaminants such as bacteria into the air with it. However,
the bacteria are killed by two substances: ultraviolet light and ozone. As a result, the rain
falling out of the clouds is usually pure until it nears the earth's surface.
Although we cannot see ultraviolet light, also known as UV light, it causes sunburn in
humans. Greater than usual amounts of UV light can kill both plants and animals.
Luckily, most UV light penetrates into clouds to kill bacteria.
The same ozone which prevents most UV light from reaching the earth's surface is also a
potent killer of bacteria. Ozone kills microorganisms in the atmosphere about 30,000
times faster than chlorine can kill microorganisms in water.
Whereas UV light shines down on the atmosphere in an endless stream from the sun,
ozone must be produced. Energy from cloud movement causes ions (charged particles) to
separate and the ionic charge released produces lightning. When lightning occurs, ozone
and a soluble form of nitrogen are made.
Ozone production occurs primarily during warm weather. In cold weather, there is no
need for the ions to separate as much. Thus, there are very few static charges in the
clouds to create ozone. But the UV light and the cold temperatures still kill
microorganisms.
Bacterial Contamination
In temperate conditions ozone and UV light cleanse the cloud of bacterial contamination.
But once rain begins to fall, the rain drops start picking up contaminants, such as bacteria
and dust, from the air. The bacterial contamination is all around us. For proof, expose
some agar to air and you will see that it grows microorganisms. Agar is a gelatin-like
food designed to grow only certain groups of organisms.
Some of the falling rainwater evaporates back into the air due to the saturation of the soil
and the warmth of the earth. Other water is retained by the vegetation or trickles down
through the soil. This groundwater is cleaned by filtering slowly through the earth's crust.
Still other water runs across the earth's surface and ends up in rivers and streams.
As water runs across the earth's surface, it picks up any contaminants it comes in contact
with, including bacteria and organic matter such as ammonia. Surface areas have high
bacterial counts and bacteria are easily washed into rivers and streams. When this
happens, the bacteria start eating the organic matter that is suspended in the water and
start using up oxygen dissolved in the water. This action raises the biological oxygen
demand (BOD) of surface waters. This is also how the natural world starts the process of
water treatment.
Natural Water Treatment

By the time rain water reaches streams, it has picked up microorganisms, organic matter
(such as ammonia), and materials of various sizes (such as dirt and rocks). Natural
processes remove each type of contaminant from the water.
The materials suspended in the water come in sizes ranging from tiny particles of mud to
large rocks. Over time, the materials and sediments within the water tend to settle
selectively by velocity, as shown in the illustration below. Quickly moving water can
carry large objects with it, but the largest rocks will soon fall to the bottom of the stream
and stay there. As a stream leaves rapids and begins to move more slowly, smaller
objects, such as pebbles, settle to the bottom. Even slower water drops sand. Finally,
when the stream reaches a basin or pond where the water moves very slowly, sediments
settle to the bottom and form mud.
The removal of organic matter begins in these impoundments of still water. Here,
microorganisms begin to eat the organic matter. In the process, they use up oxygen in the
water.
As water leaves these impoundments, it often flows over rocks, increasing the amount of
water surface coming in contact with the air. The increased surface area enables the
water to pick up oxygen to replace the oxygen used by the microorganisms. Carbon
dioxide, a waste product from the microorganisms, is also released here. As the carbon
dioxide is driven off, pH readings rise in the water.
Contaminants are also removed as the water flows over rocks in streams. In a living
stream, rocks develop a slick coating because of the microorganisms that attach to them.
So a living stream can be determined by the presence of slick rocks and plant growth.
In a healthy stream, the microorganisms are able to convert ammonia into nitrates. Plants
in the stream absorb the nitrates which they in turn use for food.
So ammonia and sediments are both removed from the water during the natural flow of a
stream. But microorganisms remain in the water until it flows to the ocean. There, salt
kills most of the freshwater microorganisms.
Buffers
As I mentioned above, whenever carbon dioxide is released into water or removed from
water, the pH of the water changes. Most of the living things in the stream, including the
microorganisms which digest organic matter, are sensitive to the stream's pH. Changing
pH can kill many of these organisms.
But in a natural system, the pH of the water does not usually change dramatically.
Buffers in the water prevent it from becoming very acidic or basic. A buffer can best be
described as an acid and a base mixed together. As the pH of the water begins to change,
the buffer neutralizes the change. As a result, the microorganisms survive.
Excerpted from: http://www.alltel.net/~mikeric/GLOSSARY.htm

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Buffer: A solution or liquid whose chemical makeup neutralizes acids or bases without a
great change in pH. Any of certain combinations of chemicals used to stabilize the pH
values or alkalinities of solutions.
Buffer Capacity: A measure of the capacity of a solution or liquid to neutralize acids or
bases. This is a measure of the capacity of water or wastewater for offering a resistance to
changes in pH.
From: College Chemistry, 1980 LC 79-88562 page 427:
Mixtures of weak acids and their salts or mixtures of weak bases and their salts are called
buffer solutions. They resist a change in hydrogen-ion concentration upon the addition of
small amounts of acids or bases.
Summary
In summary, nature, through the process of the hydrologic cycle, purifies water. Water in
clouds is disinfected by UV light and ozone. But when water falls as rain, it once again
becomes contaminated. Groundwater is purified by filtering through the earth and
surface water is purified by microbial action. Buffers in the water keep the pH from
changing. When water reaches the oceans, salt kills bacteria.
Nature is a huge water treatment facility. As long as nature's concepts are followed when
treating water and wastewater, the use of energy is optimized and the impact on the
ecology is minimized.
Lesson 2:
Watershed
1. The Importance of Watersheds
In this section we will answer the following questions:

* What is a watershed?
* What aspects of a watershed are important for the water/wastewater treatment
technician?
What is a Watershed?
By definition, a watershed is an area where all rainfall collects into a common location.
The common location could be a stream, a pond, a river, etc.
Smaller watersheds flow into increasingly larger watersheds. For example, Mountain
Empire Community College contains three small watersheds. All three watersheds
eventually flow into the Powell River, so they are all part of the Powell River watershed,
also known as the Powell River basin. The water in the Powell River ends up in the Gulf
of Mexico, so Mountain Empire Community College is also in the Gulf of Mexico's
watershed.
The headwaters of a river are made up of first order streams. The watershed of a first
order stream cannot be broken down into smaller watersheds because water feeding first
order streams flows directly into the streams. The water may originate as runoff from
rainfall or as groundwater welling up from below the earth's surface.
Each watershed has its own unique characteristics. Size, permeability of the soil,
vegetation type, soil type, slope, microorganisms, pH, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), and
temperature all affect the water in a watershed. As you will see, each watershed also
presents its own problems for the water treatment technician.
Why Study Watersheds?

One of the reasons to study watersheds is that conditions of the watershed are of concern
to those who work with both potable water and wastewater treatment. Water is removed
from the watershed to be treated and used as potable water. Then wastewater is treated
and released back into the watershed.
What in a watershed would be of concern to a potable water treatment operator? Let's

take the Industrial Park in Duffield, Virginia, as an example.
There is one incident that I remember very vividly. A 70,000-gallon fuel tank was being
filled with oil at the Industrial Park. During the long wait, the employee left the truck
unattended to take a break. When he returned, the fuel oil had spilled into the stream
above the intake for the potable water treatment facility.
The operators of the water treatment plant had to close the facility down. Otherwise, the
untreated fuel oil in the watershed would have entered the facility and contaminated
sedimentation tanks, filters, and sand. It usually takes three or four days to clean a plant
after water contaminated with an oil spill has been introduced into the facility.
Because the water treatment plant was alerted to the contamination in the watershed, it
was able to prevent time and money-intensive cleaning.
Potable Water Treatment
There are many possible sources of contamination in a watershed. Septic tanks, airports,
automobiles, industrial facilities, mining operations, and agricultural lands all contribute
to the contamination. In addition, various other sources and processes contaminate the
water supply.
We are not as concerned about the microbial contamination of the water supply in potable
water treatment as we are about other types of contamination. Bacteria are killed or
removed during the water treatment process as we flocculate, filter, and disinfect the
water. But knowing the amount and type of contamination in the treatment plant's
watershed can influence how much chemical treatment (usually alum and lime) is
necessary to produce floc from the water.
Every watershed has different characteristics - different colloids, different pH, and so
forth. The only thing that is common in water treatment with respect to a watershed is
that every watershed is unique. So the reason we re interested in the front end of a
watershed is to determine how best to treat the water.
Waste Water Treatment
Why are we interested in the sewage treatment end of a watershed? Communities must
release treated sewage into streams and rivers. In addition to meeting standards set by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), waste water treatment facilities must also
consider where the released water is going.
There are often endangered species, such as mussels, and other organisms of concern in
the streams below waste water treatment facilities. We have to be sensitive to life
downstream as we release treated sewage water into our watershed. The wastewater
treatment facility strives to maintain the health of the downstream ecosystem.
Our watershed also becomes the watershed of another water treatment facility somewhere
downstream. That facility will be concerned about what we're putting into their
watershed for treatment purposes just as we're concerned about the waste water treatment
facilities upstream. So watershed is an important concept within both water treatment
and sewage treatment.
2. Boundaries

* How is contamination in water affected by the distance from the contamination source?
* How do we find the boundaries of a watershed on a topographical map?
Watershed Boundaries and Contamination
How do we know the boundaries of the watershed? Edges of a watershed are usually
found in the highest areas around. There, water falling as rain on one side of the
mountain or hill runs down into one watershed while water falling on the other side of the
mountain or hill runs down into another watershed.
As I mentioned previously, there are three watersheds on the property at Mountain
Empire Community College in Big Stone Gap, Virginia. All three watersheds eventually
empty into the Powell River. If there is contamination in one watershed and none in the
other two, contamination still reaches the Powell River.
But the contamination in the Powell River will be more dilute than it was in the source
stream. The further we go from the source of contamination, the less concentrated the
contamination will become until it is an insignificant component of the water running
into the Gulf of Mexico.
The total amount of contamination in the water is about the same when it reaches the
Gulf of Mexico as it was when it left the source stream. But there is so much water in the
Gulf of Mexico that the contamination becomes very diluted. You can see the same
effect if you put a few drops of red dye in a small cup of water. The water is quite red.
But if you pour the cup of water and dye into a gallon container of water and mix it up,
the water only shows a faint hint of red color.
Another example of the effect of distance and greater volume on dispersing

contamination is a sneeze. When you sneeze, germ and water particles are initially very
concentrated just outside your nose. But as they are blown further from your face, they
disperse into the surrounding air and become much less concentrated. There is so much
air around you for the germ and water particles to disperse in, that the contamination
becomes insignificant.
We're interested in defining an area's watershed so that we can find potential sources of
contamination to our facilities. We also need to be sensitive to downstream life when
releasing pollutants into the water. As we consider sources of contamination in the
watershed, we have to keep in mind the effect of distance on the concentration of the
contaminant in the water.
Defining Watershed Boundaries on a Topographical Map

Let's define watershed on a topographical map (also known as a topo map). First, you
need to know how to read the map.
The scale is usually found at the bottom of a paper map, but on the website mentioned
later, the scale is found at the top of the map. A typical scale is 1:24,000 meaning that
every inch on the map is equivalent to 24,000 inches on the ground. An arrow at the
bottom of the map points to magnetic north.
A topographical map shows differences in elevation by a series of contour lines. You can
think of a contour line as a trail for a lazy hiker who never wants to climb up or down.
Instead, he just walks around the side of a hill at the same elevation.
On topo maps, contour lines usually show a difference in elevation of forty feet. So, the
lazy hiker on one contour line is forty feet higher or lower in elevation than the lazy hiker
on the neighboring contour line.
Hilltops are easy to find on topographic maps because they are shown as closed circles.
The lazy hiker can walk around and around the top of the hill on the same elevation. In
contrast, streams are usually shown as Vs with the point of the V being the upstream
end.
When examining a topo map, you will need to orient yourself by finding known objects.
Look for peaks (which are often labelled by name), buildings (shown as small squares),
churches, graveyards, etc. Labelled roads can also help you get your bearings.
Once you are oriented, find the point you are interested in. Continuing with the sample
map shown above, I have highlighted Creek X. Now you can begin to define the area's
watershed boundaries.
Starting at the creek, go uphill in every direction (except directly downstream) until you
reach the highest points. Sometimes the highest point above the creek may be a peak,
shown as a closed circle. Other times, the highest point is a ridge, shown as an elongated
U- shape. In any case, on the other side of these highest points, a new watershed begins.
Connect the highest points around the creek with a line and you have drawn in the
watershed boundary. This line also marks the headwaters of the watershed.
Your Watershed
Try finding the boundaries of the watershed in which you live or work. If you do not
already have a topo map of your area, go to http://www.topozone.com/ and type in the
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nearest city and state in the "Place Name Search" area.
If you are working from a map on topozone.com, you may want to change the scale so
that you can see the entire watershed region once you find the topo map of your area.
Starting at the scale of 1:200,000 or 1:100,000 will let you orient yourself and define the
watershed boundaries if you are considering a large watershed. Then change the scale to
1:25,000 so that you can see regions in the watershed which might affect the water
quality. Which areas do you think are sources of contamination? Which areas do you
think release clean water into your stream, river, or lake?
3. Watershed Contamination
In this section, we will answer the following question:
* What problems in a watershed should a plant operator be aware of?
Guest River Watershed
The watershed of the Guest River contains Norton and Wise, Virginia. This large
watershed covers approximately 75 square miles of land.
Within the watershed are several sources of contamination. Near Clinch Valley College
in Wise, Virginia, there are old mining operations that leach copper into Yellow Creek.
Yellow Creek in turn feeds into the Guest River. There are also other active and inactive
mining operations located within the watershed. The river has industrial concerns like
Austin Powder and petroleum based companies. Timbering operations on both public
and private lands and household sewage also empty into the Guest River.
In 1998, the Guest River Restoration Project installed eleven septic tank systems to help
clean up the watershed. One of the interesting things about the watershed now is that
some of the cleanest water comes from a sewage treatment facility. Other clean water
comes from Forest Service lands since, in the absence of logging, forested land tends to
clean water running through it.
Watershed Monitoring
Aquatic life in our lakes and rivers is a good indicator of how successful our efforts are at
keeping the water clean. Many organisms are unable to survive in contaminated water.
We can also monitor the cleanliness of water directly by testing the concentrations of
various pollutants in the water. The Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) is the
agency that monitors watersheds. They analyze data at stations set up in different
areas.
When considering the health of the Guest River watershed, Mountain Empire Community
College used data collected by DEQ over a twenty year period. We looked for numbers
that were unusual and what stood out was the copper concentration in the water. The
copper had been in the river for many years at a very high concentration. The
contamination probably originated in the mine spoil of the Taggart seam where mining
had once occurred.
The Water/Wastewater department at Mountain Empire Community College did some

calculations concerning the total amount of copper running through the river over a
twenty-year period. We discovered that millions of dollars worth of copper had flowed
from the Guest River into the Clinch River.
As a result of the copper running from Yellow Creek into the Guest River and then into
the Clinch, there are few endangered mussels in the Clinch River downstream of the
Guest River's influx. Elsewhere, the Clinch River is well known for its populations of
endangered mussels. As you can see, one watershed can have a tremendous impact on
another.
From a water treatment point of view, the copper leaching into Yellow Creek takes a
considerable amount of money and energy to remove once it has mixed with the water.
We've done several experiments in the lab attempting to remove copper from water and
every process that we do to collect copper is expensive. Other contaminants in water are
similarly difficult to remove after they have mixed with water. So the best thing to do is
to keep contaminants from entering the water in the first place. We'll use this concept
later in sewage treatment when we discuss how much money communities spend in
treating sewage.
Responding to Contamination in Your Watershed
As a plant operator, you need to have an understanding of what potential sources of

contamination are contained within your watershed. Without this knowledge, you won't
be able to respond adequately to problems as they arise.
The watershed that feeds Greenville, Tennessee, goes through an industrial area that had
an acid spill. A hose carrying sulfuric acid burst and emptied the contents of the tank car
into the river. The water operator that was on duty noticed that the pH of the water
coming into the plant was dropping.
The first thing the operator did was to shut the plant down. He was able to guess that the
acid came from a spill in the industrial area even though no one at the company there had
noticed the problem. So the operator called the other water treatment plants downstream
of the spill area to let them know about the contamination.
You never know when a tank car will overturn and spill a contaminant into your
watershed. Usually the amount of time that you will have to respond to such a situation
is not what you would like it to be. What's a reasonable amount of time to be able to
respond to a problem? Time enough to prevent irreversible damage or expensive
correction. The people who are responsible for water treatment facilities want an
operator who is on his toes to catch problems as they come down the stream, an operator
who will take appropriate action or shut the plant down, if necessary. This prevents
cleanup cost and problems with treated water.
Knowing your watershed can also help you prevent problems before they occur. What
would do if you found many diseased or dead animals in your watershed? You wouldn't
want dead animals in the water that you were treating for consumption. Without
knowing the boundaries of your watershed, you would unable to stay on top of these
problems.
Other Watershed Problems
You may wonder, What's the likelihood of anything in the watershed ever creating a
problem anyway? Don't we floc, filter, and chlorinate the input water, thus eliminating
almost any problems in the output water?
Despite all of that filtration, certain organisms are able to pass through a filter.
Cryptosporidium is one example. Cryptosporidium is a parasite often found in the
intestines of livestock. The parasite contaminates water when the feces from the animal
interact with a water source. In a healthy population, human infection results in acute
diarrhea, which lasts for 2-3 weeks. But the parasite can be life threatening for people
who suffer from suppressed immune systems such as AIDS patients, children, and the
elderly.
Cryptosporidium Life Cycle
Since filtration and chlorine are ineffective in treating water contaminated with
Cryptosporidium, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that all public
water supply systems serving more than 100,000 connections must monitor for
Cryptosporidium. Although we are unlikely to have Cryptosporidium in our watershed,
some of the larger cities with larger watersheds might. Plant operators have to test the
water flowing into their plants to determine which contaminants might be a problem.
When monitoring a watershed, we take into account the accessibility of the area. People
can enter the watershed at Appalachia along only one road, so sources of contamination
there are relatively easy to monitor. In contrast, the Big Stone Gap watershed is
accessible by two roads and fishing is allowed in the reservoir by permit only. So
monitoring the Big Stone Gap watershed is a little bit more complicated. The more
public access a watershed has, the more potential there is for hazard.
One last concern of watershed maintenance is diversion of the water for other uses. As
water gets diverted from a watershed, there is less water for contamination to be diluted
in. There is also less water available to be used by the communities downstream.
Summary
Watershed is a very important concept for water and wastewater technicians. The
watershed in which a plant is located determines the purity of the water flowing into a
plant. Plant workers must also be aware of the downstream ecology and human
communities which are influenced by the water they release.
The technician needs to know the watershed's boundaries in order to determine potential
sources of contamination. He should also know how contamination flows through a
watershed, influencing all downstream watersheds but becoming more dilute as the
distance from the contamination source grows.
The technician who understands his watershed will be able to respond to problems
quickly and efficiently. He will know when to shut the plant down, when to warn other
treatment plants, and when to merely adjust the operation of his plant.
Assignment
1. Find a topographical map which shows the region in which you

live or work and the surrounding area.
2. Mark the boundary of the watershed in whick you live or work.
3. Mark the body of water into which the water from your watershed
flows - a reservoir, river, creek, pond, etc.
4. Mark the first order streams in the watershed.
5. Mark potential sources of pollution in your watershed. Do you

think these sources pollute the reservoir, river, etc. substantially?
Why or why not?
6. What route does the water in your watershed use to get to the
ocean? Which ocean does it flow into?
Lesson 3:
Reactions
Conditions for Reactions
• What conditions are necessary for a reaction to occur?

• How does time influence a reaction?
Ingredients for a Reaction
To understand the treatment of water, we must gather a basic understanding of reactions,

what they are, and how they occur. For any substantial, planned reaction to occur, the
following four basic conditions are required: reactive components, closeness, thorough
mixing, and a change of energy.
Reactive Components
The first condition is straightforward; components must possess some ability or potential
for a reaction. The reaction may occur between two chemicals in solution or may occur in
living matter. The following are three examples of reactions:
1. Sodium hydroxide (lye) and hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) react easily and
form sodium chloride (salt) and water. The reactive components are sodium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. This reaction can be summarized with the
equation: NaOH + HCl = NaCl + H2O.
2. Microbes possess enzymes that break down (or eat) particular foods. The reactive
components (enzymes and food) react and turn the food into simple substances
such as sugars and proteins.
3. In more complex organisms, male and female react with one another to produce
offspring. The sperm and egg cells (which are reactive components) react to
create a fertilized embryo.
Closeness
Having reactive components alone does not ensure a reaction will take place. The
closeness of the components is also important in determining whether a reaction will
occur. If a bottle of sodium hydroxide is always kept in a separate storage room than a
bottle of hydrochloric acid, the likelihood of a reaction between the two solutions is next
to zero.
Thorough Mixing
The third condition is thorough mixing. Thorough mixing is really another way of saying
that the reactive components must be very close together in order to react. Mixing a
solution of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid brings individual particles of each
type together so that they can turn into salt and water.
Even when thoroughly mixed, no reaction is ever 100% complete due to the effects of
random energy. As the sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react with each other to
form salt and water, random energy causes some salt and water to turn back into sodium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. Other minor reactions may occur as well, creating
compounds other than the four shown in our equation.
Efficiency is a way of measuring what percentage of the reactive components turn into
desired products. A less efficient reaction produces less of the desired products from the
same amount of reactants. Efficiency is important because it means that we don't have to
use as much of the reactive components to create the products.
In a gasoline engine, fuel and air are mixed at just the right ratio and concentration for a
spark to ignite the fuel and produce power from the explosion. Some of the fuel and air
mixture is not burned, decreasing the efficiency of the engine. Lower efficiency means
that the car owner has to put more gasoline in his car to drive the same number of miles
and that more waste emissions will leave the car to pollute the air.
Change of Energy
The final condition, a change of energy, must be present or the reaction will not occur.
Some reactions absorb energy and are called endothermic reactions while others release
energy and are called exothermic reactions. We can usually see or feel the energy change
of a reaction as heat or light.
If we have to apply heat to the reactive components to drive the reaction, then the
reaction was endothermic. You probably use endothermic reactions every day when you
apply heat to your food to cook it.
In contrast, many of the important reactions in the natural world are exothermic. They
require no input of energy in order to occur since the components enter a lower energy
state in the process. Some form of energy is given off as a byproduct of the reaction, and
often we can see that wasted energy as heat or light. In the case of combustion in the car
engine, heat, light and sound are all given off from the reaction. When an electric current
is passed through copper wiring in the presence of water, light is sometimes given off. In
both cases, the reactions were exothermic.
If you mix sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid in a beaker, you can feel warmth
being exuded when you place your hand on the outside of the container. Since heat is
given off, you know that the reaction was an exothermic one. Salt and water, the products
of the reaction, are a more stable, or lower energy form, than were the reactants.
Time
In addition to the four conditions listed above for a reaction to occur, time plays an
important role within a reaction. All reactions have a beginning, middle, and end of the
reaction cycle. Usually a reaction starts out slowly, accelerates to a point of highest
activity, and then decreases in activity as the reaction completes.
You can graph the act of throwing a ball in the air. When you do, you are representing an
actual event by the parameters of distance and time. Reactions can also be graphed in
accordance with time elapsed, as shown below.
Though time is not often discussed in chemistry, it is vital to understand how time
influences a reaction. The four conditions required to produce a substantial reaction must
occur in the right sequence in order to be successful. Thorough mixing does no good if
the reactive components have not already been placed in close proximity. Providing heat
to aid an endothermic reaction, such as baking a cake, does little good if the ingredients
have not been mixed.
In addition, some reactions reach the optimum product after a certain length of time. If a
cake is baked for 30 minutes it will come out moist and crumbly, while if it is baked for
90 minutes, it will come out charred.
Returning to the field of water and wastewater management, let's consider a scenario in
which a large quantity of acid was spilled in a river. Managers may decide to release a
buffer into the water to neutralize the acid. However, if they release a buffer at the same
location where the acid was spilled but at a later time, the buffer will never come in
contact with the acid. Instead, the managers have to consider how far downstream the
acid will have moved in the intervening time and release the buffer there.
pH
In this section we will answer the following question:
• What is pH?
Acids and Bases
One very important reaction is constantly occurring in any body of water. At any given
time, some of the water is being ionized while some ions are joining back together into
water molecules. When water is ionized, it has been broken down from one molecule into
two ions (charged particles). The reaction can be shown by the equation H2O = H+ + OH-
.
pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in the water, which can also be thought
of as the ratio of H+ to OH- ions. In neutral water, the number of H+ ions is equal to the
number of OH- ions. But if you add hydrochloric acid (HCl), the hydrochloric acid will
ionize and add H+ ions in the water than OH- ions. The water is said to be acidic and has
a lower pH value.
Bases, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), can release OH- ions into the water. As a
result, the water becomes more basic and the pH value is higher. Bases can also work by
attaching to the H+ ions already in the water, taking them out of solution and lowering the
concentration of H+ ions in the water.
Measuring pH
How do you think the number of H+ ions in water is measured? The pH scale refers to the
number of H+ ions in one liter (approximately four cups) of water. Since molecules and
ions are so tiny, it would be impossible to count all of the H+ ions in even one
teaspoonful of water. Instead, we count the number of moles of H+ ions in the water. One
mole (also known as a gram molecular weight) is equal to 6.023 × 1023 molecules -
billions and billions of molecules.
Neutral water has a pH of 7, meaning that is has 10-7 moles (or 0.0000001 moles) of H+
ions in every liter of water. Lemon juice, with a pH of 2, has 10-2 moles (or 0.01 moles)
of H+ ions in every liter of water. That is, there are more H+ ions in the lemon juice than
in the water, so the lemon juice is more acidic.
Since the number of moles of H+ ions can vary so much in a solution, we use a
logarithmic scale to measure the ratio. A very basic solution is given a pH of 14 while a
very acidic solution is given a pH of 1. The acidic solution does not have 14 times as
many H+ ions as the basic solution. Instead, the acidic solution has 100,000,000,000,000
as many H+ ions. Each number on a logarithmic scale, such as a pH scale, is ten times
more than the number below it.
The Basics of pH
If all of this math and chemistry is confusing, don't worry. The most important thing for
you to understand about pH is that solutions with a low pH are acidic while those with a
high pH are basic. Neutral water has a pH of 7.
As water becomes acidic or basic, the organisms capable of living in the water change.
Organisms cannot survive in very acidic or very basic solutions.
The following scale shows the pH of some common substances:
Substance pH
Stomach acid 1
Lemon juice 2
Vinegar 3
Tomatoes 4
Black coffee 5
Human urine 6
Neutral water 7
Seawater 8
Baking soda 9
Milk of magnesia 10
Household ammonia 11
Oven cleaner 13
Drain opener 15
Reactors
• What is a reactor?
• What conditions change the rate of a reaction?
What is a Reactor?
A reactor is any housing that contains a reaction. For example, a nuclear reactor houses a
nuclear reaction. In wastewater, a Single Batch Reactor (SBR) is used to hold and treat
one batch of sewage at a time. By isolating the batch of sewage, the SBR ensures that
each batch is completely treated and is not contaminated with untreated sewage from
another branch.
In addition to isolating the reaction from any other space, the reactor optimizes the
conditions for the reaction. The oxidation ditch is a reactor that allows for control over a
reaction. Many parameters can be controlled to enhance the reaction while the mixed
liquor is in the oxidation ditch. These parameters include oxygen concentration, return
sludge rate (feed rate), detention time, and sludge wasting.
Rate of a Reaction
Many reactors are set up so that the rate of the reaction can be changed within the reactor.
Rate changes are dependent upon five conditions: temperature, pressure, concentration,
catalyst, and chemical activity.
Temperature affects both living matter and chemicals. As a general rule, the higher the
temperature, the higher the rate of activity. Heat creates more random energy, which
leads to more thorough mixing of components and a faster reaction. However, too much
heat can slow a reaction by destroying the reactive components. Nearly all reactions are
temperature dependent and have a specific optimum temperature requirement, a
temperature at which the reaction takes place at the greatest possible speed and
efficiency.
Greater pressure can speed up a reaction by reducing the space between the reactive
components. For example, a pressure cooker is used to prepare food in less time. In the
natural world, the creation of diamonds from coal is dependent upon an enormous
amount of pressure squeezing the molecules together.
The concentration, or strength, of a reactive component is important in determining

whether a reaction will take place. Concentration simply refers to the amount of the
reactive component in relation to the volume of the container. If the concentration is too
low, no reaction will occur. For example, if a household gas outlet is left on for a few
minutes there is little danger of explosion since only a small amount of gas has leaked out
into a large room, resulting in a low concentration of gas in the room. However, if the
outlet valve is left on for several hours, the concentration of gas is high enough in the
room to produce a large explosion when provided with a spark or flame.
The fourth conditionfor changing the rate of a reaction is a catalyst. A catalyst is any
substance that encourages a reaction without being consumed in the process. An example
of a catalyst would be the platinum used in a catalytic converter on a car to reduce
emissions. The platinum is not used up by the process, but no reaction would occur
without the platinum present.
The fifth condition a reaction is dependent upon is the activity level of the chemical itself.
Every chemical compound has a certain amount of energy available for release. The CRC
Handbook lists the activity level of common compounds and elements. Oxygen and
carbon have a higher activity level than a noble (inert) gas such as neon. Atoms such as
uranium and plutonium are radioactive and release energy very easily. Two components
that possess high activity levels will react with a faster rate than two components with
low activity levels.
Experiments
• What is a control?
• How is confidence achieved in a scientific experiment?
• What is a correlation?
Control
Reactors, as we have said, are a way of controlling a reaction. They can also be used to
test the effect of various conditions on the reaction. For example, temperature can be
varied in a reactor without varying any of the other conditions. When the same reaction is
performed at various temperatures, we can determine the optimum temperature of the
reaction - the temperature at which the reaction proceeded most efficiently.
In some cases, reactors cannot isolate a condition to be tested. In that case, a control
sample may be used in the same manner. Suppose you wanted to know how the presence
of lime in soil affects the growth of bean plants. You can grow one plot of bean plants
with lime in the soil and another plot in the same conditions but without lime in the soil.
The plants without lime in the soil are control plants while the plants with lime in the soil
are experimental plants. By comparing the control and experimental plants you can see
how lime affects the bean plants. In the picture of one experiment above, the control plant
grew well while the plant treated with lime withered. So lime seems to be harmful to
bean plants.
Confidence
When conducting a scientific experiment, you need not only control but a large enough
sample size to generate confidence in your results. In the bean experiment above, the
sample size is how many plants of each type you grew. If you only grew one bean plant
on lime and one bean plant without lime, the sample size would be two. With such a low
sample size, the withering plant on lime would not be a very strong indicator that lime is
bad for bean plants. Perhaps the plant didn't get enough water instead.
If you grew a hundred plants on lime and a hundred without lime, you would be much
more confident about your results. If all of the experimental plants withered while all of
the control plants grew well, then you could conclude that the lime in the soil caused the
withering of the experimental plants.
Correlation
In addition to increasing the sample size, it is sometimes helpful to test different ranges of
conditions. Lime affects plants by changing the pH of the soil. So you might decide to
test the growth of bean plants growing in soil of various pH values.
Once you conduct an experiment, you need to analyze your results, using either graphs or
statistics. A correlation shows the relationship between two aspects of an experiment,
such as the pH of the soil and the height of a bean plant. The graph above is a correlation
in a fictional experiment studying the effects of pH and lime on bean plants.
Summary
This lesson has considered many aspects of reactions as well as delving into pH and the
scientific method. These topics provide the background information which will be
necessary to understand many aspects of water and wastewater management.
Reactions require the conditions of reactive components, closeness, mixing, and energy
changes to produce a substantial reaction. Time also influences the course of a reaction.
Reactors are used to isolate a reaction and optimize the conditions. The conditions within
a reactor help influence the rate of a reaction by selecting the temperature, pressure,
concentration, catalyst, and chemical activity.
pH is the measure of the concentration of H+ ions in water. Neutral water has a pH value
of 7. Strong acids can have a pH value of 1 and strong bases a pH value of 14.
Scientific experiments are used to answer questions. A good experiment requires the use
of a control and a large enough sample size to create confidence. Correlations are used to
show the relationship between two aspects of an experiment.
Assignment
1. When you boil water, it changes from a liquid to a gaseous state. Is the
reaction endothermic or exothermic? How do you know?
2. Go back to Lesson 1 and review the section on buffers. How do you think
buffers keep the pH of water fro changing?
3. Name one reactor which you use in every day life. What reaction occurs in
the reactor? How does the reactor optimize the conditions for the reaction?
4. You have a dozen spider plants which you keep in your bathroom. They
are turning yellow and you wonder whether they are getting enough
sunlight. How would you set up an experiment to figure out how much
sunlight the spider plants prefer? List the control and the sample size.
Lesson 4:
Treatment Well
Introduction to Groundwater
• What is groundwater?
• How is groundwater removed from the ground?
What is Groundwater?
As you will remember from Lesson 1, when water falls to the earth as rain, it either runs
across the surface of the ground as surface water or sinks down into the soil and becomes
groundwater. This lesson covers the methods used to treat groundwater for domestic uses
- use in homes.
Groundwater is an economical source of water, especially for small communities.

Groundwater has already been cleaned to some extent by filtering down through the soil
particles. In addition, groundwater can be brought to the surface even in areas where
there are no rivers nearby to supply surface water. But where is groundwater located in
the earth?
If you dig a hole down through the earth, the soil initially has pockets of air between the
soil particles. But as you dig deeper, soon water would fill in all of the gaps in the soil.
The location where all of the holes first become filled with water is called the water table.
This is the upper limit of the zone of saturation, which is the part of the earth containing
the groundwater.
The bottom of the zone of saturation is marked by an impermeable layer of rocks, clay or
other material. Water cannot soak through this layer, so it instead slowly flows downhill.
Sources of Groundwater
Groundwater is extracted from the layer of saturation either through springs or wells.
Springs are areas where the water table naturally rises above the surface of the earth,
allowing groundwater to flow out of the soil.
When springs are not available, we use wells to reach the groundwater. A well is a hole
dug down through the water table. Pumps are used to bring ground water up to the
surface.
Treatment of Well and Spring Water
Groundwater is often more pure than surface water because it has filtered down through
the soil. But it still has to be treated before it can be used for domestic purposes. The
types of treatment used depend upon the chemical and bacteriological quality of the
water. Study and experimentation are required to tailor the process to the groundwater in
each area.
Below, we have outlined the typical steps used in treating groundwater, but all steps are
not used in every situation. The rest of the lesson will explain in more depth the typical
processes used to treat groundwater.
There are certain minimum requirements which must be met in constructing and
developing wells, springs, and treatment facilities. Before construction is begun, the
Health Department must issue a permit.
Once the well is built, it must undergo an initial disinfection. Then water can be pumped
from the well to be treated and then sent to the customers.
As water is pumped from a well or spring, it is screened to remove debris. Next, the water
is aerated to remove carbon dioxide and some impurities from the water. Potassium
permanganate to remove iron is added in the collection tray of the aerator.
The water then enters a flash mix chamber. Here, various chemicals are added and are
mixed into the water. Coagulants cause fine particles to clump together into larger
particles. Alkali are added to adjust the pH.
After flowing out of the flash mix chamber, the water goes through a chamber which
causes coagulation and flocculation to occur. Here, the fine particles of contaminants
gather together into large clumps called floc. When the water flows on into the
sedimentation basin, some of the floc settles out of the water and is removed. Next, the
water is passed through filters which remove particles too small to settle out in the
sedimentation basin.
Finally, chlorine is added to the water. The water is left in the clear well for a period of
time to allow the chlorine to kill bacteria in the water. The water is now treated and ready
to be distributed.
Bacterial Disinfection
In this section, we will answer the following questions:
• How is a new well disinfected?

• How does the process of continuous chlorination work?
Introduction
Disinfection is the process of killing the microorganisms in water, usually through the use
of chlorine (Cl2) or some similar substance. All public water supply wells are required to
chlorinate the water being treated.
When disinfecting well water, first the new well must be disinfected. Then all of the
water removed from the well must undergo continuous chlorination before being
distributed. After chlorination, water must be tested for bacterial content and for adequate
residual chlorine.
Initial Disinfection
All new wells must be adequately disinfected before being used to supply water. Below,
we list a suggested procedure for disinfecting new wells using a hypochlorite (chlorine)
solution. You may need to carry out this procedure more than once to thoroughly
disinfect the well.
First, pump water from the well until the water coming from the well is clear. This water
has not been disinfected and should be considered wastewater. Once the water coming
from the well is clear, stop pumping.
Next, add hypochlorite (HTH) to the water in the well until the concentration of HTH in
the water is 50 PPM (parts per million.) Allow the HTH to remain in the well for at least
6 hours, preferably for 12 hours. Then pump the water to waste (out of the well as
wastewater) until all of the chlorine has been removed.
Finally, collect samples of the well water for bacteriological analysis. If the samples
show that the levels of bacteria in the water are suitably low, then the well has been
successfully disinfected. If not, repeat the entire process until the bacteriological analysis
shows that the water is suitable. If the samples continue to be unsatisfactory after
repeating the procedure twice, the Health Department should be contacted for further
instructions.
For many wells, you can simply disinfect the well once. But when building a new well
which will use a submersible pump, the well should be disinfected before and after
installation of the pump.
Continuous Chlorination
After the initial disinfection of the well, all water taken from the well must be treated
with chlorine before being sent to the distribution system. This process is called
continuous chlorination.
The amount of chlorine used to treat well water depends upon the bacteriological quality
of the water - what type and what amount of bacteria are present in the water. The type of
bacteria which water treatment operators are primarily interested in are coliform bacteria.
Coliform bacteria often grow in the guts of warm-blooded animals such as humans, but
can also be found in plants, soil, water, or air. If coliform bacteria are present in the
water, then other microorganisms which cause disease are also likely to be present.
The goal of chlorination is to remove all disease-causing microorganisms from the water.
If chlorination removes all of the coliforms (coliform bacteria) from the water, then we
can safely assume that the disease-causing microorganisms have also been removed.
After chlorination, the water should have 0 coliforms per hundred millimeters of water
sampled.
After chlorinating the water, it must be tested. If the tests suggest that the water is
contaminated, the water must be chlorinated again. Turbidity above the maximum
allowable level of 0.5 NTU (nephelometric turbidity units, a unit used to measure
turbidity) can be an indicator of elevated levels of coliform bacteria.
Chlorine Residual
In addition to testing for coliform bacteria, the chlorine residual test is also used to
determine the correct amount of chlorine to be added to the water. When chlorine is
added to water, some substances, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), react with the chlorine
and use some of the chlorine up. The chlorine residual is how much chlorine is left in the
water aftera certain amount of time. This leftover chlorine is what kills the bacteria in the
water.
In a large system, chlorine must be sampled every two hours at the plant and at various
points in the distribution system. It is important to test the chlorine residual at various
points in the distribution system rather than just at the point where the chlorine is put in
the water. The operator is concerned with the amount of chlorine in the water received by
the customer rather than the amount near the pump. Since at least a trace amount of
chlorine must be present at the end of all water lines, it is necessary to have a higher
concentration of chlorine at the treatment facility.
Hypochlorinators
The simplest method of continuous chlorination of wells less than 75 gpm (gallons per
minute) is by the use of a motor driven pump called a hypochlorinator. The pump pulls
chlorine solution out of a holding chamber and into the water to be treated. Where the
pipe from the pump joins the pipe carrying the raw water, the Venturi effect creates a
small vacuum and pulls the chlorine solution into the water.
The hypochlorinator's pump can be adjusted to feed various amounts of chlorine solution.
Hypochlorinators can also be controlled to automatically work in sequence with the well
or service pump.
It is often necessary to increase or decrease the amount of chlorine added to the water as
conditions change. Hypochlorinators allow you to adjust the amount of chlorine in three
ways. You can adjust the stroke length or machine speed by varying the pulley size. Both
of these adjustments change the hypochlorinator feed rate - the speed at which the
machine puts chlorine into the water. You can also adjust the amount of chlorine added
by changing the strength of the chlorine solution. This solution is prepared by adding the
proper amount of dry chlorine compound to water.
Chlorinators
While hypochlorinators are usually used to perform continuous chlorination in smaller

systems, chlorinators are more economical in larger systems. Chlorinators are machines
which use liquid chlorine supplied in steel cylinders.
Chlorinators are used when the supply source is greater than 75 gpm and may sometimes
be used in smaller wells also. Anticipated pumping periods and chlorine demand (based
on the chlorine residual test) determine whether a hypochlorinator or chlorinator should
be used in each situation.
Aeration
• What is aeration?
• What is the purpose of aeration in water treatment?
• What methods are used to aerate water?
The Purpose of Aeration
Aeration is the intimate exposure of water and air. It is a way of thoroughly mixing the
air and water so that various reactions can occur between the components of the air and
the components of the water.
The process of aeration has a number of useful functions in water treatment. If water has
a high concentration of free carbon dioxide, it will have a low pH which can cause
corrosion of pipes when the water is distributed. Aeration allows some of the carbon
dioxide to leave the water and enter the air, raising the pH to a more normal level.
Aeration can also remove iron and manganese from the water. By mixing the water with
air, oxygen in the air comes in contact with these minerals. The minerals are oxidized and
precipitate, or settle out of the water.
Hydrogen sulfide and other compounds can cause foul odors in water. Aeration will
reduce the odors caused by these compounds. It will also strip organic contaminants from
the water.
Surface Area
The goal of an aerator is to increase the surface area of water coming in contact with air
so that more air can react with the water. As you break air or water up into small
drops/bubbles or thin sheets, the same volume of either substance has a larger surface
area. Let's consider three different sets of water drops, drawn as squares to make it easy
to measure the volume and surface area.
The volume is the amount of water in each drop. The drop on the left has a volume of
four, as does the elongated drop in the center. The small drops on the right each have a
volume of one, so all four together have the same volume as each of the other two shapes.
The surface area is the length of a line drawn all the way around an object. The large drop
has a surface area of 8, but the other two shapes have greater surface areas. As you can
see, a thin sheet of water (like the elongated drop) has an intermediate surface area. When
a drop of water is broken up into several smaller drops (like the four drops on the right),
the surface area is greatly increased.
Methods of Aeration
There are several different methods used to aerate water, but all either involve passing
water through air or air through water. Water can be exposed to air by spraying or by
distributing it in such a way that small particles or thin sheets of water come in contact
with the air. Water can also by aerated by pumping large volumes of air through the
water.
The method of aeration to be used depends on which materials on the water are to be
removed. The chemical characteristics of the water to be treated can also influence which
treatment method is used. Finally, each method has a different efficiency. In general,
pumping water through air is much more energy efficient than pumping air through
water. Different types of aeration and other methods of treatment should all be compared
to determine the most efficient and practical method of treatment in each case.
Chemical Characteristics of Water
The chemical characteristics of water which influence the efficiency of each aeration
method are: pH, total alkalinity, carbon dioxide content, and the presence or absence of
hydrogen sulfide. The first three factors are interrelated. A low pH (meaning that the
water is acidic) may be a result of a low total alkalinity or of a high carbon dioxide
concentration.
As mentioned earlier, aeration can raise pH if the low pH is caused by high carbon
dioxide content in the water. But a low pH can also be due to a low total alkalinity. Total
alkalinity is the capacity of water to neutralize acids, so it depends on the concentration
of various buffers in the water. Even if the carbon dioxide content of water is high (>25
PPM), if it has a low total alkalinity (<25 PPM), then aeration is unlikely to be effective
in raising the pH. Instead, the best treatment choice would probably be to feed an alkali
which will raise the total alkalinity of the water.
In contrast, lets consider a situation in which water is treated in large quantities and has a
high alkalinity and a high carbon dioxide content. Aeration would be the most efficient
treatment method to raise pH in this case. Aeration would remove carbon dioxide from
the water, which would cause the pH to rise.
If water has hydrogen sulfide present, then aeration may be a necessary treatment method
to remove the hydrogen sulfide from the water. However, an aerator should not be
installed based only on the need for reducing hydrogen sulfide. In most cases,
chlorination would effectively correct this condition.
All four of these chemical characteristics must be considered before deciding whether
aeration is a useful treatment method in each situation.
Types of Aerators
Air diffusion is a type of aerator in which air is blown through a trough of water. As
water runs through the trough, compressed air is blown upward through porous plates on
the bottom. This method is not very efficient due to limited air transfer.
Most of the other aeration methods work by passing raw water through air in small
streams rather than by passing air through water. A few, such as spray nozzle aerators,
pump water through nozzles breaking the water into a fine spray.
Cone tray aerators and cascade aerators both work by forming little waterfalls.
Cone tray aerators consist of several cones in which water flows through the cone and
over the rim of the cone.
Cascade aerators allow water to flow in a thin layer down steps. In both cases, the
waterfalls allow the water to come in contact with air.
Coke tray aerators also pass water through air in small streams. A coke tray aerator is
comprised of a series of activated carbon trays, one above another, with a distributing pan
above the top tray and a collecting pan below the bottom tray. The distributing pan
breaks the water up into small streams or drops. The holes in the trays should be
designed to develop some head loss to provide for equal distribution to the lower tray.
As the water moves through the coke tray aerator, small streams of water flow through
the air from tray to tray. A great amount of water surface area is also exposed to air as
the water passes over the coke beds. The water is collected in the bottom pan and given
further treatment if necessary.
In addition to aerating water, the activated carbon trays in a coke tray aerator filter
organic contaminants out of the water. A similar method was once used to treat people
who had swallowed poison. Bread was toasted in the oven until it blackened, turning into
activated carbon. Then the patient ate the burnt toast. The carbon drew the poison into
the carbon and out of the patient's system. Coke tray aerators work in a similar manner,
drawing contaminants out of the water.
The last type of aerator which we will discuss here, the forced draft aerator, combines
both methods: it blows air through water which has been broken into fine streams. The
forced draft aerator consists of a series of trays over which raw water runs. As the water
comes to the end of each tray, it cascades off and falls down to the collecting tray (also
known as a drip pan). At the same time, a fan at the top of the aerator pulls air up
through the water. So, as small streams of water fall from the trays, they comes in
intimate contact with the strong updraft of air. This type of aerator is most effective in
the reduction of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.
Iron and Manganese Removal
• What problems are caused by iron and manganese in water?

• How are the minerals removed from water?
Troublesome Minerals
Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) can be considered the two most troublesome minerals to
be found in water supplies. These elements cause stains on porcelain plumbing fixtures
and laundry and cause coffee or tea to be cloudy and unpalatable. In addition, they can
cause diarrhea.
Water containing iron and manganese will be clear when first discharged from a well.
Upon exposure to air for several hours, the minerals oxidize (react with oxygen) and
colored water results. The presence of oxidized iron causes water to be red and results in
stains of the same color. Manganese is a dark brown mineral and the resulting stains are
dark brown or black.
The recommended limit on concentrations of these minerals in water is 0.3 PPM for iron
and 0.05 PPM for manganese. In addition, some industries cannot tolerate even this
quantity of either mineral. It is strongly recommended that whenever the combined totals
are more than 0.2 PPM, treatment facilities should be installed for removal.
Overview of Treatment
The usual treatment to remove iron and manganese from water is to oxidize the minerals
as rapidly as possible and then to remove the oxidized material. Manganese oxidizes and
discolors water at a slower rate than iron, which affects the treatment method used for
each mineral. In addition, pH affects the rate of oxidation for both minerals, so it is often
necessary to change the pH of the water during treatment.
In some cases the oxidation is accomplished entirely by the addition of chemicals. In

other cases the water is first aerated, then an alkali is added to complete oxidation. The
alkali optimizes the pH and uses the oxygen in the air to oxidize the iron and manganese.
At the same time, the alkali reduces the carbon dioxide in the water.
Treatment Types
The type of treatment for iron and manganese depends on several factors and each must
be considered in the design of a facility. The factors to consider are: pH, alkalinity,
concentration of iron and/or manganese, and whether or not the water is corrosive
The three procedures commonly used in iron and manganese removal in well water are as
follows:
1. The most common way of treating iron and manganese is aeration,

followed by the addition of potassium permanganate (KMnO4),
chlorination, addition of an alkali, flocculation and settling, and
then filtration. The addition of potassium permanganate is the only
aspect of this process which is unlikely to be part of a typical water
treatment process when iron and manganese are absent.
Aeration is the first step of the process. Any of the methods for aeration may be used.
However, the forced draft or induced draft aerator located over the settling basin is
recommended. The second choice is the coke tray type.
The optimal application point of potassium permanganate in a water treatment facility

depends on several factors. But in most cases the potassium permanganate is added to
the collection tray of the aerator.
From the aerator, the water goes to the flash mix chamber. The pre-chlorine and alkali
feeds are usually applied in the flash mix chamber and all of the chemicals are well
mixed into the water. Although the chemical reactions are instantaneous, the water and
added chemicals must be mixed for several minutes to secure a uniform reaction.
The addition of the pre-chlorine serves a variety of purposes, including disinfection, odor
and taste control, and aid in coagulation and settling. The potassium permanganate, of
course, oxidizes the iron and manganese. The alkali is used to produce non-corrosive and
non-deposit forming water by raising the pH to 8.3. Adding an alkali may not be
necessary when potassium permanganate is used, or if the total alkalinity exceeds 30 to
40 PPM. Often, a plant is operated at a pH of 8.3 due to the ease of checking with
phenolphthalein.
After the chemicals are mixed into the water in the flash mix chamber, the water goes
through the typical stages of flocculation and settling. In this process, the settling basin is
usually designed for a detention period of two hours or more.
Then the settled water is filtered through either a pressure or gravity type filter unit.
These filters are designed for a higher filter rate than those used for filtering water from
surface waters. The usual filtration rate is three gallons per minute per square foot of
sand, as compared with two gallons for surface water purification. Finally, the water is
chlorinated and pumped through a standard pressure filter to the system.
This type of treatment would normally reduce the iron to an acceptable level if the
original concentration was not too high (<0.6 PPM). Only water which has a high pH
and alkalinity and is not corrosive can be treated in this method.
2. Oxidation by chlorine followed by filtration is used for borderline

situations when the iron concentration is 0.3 to 0.4 PPM. A
contact time of about 45 minutes is required. A pressure filter
separates out the iron oxidized by the chlorine.
If the iron concentration increases above 0.4 PPM, this type of treatment will not be
satisfactory. The water must be non-corrosive or other treatment will be required.
3. The Zeolite Process method of removing iron and manganese is a

specialized process and the manufacturer's recommendations must
be followed. This is an iron exchange process, in that the iron and
manganese are exchanged for the cation substance added to the
water. The process is expensive and the finished water may be
corrosive.
The combination of iron and manganese is responsible for most of the discolored water
from wells. In this area, seldom do iron and manganese problems occur separately in
wells. However, manganese contamination alone occurs rather frequently in surface
water supplies. So, surface water often must be treated to remove only manganese.
Several of the smaller water supplies in the State also have iron removal plants. These
plants have performed well when operated properly, delivering a satisfactory quality of
water with minimum maintenance and operation. Unsatisfactory results are almost
always due to improper operation and maintenance.
In these plants, the water is aerated, alkali and chlorine are added, oxidized iron is settled,
and then the water is pressure-filtered and pumped to the system. This type of plant
should work as well for manganese removal if the pH is raised and potassium
permanganate
is added to oxidize the manganese
Corrective Treatment
• What are the similarities and differences between corrective

treatment and other methods used to prevent red water?
• When should corrective treatment include aeration? Addition of an
alkali? Hexametaphosphate?
Corrosion
The previous section outlines the methods of removing iron from water if the iron entered
the water by leaching from rocks in the ground. However, iron may also enter water due
to corrosion of the metal pipes it runs through after being treated. The results, as far as
the consumer is concerned, are the same regardless of the origin of the iron. Consumers
are likely to complain about red water. But the treatment methods for removing the iron
are different and depend on the source of the iron.
The term "corrective treatment" is defined as the treatment of water to prevent corrosion
in pipes. Corrosion is usually caused by acidic water, which in turn is caused by a high
carbon dioxide content. So, corrosion is prevented by removing and/or neutralizing the
free carbon dioxide in the water. In well waters with high free carbon dioxide content,
treatment is most often accomplished by aeration followed by the addition of an alkali.
Carbon Dioxide Removal
Carbon dioxide is a gas which dissolves easily in water forming an acidic liquid and
giving a pleasant sparkling quality to soda and mineral waters. The gas may enter
groundwater when the water encounters decaying vegetation. Unless this gas is removed
or
neutralized, the resulting acidic water will attack metal pipes and cause iron rust in
water.
An operator usually encounters carbon dioxide gas concentrations of less than 100 PPM.
When the carbon dioxide concentration is greater than 10 PPM, the free carbon dioxide in
the water is loosely bound or held. If the water with a high free carbon dioxide content is
exposed to the air, the loosely bound portions of the gas will be expelled from the water.
Therefore, high levels of carbon dioxide in water can be lowered by aeration.
But aeration does not remove all of the carbon dioxide from water. If water containing
75 PPM of carbon dioxide is aerated, 10 to 12 PPM of carbon dioxide will remain in the
water. The remaining carbon dioxide must be neutralized by the addition of an alkali.
The two alkalis most commonly used for removal of carbon dioxide are lime and soda
ash. One part per million of lime or two parts per million of soda ash will neutralize
about one part per million of carbon dioxide.
Choosing a Treatment Method
As with most other aspects of water treatment, there are many factors to be considered
when deciding on a treatment method. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the water
is one important consideration, since aeration will only remove high concentrations of
carbon dioxide. When considering all factors, water low in carbon dioxide content can
probably be treated most economically by treatment only with alkali.
Total alkalinity, as discussed in the section on aeration, is another factor. If the water is
high in carbon dioxide and low in alkalinity, it will be necessary to add large quantities of
alkali for water stability as well as for carbon dioxide removal.
Aeration is usually a more costly treatment method than addition of an alkali. Aeration
requires pumping the water twice, in addition to other cost factors, so it is often more
economical to use only the addition of alkali to remove carbon dioxide and prevent
corrosiveness.
Equipment
In many small plants concerned with iron or carbon dioxide removal, the equipment used
to add lime or soda ash for iron or carbon dioxide removal consists of a 55-gallon
solution barrel with a continuous mixer and a hypochlorinator. Up to a 50-pound bag of
lime can be mixed with water in the solution barrel if approximately one ounce of sodium
hexametaphosphate (also known as glassy phosphate, Calgon, Sodium Polyphos, etc.) is
added to the lime solution to form a protective film on the pipes once the water is
distributed. Then the hypochlorinator pumps the lime solution directly into the well
pump discharge line (the water being pumped out of the well.)
Unlike soda ash, lime does not readily dissolve in water, so it is more difficult to add.
Soda ash can simply be dissolved in a hypochlorinator attached to the well pump
discharge line, while lime requires a solution barrel and continuous mixer.
Larger plants often use large gravimetric lime feeders. Gravimetric feeders measure a
specific weight of the dry chemical to add to the water during a specific time period. The
hexametaphosphate is then added to the water using a hypochlorinator which pumps the
chemical into the make up water line. The make up water line provides water to the
lime feeder solution chamber.
Soda Ash or Lime?
Each alkali has its advantages and disadvantages. As mentioned above, soda ash is much
more readily soluble in water than is lime. But too much soda ash will cause the water to
feel slick, so it may not be possible to add enough soda ash to neutralize all of the carbon
dioxide without causing other complaints.
Lime has the advantage of being much cheaper than soda ash. Lime costs about half as
much as soda ash. In addition, it takes two pounds of soda ash to do the same job as one
pound of lime when neutralizing carbon dioxide. So, using soda ash costs four times as
much to do the same job.
But lime has the ability to make the water be acidic or basic rather than acting as a buffer
and neutralizing the water. If the pH is too low, the pipes will corrode, but if the pH is
too high they will suffer from buildup of limestone.
Whichever alkali is chosen, the proper amount to be added to the water should be
determined by tests.
Hexametaphosphate
Sodium hexametaphosphate is another chemical used in corrective treatment. At some

well supplies, proper treatment facilities were not originally provided and would be
expensive to construct, so glassy phosphate is used instead. At other well supplies,
conventional treatment methods were not successful for red water control. Sodium
hexametaphosphate may be dissolved and added with a hypochlorinator, so it is a
relatively simple addition to the water treatment facility.
When using hexametaphosphate, the quantity of chemicals added should be carefully

controlled. Hexametaphosphate is comparatively expensive and a large enough quantity
must be used to yield the desired results.
If the pH of the water is too low (less than 6.5), then complaints may be increased rather
than stopped when hexametaphosphate is added to the water. At a low pH, the glassy
phosphate causes corrosion of copper pipes, resulting in complaints of "green" or "blue"
water. In fact, unless the pH is raised to at least 7.0 and preferably to around 7.2,
hexametaphosphate should not be used alone. It is important to maintain a pH in the
range of 6.8 to 7.5 when using hexametaphosphate. But hexametaphosphate can be used
in combination with an alkali at a pH of less than 6.5.
Usually when this chemical is first added, "red water" complaints are already common.
In such cases, the mains are usually coated with corrosion products and large quantities
of loose rust or scale may have settled in low places and at dead-ends. In order to clean
the line thoroughly, the chemical must be fed at the rate of 10 PPM for the first week to
10 days to form a protective coating on the pipe walls. During this period, it is necessary
to flush the lines regularly to draw in the treated water and to flush out the resulting
loosened or dissolved materials. Flushing should be practiced at least once every other
day. After the first week or ten days, the dose should be reduced each time a new batch
of chemicals is
dissolved until the recommended minimum dose is reached. The final feed rate depends
upon several factors and may vary from slightly less than 1 PPM to 4 PPM
Hydrogen Sulfide
• What problems are caused by hydrogen sulfide?

• How is hydrogen sulfide in water treated?
Rotten Eggs
Hydrogen sulfide gas occurs in well water rather frequently. As the water passes through
the ground, it comes in contact with sulfates. If the water is highly mineralized or
contains products of decomposition, these minerals and other substances will react with
the sulfates and change them to hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Hydrogen sulfide gas turns into hydrosulfuric acid when it dissolves in water. The acid is
weak but highly corrosive, eating up electrical contacts, causing a slight odor, and
resulting in black water complaints. Water containing hydosulfuric acid will become
very dark after remaining in the water lines for a few hours. The black water is most
often noticed when flushing a fire hydrant.
The presence of larger quantities of hydrogen sulfide can be readily noted by odor. The
disagreeable "rotten egg" odor is very characteristic of this gas and unless it is removed
or reduced, the smell results in many complaints.
So, even though hydrogen sulfide gas in water is not injurious to people, it is usually
removed when present.
Treatment
There are three methods used for the removal of hydrogen sulfide. If there is a heavy
concentration of the gas, the water should be aerated. This treatment breaks the water
into droplets and most of the gas escapes to the air.
The gas remaining in the water after aeration can be oxidized by chlorine. Sufficient
chlorine must be added in order to completely oxidize the material and still maintain a
free chlorine residual.
Ozone converts hydrogen sulfide to sulfurous acid (SO2), but ozone is also corrosive so it
may cause as many problems as it solves.
Concentration
The test for hydrogen sulfide is not run when the usual chemical analysis of water is
made. Its presence is disclosed by odor, which is described as strong, weak, faint, or no
hydrogen sulfide odor to convey the idea of the quantity of hydrogen sulfide present.
Under
conditions with a pH of 8.0, a hydrogen sulfide content of about O.015 PPM will give a
weak odor, and 0.005 to 0.010 PPM will give a faint odor. Under other conditions with a
lower pH, a concentration of 0.005 to 0.010 PPM may create a much stronger odor.
Since many water works operators also help maintain the sewage system, it may be
interesting to note that hydrogen sulfide gas is a rapid poison in extremely high
concentrations of 700 PPM or more and an irritant gas in concentrations around 70 PPM.
It is a common constituent of sewer gas and can be dangerous in manholes, sewage pump
stations and in other places where it may collect. Inhaling high concentrations of
hydrogen sulfide gas causes death due to respiratory failure. Overexposure to small
amounts may cause damage to the eyes, known as "gas eyes". For these reasons, working
around an aerator exhaust without proper ventilation should be discouraged.
Turbidity Removal
• What is turbidity?
• How is turbid water treated?
Cloudy Water
Turbidity is the cloudy appearance of water caused by small particles suspended in the
water. Water with little or no turbidity will be clear. A maximum level of 0.5 NTU is
allowable in groundwater.
Excess turbidity levels can occur in groundwater found in limestone and unconsolidated
rock formations. In addition, many springs experience fluctuating levels of turbidity and
extensive monitoring of the water is required. All springs must be equipped
with a constant monitoring turbidimeter to shut off spring pump operation if turbidity
levels are excessive.
Treatment
Filtration alone will not remove the turbidity and bacteria in groundwater. In addition, a
coagulation step is necessary to concentrate the fine particles into floc, which can be
removed by filters.
Coagulation involves the addition of chemicals called coagulant aids. Alum or polymers
are often used for coagulation. Then the water is allowed to settle for one to two hours,
which gives the coagulant aids time to concentrate the water's suspended particles into
floc. The settling period also gives the chlorine contact time. The final step is filtration
to remove the floc. Rapid sand filters provide the best treatment.
A treatability study is suggested for any groundwater reading treatment for turbidity
removal. This study will ensure the facilities will perform properly once constructed.
The Health Department will not approve this type of source and treatment as a single
water source because of the unpredictability of groundwater quality.
Filters
• How do the filters used in groundwater systems work?
Filtration
Filtration removes impurities and floc from the water being treated. In general, filtration
consists of passing the water through sand and gravel or some other filter. The floc and
impurities get stuck in the sand while the water passes through. Filtration is usually one
of the last steps in the water treatment process.
There are three types of filters associated with water treatment: rapid sand, pressure, and
slow sand.
Rapid sand filters are mainly used in connection with surface water treatment.
Pressure filters are commonly used when iron and manganese must be removed from
well water, especially in smaller water systems.
Slow sand filters have been used for the treatment of relatively clear water when there is
a possibility of the water becoming turbid. This filtration method can be used to treat
spring or well water that is relatively safe from contamination, but should not be used to
treat surface water (lakes, ponds, etc.)
Pressure Filters
Pressure filters and rapid sand filters have the same requirements for sand and gravel for
filtration. Both use the same types of manifolds and laterals (types of pipes) and have the
same velocities in the pipes. Here, we will consider pressure filters, since they are used
in groundwater treatment. But many aspects of the two systems are similar.
A pressure filter is an upright, closed cylinder containing a filter bed of layered sand and
gravel on top of a collection system. Water under pressure passes through the filter and
then continues on through the water treatment system.
As the water passes through the filter, oxidized minerals (such as iron and manganese)
and foreign matter collect in the top portion of the sand. Continued build-up of these
particles tends to clog the filter. The clogged filter requires more force or pressure to
pass water through and filter at the same rate as an unclogged filter.
A head loss gauge measures the pressure of the water leaving the filter. By comparing
the pressure of the water leaving the filter to the pressure of the water entering the filter,
you can determine how much pressure was lost due to the water passing through a
clogged filter - a measurement also known as head loss.
When the head loss gauge shows that there is excessive build-up on the filter, then the
filter must be washed. Excessive build-up can cause clogging, restricted flow, pressure
build-ups, and possible breakthroughs. A breakthrough is a crack or break in a filter bed
which allows the water to pass through without contacting the filter and being cleaned.
In addition to damaging the filter bed and piping, a clogged filter can allow poor quality
water to go into the system, causing problems and complaints.
Filters are cleaned by backwashing. The influent valve is closed and a waste line is
opened. Treated water from the system is pumped upward through the filter bed. The
water pumped upward has the velocity and volume to agitate the sand and carry away the
foreign matter that has collected there.
Backwashing normally takes about 10 minutes, though the time varies depending on the
length of the filter run and the quantity of material to be removed. Filters should be
backwashed until the backwash water is clean.
The filter rate can be increased to 3 gpm (gallons per minute) per square foot of filter and
the backwash rate may be reduced to 12 gpm per square foot of filter if this provides
proper washing.
Slow Sand Filters
The slow sand filter is similar in design to a rapid sand filter and a pressure filter, except
that the sand is usually 36 inches in depth and the filter cannot be backwashed. Instead,
the filter is cleaned by removing the top two inches of sand from the filter. Once 6 to 12
inches of sand have been removed, additional sand must be added to bring the filter back
to the original depth.
Unlike pressure filtration in which the water is forced through the filter medium, water is
drawn through a slow sand filter by gravity. The raw water is pumped onto the filter bed
and is filtered at a rate of 3 to 6 mgad (million gallons per acre per day) or 3 to 6 gallons
per hour per square foot of sand area. The filter rate is controlled by a set valve on the
effluent line (the pipe containing the water flowing out of the filter system.)
Water is usually chlorinated before slow sand filtration, but may also be chlorinated as
the filtered water goes to the sump pump for pumping to the system. The slow sand
filters are usually covered as well to prevent the growth of algae which will clog the
filters.
Although the operation and maintenance cost of slow sand filters is low, they cover large
areas of land. So the initial cost of land and construction makes this type of unit
uneconomical in most instances
Summary
Groundwater is water removed from the zone of saturation in the earth. Wells and
springs are used to bring this water to the surface.
This lesson has explained the treatment methods used to prepare groundwater for
distribution to customers. Many of the types of water treatment used for groundwater are
also used for surface water, as you will learn in later lessons.
When choosing a treatment method for any water problem, many factors should be taken
into account. Some treatment methods can correct various problems at the same time.
So all of the treatment methods mentioned in the lesson will not be found in all water
treatment facilities.
Treatment Methods
The treatment methods explained in this lesson include:
Prechlorination
• kills microorganisms
• controls odors and tast
• aids in coagulation and settling
Aeration
• removes carbon dioxide (CO2) and raises pH

• oxidizes iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn)
• removes hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
• removes organic contaminants
Addition of potassium permanganate (KmnO4)
• oxidizes Fe and Mn
Addition of ozone
• neutralizes H2S
Addition of coagulants
• concentrates particles into floc, removing turbidity
Addition of alkali
• oxidizes Fe and Mn
• neutralizes CO2 and optimizes pH
Addition of hexametaphosphate
• prevents corrosion of pipes
Filtration
• removes floc
Chlorination
• kills microorganisms
• oxidizes H2S
Treatment Scenarios
An overview of the treatment processes used on well and spring waters is given in the
following charts, taken from Alabama Department of Environmental Management's
Water Works Operator Manual (1989.)
Raw Water
Scenario pH T.Alk. CO2 Fe Mn H2S
1 7.8 75 10 0.3 0.05 No
2 5.5 10 30 0.0 0.0 0.0
3 5.5 20 25 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 5.5 20 25 0.6 0.0 0.0
5 6.5 50 30 0.0 0.0 Yes
6 7.0 50 10 <1.5 0.0 Yes
7 7.0 50 30 <1.5 0.0 Yes
8 7.0 50 15 >1.5 0.05 Yes
9 7.0 50 15 >1.5 0.3
Suggested Treatment
Scenario Cl2 Aerate Alkali Filter
1 Yes No No No
2 Yes Yes Yes No
3 Yes No Yes No
4 Yes Yes Yes Yes
5 Yes Yes Maybe No
6 Yes Yes No Yes
7 Yes Yes Yes Yes
8 Yes Yes Yes Yes
9 Yes Yes Yes Yes
Treatment Notes
Scenario Notes
Acceptable under EPA Standards. Low levels of H2S could be treated by
1
heavy chlorination.
2 30-minute contact basin.
3 Lime injected under pressure.
4 30-minute contact basin double pump.
Add KMnO4. One minute rapid mix, 30-minute flocculation, settling, recycle
8
sludge.
Add KMnO4. One minute rapid mix, 30-minute flocculation, settling, recycle
9
sludge.
Assignment
1. You are digging a hole at the beach where the waves cannot reach
you. But after digging down about one foot, the bottom of your
hole begins to fill with water. Why?
2. Go back and review Lesson 1. Which aspects of water treatment
explained in this lesson have comparable aspects in the natural
world? List the similarities and differences between the natural
and man-made processes.
3. Water in your water treatment plant has a pH of 6.5, a carbon
dioxide concentration of 30 PPM, a total alkalinity of 50 PPM, and
a high hydrogen sulfide concentration. What problems is the water
likely to cause if distributed in this condition? What treatment
methods would you recommend to correct these problems?
4. You are new to a water treatment plant and don't know the
treatment history. Customers tell you that they originally
complained about red water staining their sinks. Water soon began
to run clear, but then some customers complained of green and
blue water. What caused the different water colors? What
treatment method had been used to correct the red water problem?
How will you correct the blue and green water problem?
Surface Water Supplies
Photo Credit: Virginia Department of Health
Choosing a Surface Water Source
• What factors must be considered when choosing a water source?
Surface Water
Surface water has been used by humans for millennia. Cities were historically built along
the banks of rivers or lakes both for ease of transportation and for accessibility of water.
Almost two-thirds of the public water in the state of Virginia is supplied from surface
sources. These sources include rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. As the human population
grows, the quantity of water required also increases, and the probability of the water
supply being from a surface source increases.
This section will cover some of the issues to consider when selecting a surface water
source. A good surface water source must provide the required amount of water. The
quality of the water should also be considered, as well as economic factors.
Quantity
When selecting a surface water source, the amount of water available must be
considered. This quantity is most often analyzed by considering stream flow data.
The flow at any point in a stream is influenced by the rainfall in the general area, the size
of the watershed, the type of soil, and the use made of the watershed. Based on minimum
stream flow data, the engineers with the Water Resources Division of the U.S.G.S, or
D.E.Q., can predict the amount of water that a stream will yield. They can also predict
how much water will run in the stream during floods or droughts, values known as
critical flows.
Based on the critical flow data, engineers considering a surface water source can decide
whether an impoundment is necessary. An impoundment, or reservoir, contains enough
water so that sufficient quantities will be available during a drought. The engineers
determine the required size of the impoundment based on the amount of water needed for
a drought period of 180 days.
Engineers must also consider flood conditions. By analyzing the critical flow data for
floods, they can determine how large the spillway must be to protect the dam. A spillway
allows excess water to run out of the impoundment without injuring the dam.
When constructing large impoundments, special approval may be required. The Health
Department should be contacted during the early planning stages when considering
surface impoundments.
Quality
Water quality must also receive serious consideration. Water characteristics to be

considered include physical, chemical, biological, and radiological parameters:
• Physical characteristics include color, turbidity, temperature,

taste, and odor. These factors will influence the sensory quality of
the water.
• Chemical characteristics include mineral content and the
presence or absence of fluoride, sulfide, and some acids. These
factors will influence the hardness of water, among other factors.
• Biological characteristics include the presence of viruses,
bacteria, algae, and mosquito larvae.
• Radiological characteristics include the presence or absence of
radioactive substances in the water.
Watershed
As noted in lesson 2, the watershed which feeds the surface water source must be
carefully studied. Land use, soil type, and pollution sources and types are all important
factors to consider.
The watershed's land use influences the quality of the water. If the watershed is largely
cultivated, there may be a sediment problem in the surface water. Wooded areas and
grasslands tend to yield clearer water and also store more groundwater which will feed
the surface water source during dry periods.
But soil types interact with land use patterns. The clear waters coming from forests and
grasslands are conducive to algae growths. The kind of plant foods leached from the soil
in the watershed largely determine the type of algae produced. Phosphorous, in minute
quantities, favors growth of diatoms, while nitrogen compounds stimulate blue-green
algae growth.
In addition to sediment and algae problems, the watershed can influence the water quality
in other ways. Waters from swampy areas may be highly colored and waters running
from certain types of areas may be high in iron or manganese. Both of these traits would
require specialized water treatment before the water could be used.
Potential sources, types, and amounts of polluting materials entering the watershed must
also be considered. Sewage disposal plants, industrial plants discharging effluents, roads,
and camps in the watershed can all cause contamination. Both natural and man-made
pollutants may cause a surface water source to be unusable or may increase the cost of
water treatment.
Agricultural Problems
Agricultural lands can influence water quality and quantity in ways other than causing
sedimentation in the water. Fertilizers are an obvious source of concern. Fertilizers
applied to the land surface may be washed into nearby streams and enter the surface
water supply, especially when irrigation causes runoff.
Agricultural irrigation is increasing in intensity and causes a greater demand for surface
water. During drought periods, so much water may be used for irrigation that the supply
of public drinking water may drop dangerously low. Although the demand for irrigation
and public water often conflict, the water rights do not designate a priority of use.
Fish farming also impacts the quality and quantity of downstream waters. The numerous
ponds used increase evaporation from the watershed so that less water is available for
public drinking water. As with irrigation, evaporation from fish ponds can cause
conflicts between agricultural and public drinking water uses during droughts.
Fertilizers are added to fish ponds and these fertilizers often enter downstream public
water supplies. The fertilizers sustain algae which may affect the taste and odor of
drinking water. Farmers may also add toxic substances to their ponds to kill undesirable
plants or fish. These chemicals cause obvious concern in downstream public water
supplies.
Economic Factors
Economic factors also impact the selection of a surface water source. A source close to
the distribution system will require less costly pumping than a source further away. The
cost of building transmission mains (pipes to carry the water from the supply source) and
pumping costs may make the cost of a system impractical.
Relative elevation also plays an important part. A source higher in elevation than the
distribution system will allow water to flow downhill powered by gravity while water
from a source below the distribution system must be pumped uphill.
Finally, ownership and control of the watershed are important factors to consider.
Geological Considerations
The nature of the geology of a region will also determine which surface sources are best
for supplying water. In our area, the Piedmont region uses the most surface water since
groundwater in the region is minimal. Surface sources are also commonly used in the
Plateau region because groundwater there can easily become contaminated. The Coastal
Plain region has high quality, high yielding groundwater sources, so surface sources are
least likely to be used in this area.
Example
Consider the scenario below in which a city is seeking a new source of surface water.
The city is located on a hillside with a lake above and a river below.
The lake is a good water source for a variety of reasons. Most of the watershed feeding
the lake is forested, so there are few sources of contamination. In addition, since the
municipality owns the watershed, it can ensure that no new sources of contamination are
constructed in the watershed. Finally, since the city is nearby and downhill from the lake,
it will not be costly to move water from the source to the distribution system.
The river is a bad water source because it is polluted by industrial waste and by runoff
from parking lots and other sources in the city. The city does not own the entire
watershed, so it has no control over additional contamination sources which may be
erected. And since the city is some distance uphill from the river, pumping water from
the source to the distribution system would be very costly.
Engineer's Report
• Which elements must be present in an engineer's report?
Components of an Engineer's Report
The Health Department requires a consulting engineer's report when considering all
surface sources. The engineer's report must be submitted with plans for a new water
supply or with plans regarding extension or modification of an existing supply.
The engineer's report must include the following information:
1. Water Consumption and Population. The report shall show the

population to be served, and the anticipated water consumption ten
and twenty-five years in the future. Computation and curves used
to calculate future growth and water consumption should be
included as a part of the report.
2. The Source of Supply. A description of the proposed source of

supply, including the quantity and quality of the water, shall be
presented. If the source is from a stream or lake, information must
include a description or map of the watershed showing the
drainage area, population living on the watershed, type of soil, and
all other information that affects or may affect the quantity or
quality of the water. All sewage and industrial waste outfall lines
above the water works intake, and others if they may affect the
water quality, shall be discussed in detail.
3. Description of the Treatment Facility. A description should be

given of all unique conditions characteristic of the water or locality
which affect the design or operation of the system. Appliances
used and any special methods of maintenance or operation of the
plant must also be presented.
4. Estimate of Cost. The estimate of cost of special structures, the

distribution system, source of the supply and of the purification
plant, including integral parts, shall be given.
5. Map. A small scale map should accompany the application,

showing all details that may influence the sanitary quality of water
at the intake.
Classification and Standards
• How are streams classified?

• What standards are set for the amount of bacteria and phenolic
compounds in public water supplies?
Stream Classifications
Streams are classified based on their use and quality. The seven water use classifications
of streams are as follows:
1. Public water supply

2. Swimming and other whole body water-contact sports
3. Shellfish harvesting
4. Fish and wildlife
5. Agricultural and industrial water supply
6. Navigation
7. Treated waste transportation
Before a source can be used for public water, it must be classified "Public Water Supply"
meaning the quality will meet certain raw water standards. Standards for bacterial
content and phenolic compounds are discussed below.
Bacterial Content
As you know, bacteria can cause serious health problems. Limits are imposed on the
number of bacteria which may be present in water treated to be used as public drinking
water.
There is a limit to the number of bacteria that may be tolerated in raw water, just as there
is for finished water. If a stream has a bacterial concentration above these limits, then the
probability of the drinking water becoming contaminated is excessively increased.
The DEQ standard is as follows: In the event there are discharges of sewage, or other
wastes likely to contain bacteria harmful to humans, to waters within the watershed above
the point of taking water for purposes of public water supply or water for food processing
purposes, the following bacteriological criteria are to apply: Bacteria of the fecal coliform
group not to exceed 200 per 100 milliliters (either most probable number or millipore
filter count) as a monthly average value; nor exceed a maximum of 4,000/100 ml in any
sample.
A high bacterial content in the raw water can have a variety of sources. If the water
intake was located close to or below a sewer outfall (the outlet for sewage water), then
the bacterial pollution would be heavy.
Bacteria are rather fragile and short-lived. During normal flow conditions, they can only
be carried short distances before dying.
But during periods of high water, the rising streams carry bacteria more swiftly, so more
bacteria reach the water intake alive.
So these high water periods can result in even worse bacterial pollution than during
normal flows, depending on the distance from the sewer to the intake. The number of
bacteria in raw water should be tested during several different time periods, with special
consideration given to flood periods.
Bacterial contamination can be reduced by storing water in clean impoundments. There,

factors such as time, sunlight, and temperature interact to destroy bacteria.
Phenolic Compounds
A severe taste and odor problem would result if water were taken from a stream receiving
waste containing phenols. Phenols are organic compounds derived from benzene. These
compounds include gasoline residues which may enter water as runoff from streets and
highways. Phenols are also found in the waste products from several types of industries
and are the most common waste causing taste problems in water. EPA standards for
drinking water limit the concentration of phenolic compounds to 0.001 PPM.
Discharge Permits
Permits must be issued for any discharge to either municipal or industrial streams.
Before such permits are issued, a thorough review must be completed. The effect of the
waste on the receiving stream at low flows must be considered.
Treatment of Surface Waters
• How is surface water treated?

• What is the history of slow sand and rapid sand filtration?
Introduction
The design, construction, and operation of purification plants for surface waters are also
regulated by minimum requirements. These requirements ensure that finished water is
safe for the consumer to drink.
Minimum standards govern all changes of purifcation plants as well as the initial
construction. To ensure that the minimum standards are maintained, no major alterations
can be made to the physical structure of the plant or to the methods of operation without a
permit.
While following the minimum standards, engineers still have plenty of leeway. They
consider the water supply and the demand for water so that they can design an efficient,
economical, and adequately sized treatment plant.
The design of water treatment plants is based upon the filtration rate of the water.
Treatment of surface waters follows the same basic pattern outlined for groundwater in
the last lesson, with the exception of the type of filter. When treating surface water, the
rapid sand filter is commonly used. This type of filter usually treats two gallons per
minute per foot of superficial (surface) sand area but a filtration rate of up to 3 gpm is
allowed by the Health Department. Since this filtration rate cannot be exceeded, it forms
the basis of the plant design.
History of Filtration
Although rapid sand filtration is now the most common practice used to treat surface
waters, slow sand filtration was used in the past. The first slow sand filters in the U.S.
were built from adapted English designs in 1870 in Poughkeepsie, New York. These
filters are still in operation.
Other slow sand filtration systems have been used in the past by non-community systems
(water systems which have fewer than 15 service connections and serve fewer than 25
individuals daily, or serve customers for less than 60 days per year.) Slow sand filters
can be used when treating well or spring water which seldom becomes turbid. In general,
only raw water which is usually clear can be treated using slow sand filters. Currently,
slow sand filtration is only considered economical in unusual cases.
About twenty years after the first slow sand filters were built in the U.S., the first
mechanical, or rapid sand, filters were installed. By the end of the nineteenth century,
there were ten times as many rapid sand filters in service as the slow sand type.
The advent of rapid sand filtration is linked to the discovery of coagulation. By adding
certain chemicals (coagulants) to turbid water, the material in the water could be made to
clump together and quickly settle out. Using coagulation, clear water for filtration could
be produced from turbid, polluted streams.
Rapid sand filtration has obvious advantages over the slower and much larger slow sand
filtration systems. Rapid sand filters usually have a rate of filtration of two gallons per
minute per square foot of sand area. In contrast, slow sand filters have a rate of three to
six gallons per square foot of sand area per hour. This means that, given the same filter
area, rapid stand filters are 20 to 40 times faster than slow sand filters.
Backwashing
Since a rapid sand filter can filter more water per unit time, it becomes clogged much
faster than a slow sand filter. So back-washing was devised to wash the rapid sand filter
quickly (in 5 to 20 minutes), thus making rapid sand filtration practical.
Back-washing in a rapid sand filter is equivalent to back-washing in a pressure filter.
Filtered water is pumped upward through the bottom of the filter. The rate at which
water is pumped up through the sand bed in a rapid sand filter is usually 15 gpm per
square foot of sand. This rate is much faster than the filtration rate of the unit, and the
swift water raises and agitates the sand, washing it. Then the water flows out of the filter
and into water troughs, then into the wastewater system. The filter must be designed so
that the sand is of a weight and size so that it is not lifted high enough to be carried out of
the filter and into the
wastewater trough during back-washing.
The length of time during which a rapid sand filter can operate between washes depends
largely on the clarity of the water passing through the filter. Clearer water will contain
less material to be filtered out and clog the filter. This clarity, in turn, usually reflects the
operator's skill and knowledge, although the physical features of the plant also have
considerable influence. Many filters can operate for two days or more between back-
wash operations.
Lack of Filtration
In some places, surface waters are used for domestic purposes without filtration. In these
situations, the water is obtained from a watershed which includes only undeveloped
areas. The watershed is patrolled and carefully managed to prevent contamination.
The Rest of the Process
Lack of filtration is a rare occurrence when treating surface waters. In nearly all cases, it
is considered essential that all surface waters be treated by coagulation, sedimentation,
filtration, and chlorination.
Coagulation is the process by which small particles are clumped together prior to
filtration. As the coagulation process becomes more efficient, the sand filter will operate
longer between washings. Since bacteria are also settled out during coagulation, a more
efficient coagulation process will lower the probability of bacterial contamination of
drinking water.
State regulations require that chlorine must be added to all surface supplies to assure
water of good bacteriological quality. When treating surface waters, chlorine is typically
added before and after filtration.
When alum is used as a coagulant aid, the water usually becomes acidic. Acidic surface
water is treated just like acidic groundwater. An alkali, usually lime, is added to the
water. Since the cause of the water's acidity is the alum used in coagulation, the alkali is
typically added either immediately before or after filtration. The alkali changes the pH of
the water from acidic to alkaline, preventing corrosion of the metal pipes in the
distribution system.
Summary
When choosing a surface water source, you should ask the following questions:
• Is the quantity of water sufficient? You will need to study stream

flow data and consider floods and droughts. An impoundment
may be necessary.
• What is the quality of the water?
• How will land use (including agriculture), soil type, and pollution
in the watershed affect the water?
• How close is the water source to the distribution system? Will the
water have to be pumped uphill or downhill?
• Is groundwater a better option?
Then an engineer's report must be written before the surface water source can be
approved by the Health Department. The report must include information on water
consumption and pollution, the source of the supply, a description of the treatment
system, an estimate of the cost, and a map.
In order to be used as a surface water source, the stream must be classified as Public
Water Supply. This involves meeting certain raw water standards. The amount of
bacteria and phenolic compounds in the water are limited.
Treatment of surface water is similar to treatment of groundwater. The process usually

involves coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, addition of an alkali (often), and
chlorination.
The type of filter determines the rate at which the water can be treated. This rate is based
on the filtration rate, which is usually 2 to 3 gpm for rapid sand filters. In the past, slow
sand filters were used, but they are very slow and cannot be backwashed.
Assignment
1. Look at the watershed you drew for Lesson 2. Is your watershed a

good surface water source to provide water for the public water
supply? Why or why not? Consider quality and quantity of water
and economic factors.
2. You are building a treatment facility to provide public water for a
town of 10,000 people. Average water use per person per day is
about 100 gallons. What type of filter will you use? How many
gallons will you need to filter per minute to provide enough treated
water? How much superficial sand area will you need in your
filter to filter sufficient water?
3. How do you think that water was treated in the United States
before 1870?
Hydraulics
Manipulating Equations
• How does understanding units help you manipulate an equation?
Units
A lot of this lesson involves hands-on manipulation of equations. You'll find the math a
lot easier if you pay attention to units.
Every number has a unit attached to it. I may say that an average cat weighs 8 pounds.
"Pounds" is the unit of measurement in this case. You could also say the weight is 8
pounds/cat (pounds per cat). In that case, "pounds/cat" is the unit of measurement.
Below is a list of several more numbers with the units shown in bold:
8 gallons/minute
100 pounds/in2
9 feet
26 days
Now let's consider the following problem:
The average cat weighs 8 pounds. A bridge can hold a weight of 3 tons. How many
cats can you put on the bridge safely?
First we analyze the problem. The problem gives us two facts and asks us a question. I
have listed the facts and question below, marking the units in bold:
Fact 1: 8 pounds/cat
Fact 2: 3 tons/bridge
Question: How many cats/bridge?
In order to answer the question, we have to be sure that we're using the same units of
measurement throughout the equation. In this problem, the facts use two different units
of measurement for weight - pounds and tons. We need to convert all of the
measurements of weight to the same unit. To do so, I like to multiply by a conversion
factor and cancel out units.
First I look up the conversion between the two units:
1 ton = 2,000 pounds
I've decided to convert the units of Fact 1 from "pounds/cat" to "tons/cat". So I multiply
the cat's weight by the conversion factor:
And get:
I can cancel "pounds" out of the fraction since it is found on both the top and the bottom.
That leaves me with:
Now I just have to divide 8 by 2,000 to find out how many tons my average cat weighs.
0.004 tons/cat
So Fact 1 can now be written as:
Fact 1: 0.004 tons/cat
Now that we have converted our units, we can solve the problem. But first, to make sure
you understand how to do conversions, you should try to convert the units for Fact 2 from
"tons/bridge" to "pounds/bridge."
Did you get the answer "6,000 pounds/bridge"? If not, go back and check your work to
see what you did wrong.
Now, let's go back and look at our facts again.
Fact 1: 8 pounds/cat (or 0.004 tons/cat)

Fact 2: 3 tons/bridge (or 6,000 pounds/bridge)
We have to select two facts with the same unit of weight to use when solving our
problem. So, let's use:
Fact 1: 8 pounds/cat
Fact 2: 6,000 pounds/bridge
(What other two facts could we use instead?)
You can think of each of these facts as a fraction:

In order to solve our problem, we have to multiply the fractions together so that some of
the units cancel out. We can turn the fractions upside-down or leave them right-side-up if
we want.
First we look at the units found in our facts - pounds, cats, and bridges. We know from
the question that we want to have the units "cats" and "bridges" in our answer. We don't
want to have the unit "pounds" in our answer, so we'll set up our multiplication sentence
so that "pounds" will cancel out. In order to do that, we need to have "pounds" in the top
of one fraction and in the bottom of the other. So let's try it this way:
Which equals:
If you cancel "pounds" out of the top and bottom of the fraction, you get:
Now divide out the numbers to find the answer:
0.001333 bridges/cat
Now we have to go back to see what units we were looking for in the question. We
wanted to know how many cats would fit on a bridge (cats/bridge), not bridges/cat as we
found above. So we need to turn our answer upside down.
It's easy to turn a fraction like this upside down. You just divide 1 by the number:
So now you know that 752 cats can safely stand on a bridge.
Assignment
In this lesson, assignments will be scattered throughout the text. You should try to solve
the assignment problems as you come to them. Once you're confident that you
understand the assignments in this section, you can go on to the next section where we
begin our study of hydraulics - the act of operating, moving, or employing water or other
liquids in motion.
1. Find a conversion factor and then convert each of the folllowing:

a. 11 days is how many hours?
b. 20 gallons is how many cups?
c. 10,000 feet is how many miles?
2. The average person uses 175 gallons of water per day. How many
cups of water does the average person use per day?
First write out the fact given in the problem and identify its units.
Then decide what the question is asking for. Third, look up your
conversion factor. And, finally, solve the problem by multiplying
two fractions and cancelling out units.
3. It takes you five hours to finish each lesson in this class. How
many days would it take you to finish every lesson in this class if
you took no breaks?
Once again, start with the facts you know and the question being
asked. Then solve the problem.
Pressure
• What is pressure? What is the difference between static and

dynamic pressure?
• What are pressure ratings and resistance ratings?
• How do you use equations to solve problems?
What is Pressure?
Pressure is one aspect of hydraulics. Pressure is a force per unit area and is usually
measured in pounds per square inch (PSI or pounds/in2). You are probably already
familiar with measuring pressure. Every time you weigh yourself, you are measuring the
pressure exerted by your body on the scales.
Let's consider how to convert weight (often measured in pounds) to pressure (often
measured in pounds per square inch). For the sake of simplicity, let's consider the
container below which is one foot tall and has a bottom which is one inch on each side.
The container is filled to the top with water. Not counting the weight of the container,
the water weighs 0.43 pounds. That weight is pressing against the bottom of the
container, so it is a pressure.
The area of the bottom of the container is found by multiplying the length of two of the
sides.
1 in. × 1 in. = 1 in.2
The pressure is equal to the weight divided by the area. So, the pressure which the water
is exerting is:
A dull knife slicing through bread is a perhaps more familiar example of pressure. Once
the knife has exerted a certain amount of pressure on the bread, the bread will break
apart. Once again, think of pressure as a force per unit area. If you are using a dull knife,
then the area of the knife blade which presses against the bread is large. You will have to
use a large amount of force to cut the bread since the surface of the knife is so big. But if
you sharpen the knife, the smaller blade surface will exert the required amount of
pressure on the bread when you apply less force. So, in order to increase the pressure,
you either need to increase the force being applied or decrease the area which the force is
being applied to.
Static Pressure
There are two components of pressure: static and dynamic pressure. The water pressing
down on the bottom of a container is an example of static pressure. Static pressure is
pressure applied by non-moving water as a result of gravity. Gravity pushes the still
water down and applies pressure on the bottom of the container.
Static pressure is a form of potential energy. Potential energy is energy which is not
currently causing any sort of motion, but which has the potential to cause motion. A ball
sitting at the top of a hill is another example of potential energy. The ball is sitting still,
but if it started to roll, it would go all the way to the bottom of the hill without anyone
pushing it.
A reservoir is also an example of potential energy. The water is sitting still in the
reservoir, exerting pressure on the reservoir bottom and on the dam.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Once a ball begins rolling down a hill, it is
moving and has kinetic energy. Similarly, if the floodgate in a reservoir is opened, then
the water's energy becomes kinetic energy and gushes out of the reservoir.
Static pressure is what causes water to seek it's own level. When you pour water into a
dish, the water quickly spreads out to cover the entire bottom of the container in a flat
layer. Any high points in the water are pushed down by gravity until they are level with
the rest of the water.
Dynamic Pressure
The other type of pressure, dynamic pressure, is a form of kinetic energy. This type of
pressure is applied by moving water on its surroundings. Water flowing through a pipe
exerts more pressure on the pipe than the static pressure which would be exerted if the
water in the pipe was standing still.
Water in different parts of the pipe will have different pressures. This difference in
pressure is measured by differential pressure meters. By reading the pressure at two
points in a pipe and taking into account the resistance of the pipes, the flow rate of the
water can be determined. Resistance, or friction, in pipes is caused when water rubs
against the edge of the pipe and slows down.
In a hydraulic system, the pressure of the water at one point against the water at another
point causes the water to flow. If a pressure gauge on a pipe reads 40 PSI, that means
that the water is pushing against the nearby water with 40 pounds of pressure for every
square inch. If the pressure in the pipe was greater, the water would push harder against
the surrounding water and cause the water to flow faster.
Pressure Ratings
All substances have a rated pressure at which deformity or failure occurs. A knife cuts
through bread only when it applies a certain amount of pressure to the bread. Of course,
the pressure rating for bread is rather low - we can cut through it with a knife or even
break it with our bare hands. Metals have much higher pressure ratings. For example,
steel can be rated at 90,000 PSI. This means that 90,000 pounds of force per square inch
must be applied to deform or break the steel.
The outside housing of most pipes have pressure ratings listed. Pipes made from
different materials will have different pressure ratings. The rating of copper tubing is 700
PSI. Schedule 40 steel has a rating of 2,000 PSI. The higher rating of the steel pipe
means that the pipe is stronger. Of course, factors other than pressure ratings have to be
taken into account when choosing piping. For example, though steel pipe is strong, it is
not widely used because it is labor intensive and highly corrosive. In contrast, copper
pipe is toxic to living organisms and has been known to keep the water flowing through it
fresh for over two thousand years.
The pressure ratings of pipes, valves, etc. must be matched throughout a hydraulic system
in order for the system to function. For example, if a hydraulic system was rated at 2,000
PSI, you should not install a valve rated at 125 PSI. The pressure of the water will
quickly cause the valve to fail since its pressure rating is too low.
Resistance
In addition to having different pressure ratings, pipes have different resistance factors. As
mentioned above, friction of water against the side of a pipe can cause the pressure in the
pipe to drop and the water to slow down. The amount of friction between the pipe and
the water is determined by the roughness of the internal surface of the pipe. Pipes made
of rough substances cause more resistance to the water and slow it down more.
The Hazen-Williams and Manning formulas are used to solve hydraulic problems dealing
with pressure resistance. These formulas have been used to establish resistance values
for each material from which a pipe can be made. For example, PVC pipe has a lower
resistance value than cast iron pipe. This is because PVC pipe is very smooth on the
inside while the pits in the cast iron pipe cause a great deal of friction between the pipe
and the water. Water running through a cast iron pipe will quickly lose pressure and
speed due to the high resistance factor of the pipe.
Using Equations
To complete this section's assignments, you need to know how to use equations as well as
how to use units. The equation for pressure is given below:
When considering static pressure, force is the same as the weight of the water and area is
the surface area which the water is pressing against.
Let's consider the following problem:
A reservoir contains 100 gallons of water. The surface area of the bottom of the
reservoir is 1156 in2. What is the static pressure, in PSI, exerted by the water on the
bottom of the reservoir?
The first step, as always, is to determine which facts you know and what question is
being asked.
Fact 1: 100 gallons of water

Fact 2: 1156 in2 of surface area
Question: How many PSI (pounds/in2)?
You can consider your equation to be another fact:
The question asked by this problem is how much pressure is exerted on the bottom of the
reservoir. So, if you can find which fact is a force and which fact is an area, you can plug
those two numbers into the equation in Fact 3 and find the pressure. But first we need to
check and make sure that we're using the appropriate units throughout the problem.
Let's write the equation in terms of units:
You can only plug numbers into Fact 3's equation if they have the units shown above.
Fact 2 already has the units "in2", so you can plug the number into the equation for area:
But none of your facts have the units of "pounds". So you have to find a conversion
factor. In your textbook, you find that one gallon of water weights 8.34 pounds. So now
you have another fact:
Fact 4: 8.34 pounds/gallon of water
You can use Fact 1 and Fact 4 to find out how much the water in the reservoir weighs:
Multiply the fact by the conversions and you get:

You can cancel out the unit "gallons of water", giving you:
834 pounds
So the weight, or force, exerted by the water on the reservoir is 834 pounds.
Now you're ready to plug the force into the equation:
Do the math and you get:
Pressure = 0.72 pounds/in2 = 0.72 PSI
So the static pressure exerted on the bottom of the reservoir is 0.72 PSI.
Assignment
1. You are building a clear well chamber. It will need to hold 10,000
gallons of water. You plan to make the bottom of the container
have a surface area of 20,736 in2. What static pressure (in PSI)
will be exerted on the bottom of the chamber?
Hint: Go through the same steps used in the problem above. First
list all of your facts, with their units. Then determine what the
question is and what the units of the answer will be. Next,
consider your equation in terms of units. If necessary, convert
your facts to match the units used in the equation. Then plug your
facts into the equation to find the answer.
2. Why might you want to use copper to build the clear well in
question 1? Using the pressure rating of copper given in the text,
will the copper withstand the static pressure exerted by the water in
the clear well chamber?
Flow

• What is flow?
• How can flow equations be used to determine container volume,
fill time, and retention time?
What is Flow?
Although the flow of water is powered by pressure, flow and pressure are different. Flow
is defined as the volume that passes through a point in a given period of time. Flow is
measured in gallons per minute (gpm), cubic feet per second (cfs), or million gallons per
day (MGD.)
Flow is easy to visualize and to measure. If you know the volume of a container, then
you can measure the time it takes to fill that container. Try to measure the rate of flow of
the water coming out of your sink's tap now. Take a gallon container (such as an empty
milk jug) and figure out how long it takes for you to fill the container with water. At my
sink, it took about 40 seconds to fill the gallon jug with water.
Now you can determine the flow rate of the water coming out of the tap using the
following equation:
Filling in the values I measured, I got:
Retention Time
Flow of water is an important concept in water and wastewater treatment since it affects
the dentention time, also known as the retention time or contact time. (The term
"retention time" is used in water treatment while the term "detention time" is used in
sewage treatment.)
Retention time is the amount of time which water spends in a chamber being treated.
One of your assignments for Lesson 6 used the flow rate and the volume of the flash mix
chamber to determine the water's retention time in the flash mix chamber.
The equation used to determine retention time is the same equation use for flow rate, but
"Retention Time" is inserted instead of "Fill Time."
To find the retention time, you would first manipulate the equation so that "Retention
Time" was alone on one side of the equation. You can do this by multiplying both sides
by "Retention Time".
On the right side of the equation, "Retention Time" is found both on the top and bottom
of the fraction. So it will cancel out, giving you the following equation:
Flow × Retention Time = Container Volume
Now you need to move "Flow" over to the right side of the equation. You can do this by
dividing both sides of the equation by "Flow".
Now "Flow" is found on both the top and bottom of the left side of the equation, so it will
cancel out. You're left with the following equation:
This is the equation you would use to solve a problem which asked for the retention time
or detention time of water in a chamber. The equation is often abbreviated as follows:
You can use the same method to manipulate any other equation. First decide what you
are solving for ("Retention Time" in this case). Then you can manipulate the equation.
When manipulating an equation to get a term alone on one side, be sure to always do the
same thing to each side of the equation. If you divide one side by "Flow", then you must
divide the other side by "Flow," and so forth.
All state water and wastewater exams have retention/detention time problems because an
operator must be able retain water for treatment.
Assignment
1. You are given the equation:
Manipulate the equation so that "Container Volume" is alone on

one side of the equation
Flow Example
You have finally built the clear well chamber which you were working on in the
assignment for the last section. The tank holds a volume of 10,000 gallons and the water
enters the treatment facility at a rate of 1 MGD. How long would it take to fill the tank?
As always, start with your facts and question:
Fact 1: 10,000 gallons

Fact 2: 1 MGD (million gallons/day)
Question: How many days?
Now choose an equation:
You want to determine the fill time, so you solve the equation to put "Fill Time" alone on
one side:
Now that you have the equation, let's consider its units:
Fact 1 has the unit "gallons", so it can just be plugged into the equation. Fact 2 has the
units "million gallons/day" rather than "gallons/day". So you need to convert Fact 2 to the
appropriate units. The conversion is:
So you multiply Fact 2 by the conversion:
Then multiply:
And cancel units to get:
1,000,000 gallons/day
Now you're ready to plug numbers into your equation:

We don't usually think of hundredths of days, so let's convert 0.01 days into hours and
then minutes:
So the fill time is 14.4 minutes. It will take the tank a bit less than 15 minutes to fill up
with water.
Container Volume
For many problems, you will need to determine the volume of a container. To do so, you
measure the cubic dimensions (length, width, and height), in feet, as shown above. Then,
you multiply the dimensions together to find the volume of the container in feet. If your
tank was 8 feet in length, 5 feet in width, and 1 foot high, you would get the following
volume:
8 ft. × 5 ft. × 1 ft. = 40 ft.3
Volume can be measured in cubic feet (ft3), but it is more commonly measured in
gallons. In order to convert the volume from cubic feet to gallons, you use the following
conversion:
Then you multiply the conversion by your volume in feet:
You find that the tank will hold 299 gallons of water.
Other Ways of Measuring Flow
Flow can be measured in many ways other than by measuring the period of time which it
takes to fill a container with water. Flow measurements can be obtained by calculations
of channels, weirs, pressure drops, gravity systems, and flumes. These and other methods
of measuring flow will be discussed in CIV 240.
Assignment
1. Determine a rough estimate of the volume of your bathtub by

measuring the length, width, and height. (The height is the
distance from the bottom of your tub to the drain, not to the rim of
the tub.)
2. Determine the rate of water flowing out of the tap in your bathtub
when turned up all the way by filling an empty gallon jug. Then
time how long it takes you to fill your bathtub with water up to the
drain. Now estimate the volume of your bathtub again using the
equation:
3. Were your estimates of volume similar for questions 1 and 2? If

not, which do you think is more accurate? Why?
Transfer of Energy
• When does water accelerate?

• What is inertia?
Acceleration
Pressure and flow rate are concerned with energy. The static pressure of a reservoir has
potential energy while flowing water has kinetic energy. Hydraulics must also be
concerned with the transfer of energy within a particular system. One type of energy
transfer is the change from potential energy to kinetic energy as the water flows out of a
reservoir.
One simple system is a reservoir with a shut-off valve on the intake pipe, as shown
above. When the valve is closed, the water cannot move through the intake pipe and out
of the reservoir. But when the valve is opened, the water begins to flow through the
pipe. It will flow slowly at first, but the rate of flow will increase until the maximum
flow through the pipe has been reached.
When the rate of flow increases in this example, the increase is called acceleration. If the
units of the rate of flow were "gallons/minute", then the units of the acceleration would
be "gallons/minute2." The acceleration is very large at first, but when the system reaches
maximum flow, all of the water has accelerated as it exits the pipe. So the acceleration
becomes 0 gallons/minute2 when the water is flowing as fast as it will flow and is no
longer speeding up.
Time Rate of Flow Acceleration

(minutes) (gpm) (gpm2)
0 0 2
1 2 1
2 3 0
3 3 0
The chart above gives an example of the rate of flow and the acceleration in a system
where a shut-off valve is opened at time 0. The water begins by being totally still (a rate
of flow of 0 gpm) at time 0. Then it reaches its fastest rate of flow (3 gpm) after two
minutes. The acceleration is greatest (2 gpm2) immediately after the shut-off valve is
opened. Once the water has reached its maximum speed (at time 2), the acceleration has
dropped to 0 gpm2.
Inertia
Inertia is a property of all matter, including water. The law of inertia states that, unless
some external force acts on the object, an object at rest tends to remain at rest while an
object in motion tends to remain in motion. In the reservoir example above, water began
moving because the static pressure in the reservoir overcame the water's inertia - its
tendency to remain still.
The computer on your desk has the property of inertia - it is at rest, so unless you push it,
it will remain at rest. If you picked up your monitor and dropped it out a window, the
monitor would be moving. Then your monitor would remain in motion until some force
acted upon the object to make it stop - such as the monitor hitting the ground.
When an external force acts upon an object, making it stop moving, energy is
transferred. The monitor falling through the air has kinetic energy, but once it hits the
ground and stops moving, it has no kinetic energy. The energy cannot just disappear.
Instead, the kinetic energy must be transferred to some other form. The extra energy
may make the monitor break into pieces.
If you close the valve in the intake pipe from a reservoir quickly, the water behind the
valve abruptly stops moving. Its kinetic energy is violently released. When the monitor
hit the ground, the transfer of energy caused the computer to compress (to break.) But
water is non-compressible, so the energy must be transferred in some other way. The
water may cause the intake pipe to wobble. In a large system, pipelines can be displaced
from the ground if the water inside stops flowing too quickly.
To prevent this problem, the kinetic energy must be dissipated over a longer period of
time. So valves should be opened and closed slowly to avoid shock and damage to the
system.
To illustrate further, consider an automobile traveling at the rate of sixty miles an hour.
If the car hit a tree and was stopped in one thousandth of a second, damage would result
to both car and driver. However, if the brakes were applied over a longer period of time
and the energy was dissipated slowly, little or no damage would occur to either car or
driver.
The energy of inertia can be compensated for in a closed system by adding an air charged
accumulator. An accumulator is a steel sphere which is divided in half by a diaphram.
The top half of the diaphram is sealed closed while the bottom half is open and attached
to a water system.
Let's attach an accumulator to our simple system described above. Now we have a
reservoir, an intake pipe with a shut-off valve, and an accumulator
Power
• What is power?
• What type of motor is most efficient?
Measuring Power
Another aspect of hydraulics is power. Power is defined as the amount of work done or
energy transferred per unit time. In this context, work is a specific term which means the
amount of force applied over a distance. So if you push a wheelbarrow from the house to
the garden, then you have done work - you have used force to move something a certain
distance. When used in this sense, reading this assignment doesn't count as work. The
only work you might do for this class is when you use force to push your pencil across
the paper when doing the math problems.
Power is the amount of work done over a unit time. So, if you take three minutes to push
the wheelbarrow from the house to the garden, you would divide the amount of work you
did by three minutes to find the power.
You can think of power as the energy you used to make work happen. You are probably
already familiar with the units we use to measure power - horsepower. 33,000-foot lbs
per minute equals one horsepower. That means that a power of 1 horsepower would use
enough force to push an object weighing 33,000 pounds across a distance of one foot in
one minute.
In hydraulics, we use the following equation to determine power:
Power = Pressure × Flow
But if you consider the units in the equation, you will see that they cause a problem:
horsepower = PSI × gpm
We need to be able to convert from the unit "PSI × gpm" to the unit "horsepower". The
following conversion can be used:
So let's consider a situation in which water in a reservoir is exerting 100 PSI of pressure
on the sides of the reservoir. The intake pipe is opened and that pressure causes water to
flow through the pipe at a rate of 10 gpm. We want to know how much horsepower that
water has. So we multiply our pressure and our rate of flow together:
Power = 100 PSI × 10 gpm
Power = 1,000 PSI × gpm
Then we convert the answer to horsepower:
So the power used to move that water down the pipe was 0.59 horsepower.
Motor Efficiency
You have probably heard of a nine horsepower engine. Horsepower is used to measure
the amount of power which an engine generates. The power generated by a motor is used
to do some sort of work - in a car, the engine makes the wheel turns which makes the car
move forward.
But a lot of the power generated by a gasoline engine is used up in the motor rather than
being available to do work. About 3/4 of the power generated in a gasoline engine is then
used to push the piston back to the starting point. So gasoline engines are very inefficient
in using the horsepower created.
An electric horsepower motor is four times more efficient than an equivalent gasoline
horsepower motor. For this reason, most of the pumps used for water transportation are
electrical.
Introducing an accumulator into a system using an electric horsepower motor can raise
the total efficiency by another 30%. This is because the accumulator takes the shock out
of the system and creates a smooth flow.
We measure the efficiency of a pump using the following equation:

The rated pressure would be the pressure at which the pump is usually operated. So, we
would measure the gallons per minute being pumped at the usual, operational pressure
and divide it by the gallons per minute pumped at no pressure. On average, water pumps
are about 60% efficient while sewage pumps are about 40% efficient.
Summary
This lesson has considered two different but related topics. The first topic was an
overview of the math you commonly use in water and wastewater treatment problems.
The steps used in solving a problem are as follows:
1. Determine the facts introduced in the problem.

2. Determine the question asked by the problem and the units which
the answer will have.
3. Decide whether there is an equation which can be used to solve the
problem.
4. If necessary, manipulate the equation so that it is in the right
format to solve the problem.
5. If necessary, find a conversion factor and convert the units of your
facts to match other units in the problem.
6. Solve the problem in one of two ways:
a. Multiply facts together so that units cancel out and the answer
has the units you decided on in step 2.
b. Insert numbers from step 1 into your equation and solve to find
the answer.
7. Finally, make sure your answer has the right units and makes
sense.
The rest of the lesson was concerned with hydraulics, the study of water in motion.
Below, I have listed the equations from the text, the units commonly used with each
aspect of hydraulics, and some useful conversions.
Equations:
Area = Length × Width

Volume = Length × Width × Height
Power = Pressure × Flow
Units:
Area: cm2, m2, in2, ft2, etc.
Volume: m3, ft3, gallons
Pressure: PSI (pounds/in2)
Flow: gpm (gallons/minute), cfs (ft3/second), MGD (million gallons/day)
Retention or Detention Time: seconds, hours, minutes, etc.
Power: horsepower
Efficiency: percent (%)
Useful conversions:
Assignment
1. You want to know how many gallons of water a sedimentation

basin holds. So you drain all of the water out of the basin and then
measure how long it takes you to fill the basin back up with water.
The water flows into the basin at a rate of 695 gpm and fills the
basin in 10 minutes. What is the volume of the sedimentation
basin?
2. Treated water flows out of your water treatment plant at a rate of 1

MGD. An average person uses 175 gallons of water per day. How
many people will your water treatment plant serve?
Hint: Don't use an equation. Just consider the units needed in the
answer and the units given in the problem and multiply two
fractions.
3. A reservoir holds one million gallons of water. How much does

the water weigh?
4. The bottom of the reservoir in question 3 has a surface area of

340,000 in2. What is the static pressure on the bottom of the
reservoir?
5. The pressure on the side of a dam is 20 PSI. When you open the
shut-off valve on an intake pipe attached to the dam, water rushes
out of the reservoir at a rate of 20 gpm. What is the power (in
horsepower) of the water?
6. The water coming out of the intake pipe in question 5 has to flow
1,000 feet along level ground to reach the treatment facility. How
many gallons per minute will flow this distance powered merely by
the static pressure of the water in the reservoir? Do you think you
will need to add a pump to this system to get enough water to the
treatment plant in a timely fashion?
Hint: Convert the units of the water's power to "foot X
pounds/minute." Then multiply by the number of feet which the
water must travel. You should now have the number of pounds of
water per minute which will reach the treatment plant. Convert
from "pounds/min" to "gallons/minute" and you will have the rate
at which the water will enter the treatment facility.
7. In order to test the efficiency of a pump, you measure the flow rate
at the operational pressure and at no pressure. The flow rate at the
operational pressure is 25 gpm. The flow rate at no pressure is 13
gpm. What is the efficiency of the pump?
Lesson 6:
Water Treatment
A Pictorial Overview of Water Treatment
• How is water moved from the source to the treatment plant?

• Which tests are performed on the water during treatment? At
which stages in the process are the tests performed?
• What does the rest of the water treatment process include?
Intake
After establishing parameters for quality and quantity, the next concern is the raw water
intake. Water must be collected and transported from the source (a well, reservoir, river,
etc.) to the consumer. The first step is establishing intake portals and pumps to carry the
water to the treatment plant.
In a reservoir, most of the debris either floats on the top of the water or sinks to the
bottom. So the intake portal is located at a middle depth to keep most of the debris from
entering the lines.
Even with the water intake at a middle depth, some debris is still present in the water. So
screens and bars cover the pipes carrying water from the water source to the treatment
facility. These screens keep large debris, such as leaves, sticks, and fish, from entering
the plant.
A large bar screen is used on the intake portal and finer screening is performed at the
plant. The bar screen keeps large debris from entering the pipes, but does not screen out
all of the debris. If the screen at the intake strained out everything, the screen would clog
frequently and require constant maintenance. Even a bar screen must be cleaned
occasionally since it can become clogged with leaves, sticks, and freshwater clam
growth. It is the operator's responsibility to make sure the screens are clean and in
working order. Special attention must be given during times of floods and high
precipitation when larger quantities of debris will be present in the water.
Delivery System
After establishing the quality, quantity, and pick up method, a delivery system is needed
to carry the water to the plant. Pipes must be installed that are able to match to the size of
the supply with the size of the demand. Valves are placed on the pipes in order to stop
the water flow from entering the system in case of contamination or other problems.
Valves can also be used to divert water.
Monitoring
When the water reaches the plant, it is measured for pH, turbidity, total alkalinity, and
temperature. This is to ensure that appropriate treatment is given as the water's quality
may vary over time. Then the water is tested again at various stages in the treatment
process. The finished water is tested to ensure that the quality is appropriate to send to
the consumers. Regulations require that pH, free chlorine residual, and turbidity tests are
each performed every two hours.
The tests performed as the water enters the plant are called pretests. These tests
determine the amounts of alkali, coagulants, and other chemicals which must be added to
the water during the treatment process. The pH and total alkalinity of the water will
influence the amount of alkali to be added and can also influence the flocculation
conditions. The level of turbidity will influence the amount of polymer (coagulant) added
to the water. Temperature is also measured since cold water does not floc as well as
warm water and requires the addition of more polymer. The dissolved oxygen content of
the water does not affect the flocculation process and is not tested for at this stage. Based
on the results of the pretests, feed rates are set for various chemicals to be added to the
water.
Other tests occur at various stages in the treatment process. Carbon dioxide is monitored
because it can make the water acidic. pH, free chlorine residual, and turbidity are also
tested at various stages in the process.
pH is monitored at several different stages. The pretest measures pH of the raw water
before anything is added. Then water in the flash mixer and in the sedimentation basin
are tested for pH level to ensure that the pH of the water is appropriate before and during
sedimentation. Finally, the finished water is tested for pH to make sure that it will not
corrode the pipes in the distribution system.
The pictures above and below are of pH tests using two different instruments. Water has
been placed in a glass beaker. A sensor placed in the water measures the pH. The pH
reading is then shown on the meter. In the background are various beakers and chemicals
on a cluttered lab bench.
Chlorine is often added to the water at two stages in the water treatment process.
Prechlorination is the process of adding chlorine immediately after the water enters the
treatment facility. At this stage, chlorine in the water will kill many disease-causing
organisms, will control taste and odor, and will aid in several treatment processes. Then
chlorine is added again after filtration in a stage called postchlorination. Postchlorination
disinfects the water. When both prechlorination and postchlorination are part of the
water treatment process, free chlorine residual is tested at both points in the distribution
system to ensure that the right amount of chlorine has been added each time.
Turbidity is also tested at multiple points in the water treatment process. By testing
turbidity levels before and after treatment, the operator can determine whether
flocculation removed all of the contaminants efficiently. The turbidity is tested in all four
effluent filters as well as in the finished water to make sure that it meets the standards of
under 0.50 NTU.
The picture above is a diagram of a turbidometer, a device used to measure turbidity in

water. Light shines on a sample of water. If the light strikes a colloid, the light reflects
upward. If the light does not strike a colloid, it shines through the water sample. The
meter measures how much light is reflected off colloids in the water. Clear water will
reflect little light while turbid samples, like this one, will reflect large amounts of light.
To make all of these tests easier to perform, water lines from different stages in the
treatment process are run directly into the sink in the laboratory. There, the operator can
easily perform the required tests throughout the day. The results of the tests allow the
operator to adjust chemical feed rates to provide for maximum treatment of the water.

One instrument used in these tests is the spectrophotometer, shown above. A
spectrophotometer is an instrument capable of producing light at a specific wave length,
then measuring the amount of that light which passes through a colored liquid.
Spectrophotometers can be used to determine the concentration of a chemical by
measuring the intensity of the color in a solution.
Flash Mix
After screening out debris and testing the raw water, water treatment really begins at the
flash mix chamber. Here, chemicals are added to the water, primarily to aid in
coagulation and flocculation. In the flash mixer, the water is agitated violently for a short
period of time before being released into the sedimentation basin.
The duration of mixing in the flash mix chamber is carefully controlled and is usually
between thirty seconds and one minute. If the water is mixed for less than thirty seconds,
then the chemicals will not be properly mixed into the water. But if the water is mixed
for more than sixty seconds, then the blades will shear the newly forming floc back into
smaller particles. When determining the length of time that water must spend in the flash
mix chamber, flow rates must be calculated. The volume of the flash mix chamber and
the amount of flow determine the contact time.
The photograph above shows a tank of liquid alum which is being fed into the water.
The chemicals added to aid in coagulation and flocculation vary from facility to facility.
At the Big Stone Gap Treatment Facility, alum (aluminum sulfate), polymer floc, and
sodium hydroxide are all used. Alum and polymer floc are primary coagulants which
neutralize the electrical charges of the particles suspended in the water and cause them to
begin clumping together. Sodium hydroxide increases the pH of the water.
Big Stone Gap does not use activated carbon, but many other facilities do. Activated
carbon is effective in removing oils and oily tastes from the water.
The concentration of chemicals to be added in the flash mix chamber is determined

through a jar test in the lab, as shown above. Jar tests simulate the conditions which the
water will face as it passes through the flash mix, flocculation/coagulation, and
sedimentation chambers. Samples of water to be treated are placed in six jars and various
amounts of chemicals are added to each jar. The water is stirred and then the floc is
allowed to settle. The amount of each chemical which results in satisfactory settling and
removal of turbidity in the water determines the amount of the chemical to be added to
the water in the flash mix chamber.
The Rest of the Process

After being agitated in the flash mix chamber, water is released into the
flocculation/coagulation basin or into the head of the sedimentation basin. Here, various
types of agitators gently stir the water, encouraging the floc to collect together. At this
point, pin (small) floc can be seen forming.
Water passes from the flocculation chamber to the sedimentation chamber, shown below.
If the water has flocked properly, then most of the floc will settle out in the sedimentation
chamber.
Some floc will remain in the water as it moves from the sedimentation basin to the
filters. The larger particles of colloids and floc will catch at the top of the sand filter as
the water passes through. Over time, the head pressure increases on the sand filter as it
becomes clogged. Head loss pressure is monitored and the guages are equipped with an
alarm which will alert the operator that the filter is clogged and needs to be cleaned.
The pictures above and below are of a rapid sand filter. As you walk through a treatment
plant, only the water backed up on the surface of the filter is visible.
Once the water passes through the filter, it collects in the clearwell. Here, chlorine,
fluorine, and Calgon (a corrosion inhibitor) are added to the water. After a sufficient
contact time, the water is pumped into a large, outdoor storage tank such as the one
shown below. From there, the water is released to the customer.
Lesson 6:
Water Treatment
Unusual Conditions
• How do floods and droughts affect water treatment?

• What alarms and backup systems are water treatment plants
equipped with?
Floods and Droughts
Treatment plants are designed based on the expected flow of the water. However, the
design must also take into account drought and flood conditions. During these periods,
the turbidity and alkalinity of the water may change. Tests of the amount of colloids
(turbidity) and alkalinity will determine the rate of chemical feed. When the amount of
alum and lime added to the water is adjusted to correspond to the incoming turbidity
levels, contaminants such as bacteria can be removed with flocculation.
Sometimes, the flow rates may be so high or so low that adjusting the chemical feed rate
will not result in efficient water treatment. In most of these cases, high sediment content
of the water (high turbidity) is the problem.
Setting the contact time in the flash mix chamber to forty-five seconds will make water
treatment more efficient during high or low flows. Some plants are installed with parallel
flash mixers which enable to them to handle very low flows.
If changing the chemical feed rates and flash mixers does not correct the problem, then
the plant may have to be shut down until the flow returns to normal. The initial turbidity
test will determine whether the water can be treated or must be diverted to the
sedimentation basins.
Alarms and Backups
For safety reasons, plants are equipped with automatic metering devices which will sound
an alarm to alert the operator to problems that need immediate attention. These metering
devices test for pH, turbidity, chlorine, and fluoride and can also detect clogged filters.
High and low alarms alert the operator if water quality levels deviate too far from
normal. The alarms allow the plant to prepare for changes before extremely problematic
situations are reached.
In addition, water plants are designed so that they can be manually operated for a short
period of time, if necessary. Valves can be opened and closed by hand. However, water
plants are not equipped with generators the way sewage plants are. So if the electricity
goes off for an extended period of time, the plant must be shut down.
Summary
When choosing a water source, quality and quantity must be considered. Tests are run on
the water while choosing the source, then are run every six months to ensure continued
quality. Finally, tests are run every two hours at the plant to make sure that the water is
being properly treated.
Water treatment begins at the source when debris is screened out of the water. Then
water flows into the flash mix chamber where coagulants are added to the water. Next,
the water enters the flocculation basin and is gently agitated to promote the formation of
floc. From the flocculation basin, the water flows into the sedimentation basin where
most of the floc settles out of the water. Then the water flows through the filters, which
remove the rest of the floc. Water from the filters collects in the clear well, where
chlorine and other chemicals are added to the water. Then the treated water is distributed
to the customers.
Changing water conditions, such as those caused by floods and droughts, are detected by
automatic metering devices. Alarms will sound to alert the operator to problems in water
quality. In extreme situations, operators can run the plant manually or shut the plant
down.
Assignment
1. You are in the laboratory of a water treatment plant and have been
asked to perform a jar test. What is the purpose of a jar test?
Where do you get the water to perform the test?
2. The flash mix chamber in your water treatment plant holds 10

gallons of water. The water flows through the chamber at a rate of
20 gpm. What is the contact time of the water in the chamber? Is
the contact time within the recommended range?
Hint: Use the equation:
V is the volume of the flash mix chamber, T is the time the water
spends in the flash mix chamber (also known as contact time), and
F is the flow rate of the water passing through the chamber.
3. Draw a diagram of the water treatment process from source to

distribution. Include each treatment step, locations where
chemicals are added, and all tests.
4. You are operating a water treatment plant during a flood. How

might the flood adversely influence the plant's operation? Which
tests would you pay special attention to?
Lesson 8:
Distribution System
Distribution System Design
• What are the purposes of a distribution system?

• Why is planning important?
• How are water pressure and water quantity determined in the
distribution system?
Introduction to the Distribution System
The diagram below shows a typical distribution system. The water flows from the
treatment plant into a storage reservoir. Although not every system will have a storage
reservoir, it is advisable to separate stored water and source water in order to have better
hydraulic flows and a more dependable system.
From the storage reservoir, water flows as needed out into the mains which carry large
quantities of water toward the customer. Some water is diverted to feed fire hydrants.
Other water flows from the mains into the service lines which carry the water to the
customers. Booster stations are used to pump water where the water pressure is lower
than in the rest of the system. Meters measure the flow of water through the system.
The distribution system is installed for two definite functions. First, the system must
deliver an adequate quantity of water to the customers. Second, the distribution system
must deliver high quantities of water to fire hydrants when needed for fire protection.
When designing systems to provide fire protection, the requirements of the American
Insurance Association should be used along with the considerations of domestic
requirements. Both of these purposes must be taken into account when planning a
There are many factors which must be considered when designing a distribution system:
type of pipe material, size of mains, sizing and placement of storage reservoirs, inclusion
of fire protection, location of valves, and so forth. This lesson will provide an overview
of these topics as well as information on the maintenance of existing distribution systems.
Long-term Planning
Distribution systems carry water from the treatment plant to the consumers. As a
community grows and changes, the distribution system must change with it. In far too
many cases, the distribution system developes in a more or less haphazard manner.
Service lines are added as new houses and businesses spring up. This sort of haphazard
growth of the distribution system is the result of improper planning and can result in
mains having to be reinforced or replaced in order to access new areas to be served.
Instead, we recommend planning at least twenty or thirty years in the future when
designing water works facilities. It is difficult to predict the demand for water so far in
the future, but engineers can estimate the expected growth of the community and use the
expected population to extrapolate the demand for water in the future. When estimating
growth of a community, engineers consider the change in population over the last 15
years of a similar community.
Based on the projected future growth of the community, engineers will plan a current
distribution system and expected future expansions. Over time, this plan will be updated
and used to add extensions to the distribution system. An engineer should be employed
for planning, even for a minor main extension. Careful planning can save considerable
money by avoiding duplication of water lines.
Consider the community shown above. The distribution system was constructed without
planning for future growth of the community.
Over time, two new housing developments created a much greater demand for water on
the right side of the community. The mains serving these areas had to be replaced
(shown in red) since they were too small to carry adequate water. A well-planned
distribution system would have included larger mains in these areas initially to prepare
for future growth.
Pressure
Water pressure is an important factor to consider when planning a distribution system.
As a rule of thumb, the water pressure throughout the distribution system should be no
less than 17 PSI. In many high value districts, distribution lines are designed for a
normal pressure of between 60 and 70 PSI.
Low pressure in the mains can be a health hazard since the pressure in the pipes keeps
contaminated water from entering the mains. If the pressure in a pipe is too low or is
negative, contaminants from nearby ditches, cross-connections, and poor quality house
plumbing can be drawn into the water system.
Investigations have proven that most water-borne disease outbreaks are the result of
contamination of water after it is pumped into the distribution system. To prevent
contamination, an adequate chlorine residual must be maintained and the residual
pressure should never be allowed to fall below 20 PSI. The Virginia Department of
Health issues an advisory for extra-precautionary measures during periods of low
pressure or vacuum.
So how is the pressure in the distribution system's pipes produced? Most of the pressure
is a result of static pressure built up in the storage reservoir. As you will remember from
the last lesson, static pressure is a weight per unit area. If water is pumped into the top of
a storage tank, the weight of the water will build up a certain pressure on the bottom of
the tank. Then when water is allowed to flow out of the bottom of the tank and into the
distribution system, the static pressure results in water pressure in the pipes.
The height, or elevation, of the tank will determine the amount of static pressure on the
water at the bottom of the tank. To determine the static pressure, measure the elevation
of the water surface at the top of the tank (E1) and the elevation of the pipe into which
the water is flowing (E2).
Then use the following equation:
Static Pressure = (E1 - E2) × 0.43 PSI/ft
Consider a tank which is sitting on the ground with the water flowing out of the tank into
a main at ground level (an elevation of 0 feet). The surface of the water in the tank is 100
feet above the ground (an elevation of 100 feet). The static pressure would be:
Static Pressure = (100ft - 0ft) × 0.43 PSI/ft
Static Pressure = 100ft × 0.43 PSI/ft
Static Pressure = 43 PSI
The water flowing out of the storage tank in the example above has a pressure of 43 PSI.
As you will remember, once the water begins moving, the pressure becomes a dynamic
pressure, also known as a residual pressure. Dynamic pressure is equal to static pressure
just as the water leaves the tank, but as the water moves through the pipe energy is lost
and the residual pressure decreases. The energy loss in the pipe is proportional to the
square of the velocity of the water, so the faster the water moves through the pipe the
more pressure it loses.
The roughness of the inside of the pipe also influences the residual pressure in the pipe.
Rougher pipes have higher resistance factors (also known as roughness coefficients),
which means that the water flowing through the rough pipes loses energy more quickly
than it would if flowing through a smooth pipe.
Quantity
When planning the sizes of lines to be used in a distribution system, the amount of water
that will be needed and the pressure desired at the end of the line are both critical factors.
This section will consider the quantity of water which a distribution system must
carry.
The average per capita demand for water is 100 gallons per day, which means that an
average person uses 100 gallons of water every day. However, distribution systems must
be prepared to accommodate customers on days when much more water is used - for
example, on a hot summer day when everyone decides to water his or her lawn. The
distribution system should be able to deliver 150% of the average per capita demand (150
gallons per person) for an ordinary maximum day.
If you consider your daily water use, you will realize that you use water in large amounts
at some times of the day, such as when you shower or run the washing machine. A single
house can use between 16 and 20 gallons per minute during these peak times. Then you
probably spend several hours at night without using any water. The distribution system
must take this pattern into account and be prepared to deliver water at what is known as
the peak hour rate. The peak hour rate is 150% of the maximum rate, or about 225
gallons of water per day for domestic service.
The Health Department has developed a graph of instantaneous flow versus the number
of customers. (The instantaneous flow is the amount of water which can flow through the
line at an instant in time.) As the number of customers being served by a water line
increases, the instantaneous flow will decrease since the existing water must be split
between more people. The graph, called the "Instantaneous Flow Curve" is used in the
design of distribution systems and is the only approved design criteria.
Pipe Diameter
The carrying capacity of a pipe is the amount of water which the pipe will deliver in a
certain amount of time. The carrying capacity of a new main is largely determined by the
size of the pipe. For two pipes of the same roughness coefficient, a 6-inch pipe will
deliver two and one-fourths times as much water as a 4-inch pipe.
The carrying capacity of the distribution system is most important when planning for fire
prevention. Let's consider two scenarios:
1. A storage tank providing a static pressure of 50 PSI is connected to
a fireplug by a main which is 4,000 feet long and 6 inches in
diameter.
2. The same storage tank and static pressure, but with the 4,000 feet
long main being 4 inches in diameter.
In Scenario (1), the main will deliver 350 gallons per minute at a residual pressure of 20
PSI. In Scenario (2), the main will only deliver 100 gallons per minute at a residual
pressure of 20 PSI. When using the fireplug in Scenario (2) to put out a fire, the volume
of water may not be sufficient.
As a result, four inch pipes are not recommended for systems which are designed to
provide fire protection. The National Board of Fire Underwriters will not recognize
fireplugs served by 4 inch mains. In addition, 4 inch mains are likely to become
inadequate even for serving domestic uses in the future. 4 inch or smaller mains should
be installed only when use is confined to domestic purposes with no fire protection and
even then only after careful planning.
Some other factors must be considered when determining the size of pipes to be installed:
• Whether there is or will be an elevated storage tank in the vicinity

of the new extension
• Whether the new area is for residential or commercial development
• Whether the natural topography will permit future expansion in the

area
• Present population trends regarding the area
• Fire protection demand
Pipe Materials
• What materials are used to build pipes used in distribution

systems?
Types of Pipe Material

In the past, many types of material have been used in conveying water from one point to
another. Masonry and wood were probably the first materials used. Plastics are the
newest, and are now being used quite extensively. At present, water mains are made of a
variety of materials, summarized in the chart below.
Primary
Material Advantages Disadvantages Coated?
Use
no longer
manufactured; large, old
cast iron yes
deteriorates in some systems
soils
strong, deteriorates in some large
ductile iron yes
ductile soils systems
wall thickness must
raw water
steel inexpensive be carefully yes
mains
considered
raw water
mains and
concrete inexpensive no
industrial
systems
raw water
pre-
mains and
stressed inexpensive no
industrial
concrete
systems
replaced cast
asbestos brittle; no longer
iron; in old no
cement manufactured
systems
gasoline from soil < 10 inch
PVC inexpensive no
can pass into pipe pipes
requires special service lines
heat fusion joining in water
non-rigid
tools; inorganic systems and no
plastic
chemicals in soil main lines in
weaken pipe gas systems
copper service lines no
corrodes; produces
discolored water;
galvanized
has a short life; no
iron
deteriorates in some
soils
Large Pipes
Cast iron has a long history of satisfactory service. Pipes were made exclusively of cast
iron in many larger systems until manufacture of cast iron pipes was discontinued in the
early 1980s. Since this pipe can no longer be manufactured, little will be used in the
future. The systems which formerly used cast iron pipes are now converting to ductile
iron pipe and AWWA C-900 PVC pipe. Some smaller systems are converting to slip
joint PVC pipe except in specialty areas such as creek crossings and when pipes must be
laid extremely deep in the ground.
Ductile iron is now used in many systems where cast iron pipe was formerly used.
Ductile iron pipes have certain advantages over other pipe materials. The pipes are
strong and ductile (able to be drawn out and formed into a certain shape.)
The third type of metal pipe used in distribution systems is steel. Steel piping may be
used in water transmission mains due to the cheap initial construction cost of the system.
However, care must be taken in the design of the wall thickness of the steel pipe for the
particular systems that exist. Steel pipes are more commonly used for raw water mains.
Even though most public water supplies are treated where necessary for corrosion
control, all three types of metal pipes described above can be corroded by acidic water.
For this reason, these pipes are usually lined to protect the metal against corrosion. Steel
pipes are asphalt coated while cast and ductile iron pipes are lined with either enamel or
cement. The cement lining, which is usually a one to three Portland cement mortar, is
applied to the pipe by centrifugal action. The thickness of the cement lining depends on
the diameter of the pipe and varies from 1/8 of an inch thick in a 2 … inch pipe to … of
an inch thick in a 48 inch pipe. The lining in all three types of pipe enhances the ability
of the pipe to retain good flow characteristics for many years since corroded pipes are
rough and offer more resistance to flowing water.
In contrast to the metal pipes mentioned above, concrete and pre-stressed concrete pipes
are used mainly in very large diameter pipes such as those found in raw water lines and
industrial systems. The concrete pipes are relatively inexpensive to build, which makes
them attractive when large quantities of water must be moved from place to place.
Asbestos cement pipe is composed of a mixture of Portland cement and asbestos fibers.
Asbestos cement is lighter in weight than cast iron and more brittle, so extra care must be
taken when installing the asbestos cement pipe. If the trench is not properly bedded then
the pipe will not be well cushioned in the ground and may break. Asbestos cement pipes
have been used in some cases to replace cast iron pipes, but like cast iron, asbestos
cement pipes are no longer being manufactured.
Small Pipes
Plastic pipe is commonly used for pipes which are 10 inches or less in diameter. Rigid
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are often chosen, especially when initial cost is an
important factor.
There are several factors to consider when choosing a PVC pipe for use. Any PVC pipe
used for water transmission must have a National Sanitation Foundation seal which
certifies that the pipe contains no toxic materials and is suitable for potable water
transport. It is inadvisable to use a very cheap plastic pipe since it will cause problems in
the future. The same manufacturer should supply the couplings, fittings, and pipes so
that all of the components will work well together.
The PVC pipes which are commonly used have a pressure class of 160 or 200. Since the
cost difference between class 160 and 200 pipe is only about $0.25 per foot, many
systems install the heavier duty pipe. When very high pressures are anticipated, class 250
pipe may be used. Pipes with a higher pressure class have thicker walls to withstand the
water's pressure as it moves through the pipe.
PVC pipe has a safety factor of 2:1, compared to the 4:1 safety factor of ductile iron pipe,
so you can't directly compare the pressure class ratings of the two types of pipes. In
addition, the pressure class ratings of PVC pipes do not include surge pressure - extra
pressure when the water moves much faster than usual. For both of these reasons, it is
recommended that the static pressure of the water in a PVC pipe not exceed 70% of the
class rating. So, if you anticipate a static pressure above 112 PSI (70% of 160 PSI), then
you will need to use class 200 pipe.
PVC pipes are not the only types of plastic pipes used in water systems. Polyethylene
and other non-rigid plastic pipes are used as service lines in water systems and as main
lines in gas systems. However, polyethylene pipes have a high molecular weight, so
special heat fusion joining tools are required when working with the pipes. For this
reason, polyethylene pipes are limited to special installations.
Copper pipes have been used in some situations as service pipes. However, copper pipe
is more expensive than plastic pipe. Copper pipe used in water systems must have a
National Sanitation Foundation Seal.
Galvanized iron is the final type of pipe which will be considered here. In almost every
case, it has been found to be more desirable to use plastic pipe rather than galvanized
iron. Galvanized iron corrodes easily, produces problems with discolored water, and has
a relatively short life. For these reasons, galvanized iron is seldom used in the
Pipe Deterioration
Even when water mains are properly installed, the pipes will deteriorate over time. This
deterioration can be slowed by matching the pipe material to the soil or by wrapping the
pipe.
Cast iron, ductile iron, and galvanized iron pipes can all be weakened in just a few years
when laid in aggressive soil. To prevent this type of damage, the soil should be tested
before laying the pipes in the ground. If necessary, the pipes can be wrapped in plastic
during installation to protect the metal from the soil. The Ductile Iron Pipe Research
Association can provide detailed information on the wrapping procedure.
The type of soil is also an important consideration when installing plastic pipes. Organic
chemicals, especially solvents and gasoline, will weaken PVC pipes, causing the pipe to
expand and rupture. The operator in charge of ditching should be alert for any unusual
odor when removing soil during the construction of the distribution system. The odor
may be a sign of a chemical spill, which may remain in the soil for many years and
weaken PVC pipes.
Gasoline and diesel can pass through the walls of polyethylene pipes even when the water
inside is under high pressure. For this reason, plastic pipes should never be installed in
the vicinity of gas stations. Instead, ductile iron and copper pipes are recommended for
service lines in the vicinity of gas stations
Construction of Main Extensions
• What process is used to install new main extensions?
Financing
As the demand for water in a community changes, new mains will have to be added to the
existing distribution system. In many cases, water main extensions are the consequence
of political rather than economic factors. Extensions should instead be based on business
principles. Extensions spurred by politics will probably result in increased rates for all
consumers.
The policies concerning water main extensions should not differ appreciably whether the
water works system is publicly or privately owned. Mains extensions should be
constructed so that sufficient water can be delivered to customers at an acceptable price
for the water works. The water works should consider the amount of revenue it expects
to obtain when deciding on the amount of money to invest in water mains to new
customers.
In 1949, the American Water Works Association conducted a study concerning main
extensions and agreed on the following principles:
• Extension policies should be non-discriminatory.
• Extension policies should be based upon business principles.
• Extension policies should ensure that the main extensions will be

self-supporting.
• Extensions should provide for customer participation in the

financing of extensions in areas where service is needed but
anticipated revenue is insufficient to warrant the utility making the
extension unassisted.
• Comprehensive rules should govern main extensions.
• Extension rules should be reviewed periodically.
Field Sketch
The first step in building a main extension is to produce a field sketch showing the
location of the new main. An engineer should be employed to plan all main extensions
so that minor main extensions fit into the overall plan. A good water works operator
should, prior to actually installing the main, make a field survey of each block. If
possible, a block section map should be prepared indicating the property lines and the
correct length of main to be laid. The map should also reflect information concerning
obstructions to be encountered on the route of the proposed main. The field sketch
should include the location of trees, shrubbery, embankments, fills, bridges, railroads,
and other obstructions. The high and low points should be included as well as the
approximate location for valves and hydrants.
When the data has been obtained, the operator should visit other utility companies and
secure the location of their underground structures for the field sketch. The construction
foreman or inspector can more easily install the main if all needed information is
available. A small job should not preclude necessary pre-field work prior to beginning
the job.
Pipe Bed
Once the location of the new main has been determined, the next step in construction is to
excavate the ditch. This ditch, also known as a pipe bed, will vary depending on the type
of soil.
The primary concern when excavating the pipe bed is that the pipe be well cushioned by
soft, loose dirt. Otherwise, the flow of water through the pipe will cause vibrations
within the pipe which will in turn lead to leaking and pipe failure. In addition, surge
pressure in the form of shock waves can cause the pipe to move in its bed. Any sharp,
hard object next to the pipe will eventually cause a break or hole to occur.
Clay or sandy soils cause little concern since the trenching equipment will normally leave
enough loose dirt in the ditch to cushion the pipe. If a pipe bed is being built in shale or
rock, 4 to 6 inches of soft dirt should be spread in the bottom of the ditch.
Cinders will cause problems if allowed to come in contact with the pipe. If a main is
being laid through a cinder fill, the cinder material should be removed and fresh earth
should be used to fill in around the pipe so that no cinders will come in contact with the
pipe. In some cases, the pipe should be wrapped in polyethylene for additional
protection.
Cleaning
While laying new pipe, extreme care should be taken to prevent any dirt or other foreign
matter from entering the pipe. The pipe can be cleaned before installation using a
circular bristle brush attached to a 1 inch pipe for a handle. The brush should be slightly
larger than the diameter of the inside of the pipe. The brush is passed through the pipe
several times before lowering the pipe into the ditch in order to clean out any foreign
matter which might be stuck to the inside of the pipe.
Fire Hydrants and Bends
In most extensions, there are fire hydrants to be installed. Loose, crushed rock or gravel
should be placed around the shoe of the hydrant for drainage purposes.
Both fire hydrants and bends in mains are subject to movement in the ground. Fire
hydrants should be strapped securely and all pipes prone to wiggling should be
thoroughly braced with rock or concrete blocking. This blocking should be designed to
withstand the calculated thrust (movement) of the pipe. The size of the blocking should
also depend on the type of soil through which the main is being laid
Sanitation
• What measures should be taken to ensure proper sanitation in the

distribution system?
Cross-connections
Sanitation is an important factor to consider when constructing and maintaining a

distribution system. Unsanitary water can result from cross-connections, from placing
water and sewage lines in the same ditch, and from new extensions which were not
properly
cleaned and disinfected before use.
Cross-connections are connections which join or link a potable water source with a
source of questionable or unsafe water. The connections allow the unsafe water to mix
with the potable water and can be a serious health hazard. Cross-connections should be
prevented wherever possible and eliminated when found.
Cross-connections can be divided into two types: direct cross-connections and conditions
allowing back-siphonage. A direct cross-connection occurs when water from a high
pressure source forces its way directly into the public supply mains. This type of cross-
connection may occur when a large main breaks and water from the surrounding soil
forces its way into the pipe. Direct cross-connections also occur when a large amount of
water is used for fire fighting or some other purpose. When so much water is used, the
pressure of the water in the pipes drops and water outside the pipe may force its way in.
The illustration in the section on Pressure is an example of a direct cross-connection.
Back-siphonage is the other type of cross-connection which can contaminate distribution
systems. In every water system, the distribution system connects into houses' plumbing
systems, tanks, and other fixtures. The private plumbing systems may contain
contaminated water. If these connections are not made properly, negative pressures in
the water lines may suck contaminated water from the private plumbing systems back
into the public water lines. All community systems are required to adopt a cross-
connection control policy to prevent contamination in this manner.
Liquid Chlorine Disinfection
The disinfecting of newly laid mains is probably the most poorly practiced water works
operation. Too many times the operator installs from 500 to 1,000 feet of various size
pipe and places it into service without obtaining a satisfactory laboratory report.
According to accepted procedure by the American Water Works Association, there are
several methods of disinfecting newly laid mains. The ideal method is the application of
a liquid (gas) chlorine and water mixture.
When disinfecting a pipe using chlorine, the pipe is first flushed with water at a velocity
of at least 2.5 feet per second. This will remove any foreign material in the pipe.
Once the pipe has been flushed clean, chlorine is fed at the beginning of the water filled
main. A portable chlorinator, hypochlorinator, or water jet is necessary to inject the
chlorine solution into the main.
As chlorine is injected into one end of the main, water is slowly withdrawn and sampled
from the other end of the pipe. Once the chlorine residual dose at the far end of the pipe
reaches at least 50 parts per million, chlorine feed can be stopped. The chlorine in the
pipe has reached a high enough concentration to kill any disease-causing organisms.
After stopping the chlorine feed, the main should be allowed to stand for at least 24 hours
to give the chlorine time to act. Then the main is thoroughly flushed out and a water
sample is collected from the pipe. This sample is sent to the nearest state laboratory for
bacteriological examination. If the water does not meet the accepted standard, then the
procedure must be repeated until the desired potable water is obtained.
HTH Tablets
Calcium hypochlorite (HTH) tablets can also be used to disinfect mains. This type of
disinfection is most convenient for small jobs. The manufacturer of the tablets will
furnish, upon request, the size and number of tablets to use for various sizes and lengths
of pipe.
When sterilizing a new main using HTH tablets, the tablets are fastened to the top of the
inside of every length of pipe as it is laid. First the area of attachment on the pipe is
wiped to remove any trace of dust, then an adhesive is used to glue the tablets to the pipe.
Hot tar is the most frequently used adhesive, but permatex can be used when hot tar is
not available. When adhering the tablet to the pipe, care should be taken to see that the
adhesive does not cover the edges or exposed face of the tablet to ensure that the water
can come in contact with as much of the tablet as possible.
As the main is filled with water, the tablets remain stuck to the surface of the pipe. The
HTH tablets dissolve slowly over time, releasing an even distribution of the chlorine
material into the water. The chlorine disinfects the water just as it would have if fed into
the pipe as a liquid.
Fairly good disinfection can be achieved by the much simpler method of simply throwing
a handful of granular HTH into each joint of pipe as it is installed. If the main is filled
with water relatively slowly after being completed, the crystals will dissolve in the water.
However, when using this method, the water carries the HTH crystals along with the flow
of the water. The end of the main ends up with a high concentration of HTH while the
beginning has a relatively small dosage. But new mains cleaned using this method will
often meet the required health standards and the main can be placed into service
Leakage
• How are pipes tested for leakage?

• How can leaks be prevented?
Initial Testing
Once a new main is laid in the ground, it should be adequately tested before being
covered. The pipe is filled with high pressure water to determine whether there are any
leaks in the pipe.
When testing the pipe, the new main is first filled slowly with water. Open fire hydrants
and air relief valves at high points along the main allow air to escape from the pipe as the
pipe fills with water.
Once air stops escaping from the main, the pipe is full of water. Now the valve or valves
between the new main and the old system are closed.
The next step is to build up pressure in the new main. This pressure should be at least 50
pounds greater than the normal operating pressure of the pipe. In small mains or small
sections of large mains, an auxiliary pump is used to build up pressure. In large, long
mains, a fire pump can be used to build up pressure. The pressure on the pipe will cause
water to leak out of any weak spots in the pipe.
The amount of leakage from the pipe can be measured by calculating the amount of water
used to fill the pipe and the amount of water left in the pipe after the main is put under
pressure. The difference in these two values is the amount of water which leaked out of
the pipe. When pipes are laid in 12 foot lengths, leakage in new mains should be less
than 25 gallons per inch of nominal diameter each 24 hours for every mile of pipe. So, if
a 6 inch main is 1 mile long, it should leak less than 150 gallons per day. Pipes which are
laid in 16 foot lengths are expected to leak even less, only 10 gallons per inch of nominal
diameter per 24 hours per mile.
Unaccounted For Water
Practically all distribution systems have some leakage, also known as "unaccounted for
water." Low percentages of unaccounted for water are to be expected, but percentages in
excess of 15% should be considered unacceptable. When the operator is able to account
for 90% of the water pumped into the system, it is considered a tight system.
The percentage of unaccounted for water should be monitored. If the percentage is too
high, or if there is a sudden increase in the percentage, then leaks should be found and
repaired. There are organizations which can be hired to perform leak survey studies. The
savings resulting from the stoppage of leaks as a result of such a survey are often high
enough to pay for the cost of the survey.
Common Causes of Leakage
Leaks in the distribution system are often the result of deteriorating fittings or frozen
pipes.
A new service line may be built using an existing meter. The service line is often
attached to the meter using fittings such as 90-degree elbows. The fittings may either be
compression fittings or glued fittings. In either case, leaks can develop. Grit may get
under the neoprene ring of the compression coupling or the glue may not have reached
full strength before it is stressed. The small leak caused by either of these situations
allows water to flow out into the surrounding soil, making the soil saturated and soft. As
the water flows through the leak, the pipe wall is slowly eroded away. Leaking fittings
can be prevented by building service lines in straight lines or by installing thrust blocks
around the elbows.
Freezing can also cause leaks in pipes. Pipes can freeze if they are placed in the ground
under two feet or less of soil or under five feet or less of rock. If pipes have to be
installed where freezing is possible, a 12 inch sleeve should be placed on top of the footer
to prevent differential cracking. Styrofoam and fiberglass insulation are often placed on
top of water lines to keep the lines from freezing.
Valves, Joints, Hydrants, and Meters
• What factors need to be considered regarding valves, joints, fire

hydrants, and water meters in the distribution system?
Introduction
Up to this point, we have primarily been concerned with the pipes which make up the
distribution system. But valves, joints, fire hydrants, water meters, and storage tanks are
also important parts of the system. In this section, we will consider the first four devices.
Storage tanks will be considered in the next section.
Valves
A valve is a device attached to a pipe which allows the flow of water to be turned off or
on. When a sufficient number of valves are properly located within a distribution system,
they ensure that no single break or repair, except in the main arteries, will necessitate
shutting off more than 500 feet of main in high value areas or 800 to 1,000 feet in other
sections.
The valves in a distribution system should be properly referenced so that they can be
quickly located when needed. In order to keep them in working order, all valves should
be inspected yearly and large ones should be inspected even more frequently.
Joints
Joints are used to attach pipes together as well as to attach pipes to other devices. There
are two types of joints in current use - the slip on joint and the mechanical joint. Older
joints, such as leaded joints and braided hemp joints, are no longer used.
The most commonly used type of joint is the "slip on" joint which speeds installation
time, reduces costs, and results in fewer leaks than do older joints. Mechanical joints are
often used in connecting pipes to fire hydrants or valves, in bridge crossings, and
sometimes
in distribution piping.
Fire Hydrants
When a distribution system includes fire hydrants, the spacing of the hydrants is dictated
by the American Insurance Association. As with valves, records should be kept of each
fire hydrant's location, make, and size. In addition, records should include information
on the number of turns required to close the hydrant and whether the thread is right- or
left-handed. Fire hydrants should be inspected at least twice per year and a complete
record should be kept of all maintenance. In some cities, it is the responsibility of the fire
department to check, test, maintain, and paint the fire hydrants.
Fire hydrants must be well painted both to present a good appearance and for protection.
The color of each hydrant corresponds to the flow rate as follows:
light blue > 1,500 gpm

green 1,000 - 1,499 gpm
orange 500 - 999 gpm
red 500 gpm
Flow rates can also be determined by removing the cap and feeling inside the orifice for
specific shapes. These shapes indicate the roughness factor and can be used to derive the
flow rates. It is important to use the shapes to double check the flow rate since fire
hydrants can be painted incorrectly.
In addition to their use for fire control, hydrants can be used to flush water out of stagnant
portions of the distribution system. This maintains good circulation and can eliminate
discolored water problems.
Water Meters
The operation of a public water supply is a large, important business. Water meters are
essential in order to determine how much water is produced by the treatment plant and
how much water is consumed by each customer.
By using meters to record the demand for water, a public water supply can produce the
appropriate amount of water and operate efficiently. Meters can also help determine
when there is a leak or break in the distribution system.
Since meters record the amount of water each customer uses, the water works can bill
according to usage. In addition, the meter makes the customer water conscious and acts
as a deterrent against unnecessary waste. When a system is operated without meters,
about twice as much water will be used by the customers.
Water meters in the distribution system can be divided into two categories - main line
meters and customer meters. The main line meters monitor the amount of water flowing
through the mains while customer meters monitor the amount of water used by each
customer.
There are four types of main line meters: venturi, orifice, velocity, and plot tube. For this
class, you will not need to differentiate between the types of main line meters.
There are three types of customer meters: positive displacement, compound, and fire
line. Positive displacement meters are capable of measuring small flows of water with
high accuracy. The positive displacement meter works by counting the number of times
a chamber is filled and emptied as water flows through the meter. Though accurate,
positive displacement meters will fail if there are sediments or loose scale in the water.
When compared with a compound meter, a relatively small percentage increase above the
rated flow of water will ruin a positive displacement meter.
Compound meters are a combination of the displacement meter and the current meter. At
low flow rates, compound meters work like a displacement meter, filling a chamber with
water and then emptying it out. When the flow rate reaches a predetermined point, the
compound meter changes and begins to operate like a current meter. A current meter
measures the velocity with which water passes through a known area. By acting as a
displacement meter at low flows and as a current meter at high flows, the compound
meter is very accurate but is not broken by large quantities of water.
The third type of meter, the fire line meter, is a special kind of compound meter.
Storage Facilities
• What is the purpose of a storage facility?

• How are storage facilities chosen, located, and maintained?
Purpose of Storage Facilities
Storage facilities in a water supply distribution system are required primarily to deal with
fluctuating demands of water usage. Water is pumped into the storage tank during
periods of low demand, such as at night. During the daily peak of water usage, which
usually occurs during short periods of the late afternoon or early evening, water is
pumped out of the storage tank and into the mains to maintain water pressure. A full
storage reservoir can be
depended upon to furnish part of the peak demand, when it occurs, by automatically
feeding some of the stored surplus water into the main when the main pressure begins to
drop.
A water system should be able to store at least one day's demand of water. It is best to
determine the average daily demand during a high demand month such as July or August.
The monthly demand can then be divided by 30 or 31 to determine the daily demand. In
one water system, the demand was 16,000,000 gallons of water during the month of July.
So the system decided on a storage tank with a minimum volume of 516,129 gallons.
(That is, 16,000,000 divided by 31.)
Types of Storage Facilities
The location and type of distribution storage facilities will depend on local conditions.
Every community or area to be served will require a different sort of storage facility.
Industrial and high value areas will require more elevated storage than low value
districts.
We will consider three types of elevated storage facilities in this section: standpipes,
elevated tanks, and ground level storage at high elevation. Standpipes, like the one
shown below, are large vertical pipes which are completely filled with water.
Standpipes are essentially very tall ground storage tanks. A standpipe may hold a large
volume of water, but unless it is located at a high elevation, only the water at the very top
of the standpipe may be used. In a typical standpipe, less than half of the water in the
standpipe is usable if the pressure in the system is to be maintained. For this reason,
standpipes are the least desirable of the elevated storage facilities.
Elevated tanks are raised above the ground on one or more supporting legs. Elevated
tank and ground level storage tanks located at high elevation are recommended over
standpipes because all of the water in these tanks can be used. The high elevation of the
tank puts the water under pressure.
In general, elevated storage tanks are recommended over ground storage tanks. Elevated
storage tanks allow a great deal of water to be stored for peak demand periods, reducing
the number of wells required to supply an adequate quantity of water. Transmission
mains associated with elevated tanks can be smaller and high lift pump equipment can
have a smaller capacity. The elevated tank will supply better and more uniform pressure
than that supplied by a ground tank. During interruptions of power supply or failure of
equipment, water from an elevated storage tank can still be used since only gravity is
required to carry the water from the storage tank into the mains.
Location of Elevated Storage Tanks
Elevated storage tanks should be located on the highest ground level available in or near
the area to be served. The cost of securing and reaching the various available sites should
also be taken into account.
When possible, storage tanks should be located beyond the center of consumption, as
shown above. When located in this manner, the piping between the tank and the water
source is used both as a transmission line and as part of the distribution system.
Mains leading to and from the storage facilities should be large enough to handle the
maximum emptying and filling rates of the tank. If the mains are too small, then the
value of the storage tank is reduced since it cannot be efficiently filled and the water in it
cannot be efficiently moved to the distribution system.
To get the most benefit from a storage tank, control mechanisms should be arranged so
that the tank is kept as full as possible at all times. The cost of these control mechanisms
is relatively low compared to the cost to the water system if the tank is not kept properly
full. A level recording device at the storage tank can transmit information to a central
point, preferably to the pumping station, so that the level of water in the tank can be
monitored.
Tank Maintenance
As with any other aspect of the distribution system, proper maintenance of storage
facilities is essential. Tank maintenance can be expensive and must be properly justified
to municipal decision-makers. When suggested maintenance is not obvious or seems to
be too expensive, experts can be consulted for second opinions.
An experienced, unbiased inspector can be obtained from a tank construction company.

The inspector is needed for only one day, so the cost for his services is a relatively small
price to pay to know whether the major work recommended is needed.
Summary
The distribution system carries water from the treatment plant to the consumers. The
system is also used for fire
When designing a distribution system, it is essential to consult an engineer and to

consider the future growth of the community to be served. Consideration must be given
to the expected water pressure in the pipes, to the quantity of water required, and to the
diameter and material of the pipes. Other components of the distribution system include
valves, hydrants, meters, joints, and storage tanks.
The first step when constructing all or part of a distribution system is to make a field
sketch. Then the pipe bed is made and the pipe is cleaned and laid in place. Before being
used, the new pipe line must be sanitized and checked for leaks.
Once in place, the disribution system requires continual maintenace. Potential problems
include: pipe deterioration; leaks and breaks in the pipes; contamination of the water due
to low pressure causing direct cross-connections, to back-siphonage, and to gasoline
passing through the walls of polyethylene pipes.
The distribution system is a business venture and economics must be considered when
planning water main extensions and other expensive changes.
Assignment
1. Your distribution system stores its water in an elevated water

tank. The water level in the tank is 190 feet above the ground.
Water from the tank flows into a main at ground level. What is the
water pressure in the main near the tank?
2. What type of pipes do you think are used in the distribution system
in your neighborhood? Name likely pipe diameters, pressure
ratings, and pipe material for mains and service lines. Start out by
walking through your neighborhood - Are there fire hydrants? Are
large quantities of water required for any other purpose? Is there a
nearby gas station? Do you think the pipes in your neighborhood
are old or new? What other information would help you determine
the best type of pipe to use in your neighborhood?
3. You have installed a new main in your distribution system using

16 inch lengths of 6 inch pipe. The main is one mile long. You
test the main by filling it up with high pressure water and allowing
it to stand for twelve hours. After twelve hours, 60 gallons of
water have leaked out of the main. Is this an acceptable amount of
water or should you search for a leak?
4. A rural family's water was piped from a boxed-in spring and into
their house. When treated water from a nearby city became
available in the area, the family requested that their house be
hooked up to the city water. The family wanted to continue to use
the spring water and to turn on the city water only when the spring
went dry during droughts. Give two reasons why the water works
might refuse the family's request.
5. Locate your community's water storage facility. Why do you think

it is located where it is?
Lesson 9:
Water Tank Design and Maintenance
Types of Water Tanks
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of ground tanks?

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of elevated tanks?
Introduction
As explained in Lesson 8, storage tanks are an important part of any distribution system.
Water can be pumped into the tank during periods of low demand and then pumped out
of the tank into the distribution system during periods of peak demand. In addition,
storage tanks can provide the water pressure in the distribution system.
The two types of storage tanks are ground level tanks and elevated tanks. Elevated
storage facilities are also divided into two types - standpipes and tanks. In this section,
we will consider the pros and cons of various types of water tanks.
Ground Tanks
In the last lesson, we considered the merits of elevated storage tanks. However, in many
cases, water is stored in reservoirs located at ground level due to a lower initial cost of
construction, a lower maintenance cost, the ease with which water quality can be tested,
greater safety, and a greater aesthetic value.
The primary disadvantage of a ground tank is a lack of water pressure. The water in
ground tanks is not put under a significant amount of pressure unless the tank is located at
a high elevation, such as on top of a hill. Any pressure in a ground tank must be
maintained through directly pumping the water. The continuous pumping can be costly
and also means that water pressure in the distribution system will drop if the pumps have
to be shut down.
Elevated Tanks
As mentioned in Lesson 8, elevated tanks have many advantages. Elevated tanks do not
require the continuous operation of pumps. Short term pump shutdown does not affect
water pressure in the distribution system since the pressure is maintained by gravity. And
strategic location of the tank can equalize water pressures in the distribution system.
However, precise water pressure can be difficult to manage in some elevated tanks.
The pressure of the water flowing out of an elevated tank depends on the depth of the
water in the tank. A nearly empty tank probably will not provide enough pressure while
a completely full tank may provide too much pressure. The optimal pressure is achieved
at only one depth.
The optimal depth of water for the purpose of producing pressure is even more specific
for standpipes than for tanks elevated on legs. The length of the standpipe causes
continual and highly unequal pressures on the distribution system. In addition, a
significant quantity of the water in a standpipe is required to produce the necessary water
pressure. The water below a certain level is therefore used only as a support, unless
booster pumps are available for emergency use of this water.
Tank Design
• What factors should be considered when designing a water tank?
Many factors must be considered when designing a water tank. The structural stability of
the tank, the type and design of other equipment for operation, and the location of the
tank must be considered in all cases. When designing an elevated tank, the required
elevation and the size and shape of structural members (legs, etc.) must also be taken into
account.
Capacity, or the volume of water which a tank can hold, is one of the most important
design factors. The capacity can be determined through an analysis known as a "mass
diagram" or through a graphical solution based on a study of hourly pumping. The
graphical solution takes into account the peak water demand for one hour each day.
Based on this peak hourly demand, a rate of demand can be calculated. The required
capacity of the water tank will, in turn, depend on the calculated rate of demand and on
an estimate of the future population of the area.
Corrosion Control
• What is corrosion?
• What methods are used to prevent corrosion in water tanks?
Corrosion
Corrosion is another word for rust, the breakdown of metal. In a water tank, corrosion is
due to an electrochemical reaction. An electrical current flows through the water from
one point on the water tank's inner surface to another. The flow of the current results in
corrosion of the tank's surface as some of the metal dissolves into the water. An ampere
of current flow in a water tank over a year's time can result in 20 to 24 pounds of steel
being taken into solution.
A corroding water tank works in the same way as a battery. A battery has an anode and a
cathode. The anode is an area which gives off electrons (negatively charged particles
which make up a current.) The electrons flow from the negatively charged anode (-) to
the positively charged cathode (+). In order to flow from the anode to the cathode,
electrons must pass through what is called a closure circuit or an electrolyte, a substance
which forms a bridge between the anode and cathode.
In a water tank, the steel wall of the tank is the anode. It gives off electrons which flow
into the water. The water is the cathode and the surface of the tank is the closure circuit
which connects the anode and cathode. As the electrons flow out of the steel wall of the
tank, the tank corrodes. Over time, this corrosion can discolor the water and can result in
leaks in the tank wall.
Corrosion of a tank is prevented in two ways. The inner wall of the tank can be coated
with paint, which forms a physical barrier between cathode and anode and prevents the
electrons from moving out of the steel wall. Corrosion can also be prevented by cathodic
protection which introduces electrical currents from external sources to counteract the
normal corrosion reactions. Both methods of corrosion control will be explained below.
Coatings
The most common method of corrosion control is coating the tank wall with paint. The
coating of paint forms a physical barrier between the tank wall and the water. As a result,
electrons cannot flow from the tank wall into the water and the tank wall does not
corrode.
Coatings will perform well in the majority of atmospheres. However, the coating should
match the design of the facility in type and application and should be properly inspected.
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) has standard specifications for
maintenance and painting of storage facilities, including a list of coatings for interior and
exterior surfaces.
The coating must be repaired at regular intervals as part of the regular maintenance of the
tank. Coatings fail when the protective barrier is broken or when the dielectric strength is
not sufficient to withstand the electrical-driving force of the corrosion cell.
Breaks may be caused by a variety of circumstances. The paint may be too thin or may
have degraded through proximity to the environment. The coating may be porous and
may not form a complete barrier. Or the paint may have been applied incompletely or
improperly. If the surface was not properly cleaned before applying the paint, then
breaks will occur since the paint will not adhere well to contaminated surfaces or to
blisters. The procedure used to repair breaks in the coating will br discussed later in the
section on maintenance.
Cathodic Protection
The other type of protection from corrosion, cathodic protection, has been in use since the
mid-1930s. Cathodic protection systems now protect hundreds of thousands of miles of
pipe and acres of steel buried in the ground or immersed in water.
Since the first cathodic protection system was invented, fully automatic and error-free
cathodic protection systems have been developed. These systems both control corrosion
and increase the life of the coating systems. The modern, automatic systems do not
require the operator to adjust the system for changing conditions, such as varying water
levels, temperature, and coating effectiveness. Instead, the automatic system will
automatically compensate for these changes.
A cathodic protection system consists of a power unit, an anode, and wiring between the
power unit and anode and between the tank wall and the power unit, as shown above.
The power unit is a direct current source, meaning that it converts electricity from
alternating current to direct current, producing a continuous flow of electrons. The
electrons are fed along a wire to an anode in the water tank. The anode disperses the
electrons into the water, changing the potential of the water from positive to negative.
Since the water now has a negative potential, just like the metal of the tank walls,
electrons do not flow out of the tank walls into the water. Instead, the electrons from the
water flow into the tank walls and then along a wire back to the power source,
completing the circuit.
In essence, the cathodic protection system has created a new corrosion battery. With the
addition of the anode attached to the power source, the tank walls have become cathodes
which take up, rather than lose, electrons. If the cathodic protection system is properly
controlled, the surface of the tank will remain corrosion-free. Corrosion occurs only in
the new anode, which is easily replaceable and relatively inexpensive.
Commonly used materials for the anodes in the cathodic protection system are cast iron
alloyed with 14.5% silicon, aluminum and platinum wire, and ribbon forms. When water
tanks are not prone to freezing, cast iron and other long-life anodes are most commonly
used.
As with most other components of water systems, many factors must be considered when
deciding on a cathodic protection system. The dimensions of the structure to be protected,
the coating, and the water characteristics all factor into the type of system to be used. The
manufacturer's representative will consider these factors and choose a system which will
achieve full corrosion control without providing costly over-protection. A reliable
company should be used which specializes in cathodic protection and which has a service
organization within one day's travel time of the tank's location. When buying a cathodic
protection system, a service agreement should also be considered.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Cathodic protection systems are an economic alternative to periodic repainting and the
associated downtime for repair. The systems are being used quite extensively and have
proved to be dependable when appropriately sized, installed, and maintained.
However, cathodic protection systems will only protect the area of the tank interior where
the water comes in direct contact with the metal tank wall. The area of the tank above the
water line will not be protected and can still corrode. In addition, the bottom of tanks are
usually covered with silt, debris, and sand of varying depths. The tank bottom below this
debris covering will not be protected unless the covering is removed before installing the
cathodic protection system.
Coatings and cathodic protection have often stood on opposite sides of a fence as
exclusive and opposing approaches to corrosion protection. Proponents of coatings often
discount the advantages of cathodic protection and claim that a good, well-applied
coating is the only necessary protection for steel. On the other hand, proponents of
cathodic protection systems claim that any immersed or buried metal structure can best
be protected by a well-engineered cathodic protection installation. Under many
conditions, both sides may be correct in their assertions. However, under many more
commonly occurring conditions, the ideal corrosion protection is actually a combination
of both protection concepts
Maintenance
• Why should water tanks be maintained?

• What does the process of tank maintenance involve?
Purpose of Tank Maintenance

Every water tank must be periodically maintained in order to ensure long life of the tank
and quality water within the tank. Some tanks, such as the reinforced concrete tanks
often used for ground level or standpipe reservoirs, have lower maintenance costs over
the life of the structure when compared with steel tanks. But all types of tanks require at
least some maintenance.
Maintenance can be considered a cost-saving measure. Periodic maintenance is usually

much cheaper than the large repairs which will be necessary in un-maintained tanks. The
cost of inspection is an insurance policy against premature failure of the tank.
The tank's paint coating requires the most maintenance since it must be replaced
periodically. When the coating is not well maintained, the tank will have to be repaired.
Repair will usually cost two and a half times more than the cost of the original coating.
In addition to the financial cost associated with replacing badly maintained coats of paint,
the coatings applied on such surfaces are usually lower in quality due to adverse
application conditions. Seventy five percent of all coating failures are attributable to
deficient surface preparation or to improper application of the paint. These failures lead
to downtimes during which the tank cannot be used while it is being repaired. The
downtime and loss of facility production can lead to potentially staggering costs.
Formal coating inspections and the associated maintenance will vastly increase the
probability of achieving a successful coat application that will protect for the design life
of the system. They will prevent costly repairs and are financially responsible in the long
run.
Maintenance Inspection
Tanks must be inspected at intervals as the first step of the maintenance procedure. The
purpose of the inspection is to determine if repairs are required and, if so, the exact nature
and extent of the work required. Inspection of water tanks is expensive, but the cost is
insignificant compared to the cost of premature failure of the tank.
A thorough inspection must be performed every two or three years on the entire structure.
Some facilities choose to have annual inspections, as will be discussed later in this
section. In addition, inspections should be performed during the construction of new
water tanks and during any repair, painting, and disinfection.
In many cases, inspection is considered to be a non-essential part of the maintenance

process. Inspectors are often hired only after there has been a costly premature failure in
the tank coating.
In other cases, initial planning for coating jobs includes qualified coat inspections, but the
inspection contract is dropped as a cost-saving measure. The firm contracted to apply the
coating then monitors itself or the tank owner's personnel schedule spot inspections. This
inspection technique usually results in improperly applied coatings which will result in
tank failure.
Inspection should be considered a mandatory part of the maintenance procedure and

should be conducted by an independent expert who will receive no benefit from any
maintenance performed on the tank. In other words, if a tank is inspected by a painting
contractor or a paint manufacturer, then the inspector will probably schedule more
repaintings since he will benefit financially from each paint job. Such inspectors are not
independent and should not be hired to perform inspections.
The inspector should be well trained by a qualified organization. A professional engineer

(see the American Water Works Association Standard D 101) will be able to evaluate the
structure, the grouting, the welds, the formulations, the structural alignment, the paint
conditions (inside and out), the leakage, the rod adjustment, any settling, and successfully
complete a corrosion evaluation in accordance with D 101. The AWWA Standard:
Painting Steel Water Storage Tanks includes a brief section on inspection which should
be followed but which is not adequate as a basis for the entire inspection.
The inspector should outline specific maintenance needed to restore the structure. This
inspection should be the basis for all maintenance of the structure - only maintenance
required by the inspector should be performed. In addition, a complete record of
inspections and maintenance should be kept.
Following the proper guidelines and selecting a qualified engineer to perform regular
inspections will help avoid serious maintenance problems in the future.
Preparing for Maintenance
Inspections determine the need for maintenance. Then the tank must be dewatered and
the surface prepared for maintenance.
The first step during many maintenance procedures is to drain all of the water out of the
tank. Before dewatering any potable water storage vessel, notice should be given to the
state's Department of Environmental Management to allow time for any problems to be
resolved by state and local officials. Insurance carriers should also be notified before
dewatering and inspection occurs.
Next the structure must be prepared for maintenance. This preparation is a very
important part of the process. If preparation is poor, the maintenance job will be poor.
The interior and exterior surfaces must be cleaned of all rust scale, paint scale, blisters,
rust, dirt, and growths. This cleaning can be achieved through any of several methods -
using wire scrapers, sand blasting, flame cleaning, and so on.
After cleaning the surface, loose rivets must be replaced and damaged seams must be
welded.
Painting
To prevent rust, painting should begin as soon as possible after the structure is cleaned
and repaired. A coat of rust-inhibitive primer should be painted on all bare surfaces first.
If the surface preparation resulted in an extensive removal of old paint, then the primer
coat should cover the entire surface.
A protective coating should be applied on top of the primer coat. This protective coating
is applied in a thickness ranging from five to fifteen thousandths of an inch and serves to
protect the tank surface from the environment.
The protective coating is composed of a vehicle containing solvents, resins, pigment and
inert ingredients. The pigments add color, but may also perform a variety of other
functions. The pigments may provide resistance to the sun's ultraviolet light and may
enhance the physical properties of the paint and the gloss.
Curing
The tank must be allowed to dry, or to cure, before being refilled with water and put back
into service. The paint on the inside of the tank may take longer to cure, especially
during the winter. Some types of paint, such as high build epoxies, will be problematic if
applied during the winter. Instead, high solid vinyl should be used during these months
since they will cure more reliably.
Sterilization
If a tank has been emptied for inspection, cleaning, painting, or for any other purpose, the
tank must be thoroughly sterilized before being put back into service. Outside demands
should never be allowed to force a tank back into service before it is properly cured and
disinfected.
The structure should be thoroughly disinfected and chlorinated in accordance with

Plumbing Codes before being used again. Bacteriological samples must be taken and
approved and a copy of the report must be sent to the Health Department.
A suggested method for sterilizing a tank is explained below:

1. Fill the tank 1/2 to 3/4 of the way full of water.
2. Mix the disinfectant into about ten gallons of water and pour into
the tank. The amount of disinfectant to be added will depend on
the capacity of the tank. You should add 12 pounds of HTH or
Perchloron or 10 gallons of 10% sodium hypochlorite for each
20,000 gallons of water that the tank will hold. So, if you are
disinfecting a 75,000 gallon tank, you can either add 45 pounds of
HTH, 45 pounds of Perchloron, or 37.5 gallons of sodium
hypochlorite.
3. Completely fill the tank with water. This will evenly mix the
disinfectant into the water.
4. Permit the tank to stand for 24 hours if possible, but for no less
than 6 hours.
An alternative method may be used by experienced personnel:
1. Wash down all surfaces thoroughly.
2. Spray the bottom, side-walls, and top with a hypochlorite solution

containing at least 200 ppm of chlorine. The person in the tank
must take special precautions. He or she must wear an effective gas
mask and must be roped to an attendant on the outside of the tank.
3. Fill the tank and collect samples for bacteriological analysis.
Annual Maintenance Service

Annual maintenance service contracts are an alternative to hiring an inspector to
periodically inspect a water tank and recommend maintenance. Under this type of plan, a
company is hired to clean the tank once a year, inspect the tank, and make all necessary
repairs including painting, if necessary. In most plants, the entire tank is thoroughly
cleaned and given a coat of paint every fifth year.
Annual maintenance service contracts have become popular in municipalities with tanks
and towers with capacities of less than 250,000 gallons. The company hired will often
require that their own company restores the tank before entering into a contract for annual
maintenance service. Then the company agrees to inspect and maintain the tank yearly
for a set length of time, often for twenty years. Due to municipal changes, some
companies will allow a municipality the right to cancel or renew the contract on a yearly
basis on the anniversary date.
Since the maintenance company will be given exclusive responsibility for the upkeep of
the tank, great care should be taken in selecting such a company. The company must
conduct work with integrity, honesty, and professionalism. In addition, Comprehensive
Liability and Workmen's Compensation Insurance should be carried on each contract to
ensure performance of the maintenance work. The water works should also demand a
corporate bond, not an individual bond.
If an honest, reliable contractor is selected to perform the work, then annual maintenance
service contracts can be a good choice for the maintenance of water storage facilities.
Summary
Water tanks can be divided into two types - ground tanks and elevated storage tanks.
Each type of tank has advantages and disadvantages which should be considered when
planning a new facility. In addition, other factors such as structural stability, equipment
design, tank location, elevation, and capacity should all be taken into account.
Corrosion is a serious problem in water tanks. The metal walls break down due to an
electrochemical reaction. Electrons flow from the walls of the tank (the anode) into the
water (the cathode.) The third component of the corrosion battery is a closure circuit - a
surface linking the anode and cathode through which electrons can flow. A paint coating
protects against corrosion by forming a physical barrier between the anode and the
cathode. The other type of protection, cathodic protection, provides a replacement anode
so that the tank walls do not corrode. Each type of corrosion protection has advantages
and disadvantages when used singly, and they can also be used in combination.
Tank maintenance is essential to prevent costly tank failure. The tank should be inspected
by an independent inspector at least every two or three years. Some water works choose
to hire an annual maintenance service to perform yearly inspections and maintenance. In
either case, the inspector will determine what type of maintenance should be performed.
The first step during painting, a common maintenance procedure, is to empty the tank and
clean the tank surface. Next, a primer coat should be applied and then a protective coat.
Finally, the tank is cured and sterilized before being placed back into service.
Assignment
1. A water works is planning a new water storage facility but has not
yet decided what type of structure will be built. Two groups of
concerned citizens have contacted the water works and given
suggestions.
Group A wants to maintain the aesthetics of the neighborhood and

hopes that the new tank will not be obtrusive. They also mention
that the water works has little money available to construct an
expensive facility.
Group B reminds the water works that the town is prone to

episodes of power shutdown. They hope that the company will
choose the option which is more financially sound in the long run
despite a greater initial cost.
Which type of water storage facility do you think that each group
is recommending?
2. The batteries which you buy in the store have a positive and a
negative end. If you touch either the positive or the negative end,
you won't feel anything. But if you touch both the positive and the
negative end on a strong enough battery at the same time, then you
will get a shock. What aspect was missing when you only touched
one end of the battery? Why do you feel a shock when you touch
both ends?
3. This lesson mentioned two methods of protecting a water storage

tank from corrosion - coatings and cathodic protection. Can you
think of a third way that you could protect a water tank from
corrosion?
Hint: Read the first paragraph in the section entitled "Purpose of
Tank Maintenance."
Lesson 10:
Cross-Connection Control
Cross-Connections
• Why is it important to control cross-connections?

• What is back flow? Back pressure? Back siphonage?
The Danger of Cross-Connections
During the past 50 years, more than 150,000 people have contracted waterborne diseases.
These diseases have resulted in more than 400 deaths. Many of these disease outbreaks
are due to contamination of water within the distribution system.
The obvious cause of contamination of drinking water is polluted water at the source.
However, there are many other ways that water can become contaminated as the water
moves through the distribution system. Cross-connections at the customer's service
connection are seldom publicized but can be just as dangerous as a polluted water source.
Water suppliers are ultimately responsible for the prevention of all cross-connections. If
a person becomes ill due to contaminants back-flowing through a service connection, the
water supplier could still be liable. A supplier is committing an unlawful act if he installs
or maintains a service connection to a customer's water system without first surveying for
cross-connections and then controlling all current or potential cross-connections found.
This lesson explores the problems posed by these uncontrolled cross-connections and
explains how to implement an effective cross-connection control program.
Cross-Connections, Back Flow, Back Pressure and Back Siphonage
You will remember from Lesson 8 that a cross-connection is any connection through
which a non-potable (contaminated) fluid can flow into a potable (safe) water system.
Back-flow is the fluid which flows through the cross-connection and into a potable water
system. The back-flow can be gas, water, or any other material. When the back-flow is
some sort of contaminant, the cross-connection becomes dangerous.
Back-flow occurs when the pressure is greater in the non-potable water system than in the
potable water system. This imbalance can be the result of two different situations - back
pressure and back siphonage.
Back pressure is a situation in which the potable water system is under adequate pressure.
However, the pressure in the non-potable water system is greater. Back pressure may
occur when the non-potable water system is at a significantly higher elevation than the
potable water system. Alternatively, back pressure may be caused by a pump or other
type of pressure-producing equipment in the non-potable water system. In either case,
back pressure will result in back-flow of the non-potable water into the potable water
system.
Back siphonage occurs when there is a vacuum or partial vacuum in the potable water
system. The normal pressure in the non-potable water system is then greater than the
abnormally low pressure in the potable water system, so water back-flows. In this case,
the pressure which forces the water backwards through the system is the normal
atmospheric pressure exerted upon the water in the non-potable system.
Both back pressure and back siphonage can cause back-flow of contaminated water
through a cross-connection when the hydraulic gradient is favorable. Back-flow of a
contaminated fluid can result in the contamination of connected public and private
potable water systems.
Implementation of a Cross-Connection Control Program
• How is a cross-connection control policy implemented?
Objectives
A cross-connection control program is essential for every water system. The program's
goals are to protect, eliminate, and maintain.
The program protects the municipality's public potable water supply from the possibility
of contamination. Contaminants or pollutants which, under adverse conditions, could
back-flow through uncontrolled cross-connections into the public water system are
isolated within the customers' private water systems.
When possible, the program also eliminates cross-connections. These may be cross-
connections which exist between the customer's in-plant potable water systems and non-
potable water systems, plumbing fixtures, and industrial piping systems. If the cross-
connections cannot be eliminated, they are controlled. This part of the control program
applies both to actual and potential cross-connections.
Finally, the control program maintains a continued program of cross-connection control.

This maintenance program systematically and effectively controls actual or potential
cross-connections installed in the future. The program will not be successful unless it
includes a penalty for non-compliance.
Survey
The first step in the cross-connection control program is to survey each customer's
premises. The inspector makes a comprehensive survey in search of any actual or
potential cross-connections through which sewage, toxic chemicals, and other
contaminated fluids can flow. Inspectors also look for back-flow prevention devices
which are likely to be neglected and can result in failure to prevent back-flow.
A cross-connection
Photo Credit: VDH
The inspector should also consider what type of control would be most effective under
the circumstances. Permanent control at the point of cross-connection is one choice
while cross-connection control through containment is another.
The inspector must determine the degree of the hazard since the type of control chosen
should be proportional to the degree of the hazard. Then an appropriate type of control
should be decided on. We will consider the type of control most suited to various
circumstances in a later section.
Installation and Maintenance
Devices used to control cross-connections

Photo Credit: VDH
In the event that a back-flow prevention device is chosen to control a cross-connection,
the device must be approved by the water supplier or Building Code official and must be
installed by and at the expense of the customer. The device should be installed in an
accessible location.
The customer must test and service the device regularly in order to maintain it in
satisfactory operating condition. If the device becomes defective, the customer must then
overhaul or replace it.
Records of tests, repairs, and overhauling must be kept by the customer and made
available to the water supplier.
Responsibility
The responsibility for controlling cross-connections is shared between the building

inspector, the water supplier, the Health Department, and the customer. The building
inspector is responsible for inspecting plumbing for cross-connections and other
problems. The water supplier is responsible for protecting the public water system from
all possible contamination, including back-flow of contaminants. The customer is
responsible for maintaining the private water system free of cross-connections and in a
manner that will comply with all state and city laws, rules, and regulations. And the
Health Department has the overall responsibility of providing environmental health
protection to all citizens of the state. The following paragraphs are examples of these
basic responsibilities that may be found in local codes on cross-connections.
The building inspector's job is to inspect the plumbing of each building or premise,
ensuring that the plumbing is installed and maintained in such a manner that the
possibility of pollution to the potable water supply is prevented. In order to carry out his
duties, the inspector will inspect and re-inspect a building as frequently as is necessary.
He or she can enter any building during reasonable hours, although if the inspector is
entering a single family dwelling, the consent of a person of suitable age and discretion
within the building must be obtained prior to entry. If a building does not meet standards
within a reasonable amount of time, the inspector will notify the owner of the building.
Since many communities may not have a plumbing inspector or an adequate plumbing
code, the water supplier may have to take on these responsibilities.
The water supplier's responsibilities are much more broad. The supplier is ultimately
responsible for providing the public with safe and potable water. The supplier's
responsibility begins at the source, continues through the entire distribution system and
service connection, and ends at the point of delivery to the customer's premise. The
water supplier is prohibited from installing or maintaining an unprotected water service
connection to a customer's premise where an uncontrolled cross-connection, either actual
or potential, is maintained. In addition, the water supplier must exercise reasonable care
and vigilance to ensure that the consumer is safeguarding the public water system from
contamination. In the absence of a building inspector, the water supplier should conduct
periodic inspections of the customer's water systems. If an uncontrolled cross-connection
is found, then the supplier should require the customer, at the customer's expense, to
install an approved back-flow prevention device at each service connection to the
premises. The supplier must ensure that the customer tests the prevention device and
keeps the device in good repair.
The customer's primary responsibility is to prevent pollutants and contaminants from

entering the customer's or the public's potable water system. This responsibility begins at
the point of delivery from the public potable water system and includes all of the
customer's water system. The customer must install, operate, test, and maintain approved
back-flow prevention devices when necessary. If an accidental contamination of the
public or customer's water system occurs, then the customer must confine the
contamination, notify the local health officer and water supplier, and then remove the
contaminants from the system. The customer must also provide reasonable access for
Water Department representatives to all service connections, meters, back-flow
prevention devices, and other water service facilities.
A back flow prevention device

Photo Credit: VDH
The responsibilities of the Health Department are more broad in scope than those of any
of the other parties mentioned here. The Health Department oversees the public water
suppliers, making sure that they operate in such a manner that cross-connections are
addressed. The Health Department ensures that each water system has an effective
program in place to control cross-connections.
Methods of Control
• What are the three methods of cross-connection control?

• Which method is the most effective?
Three Methods of Control
Currently there are two accepted methods of controlling cross-connections: isolation and
containment. Chlorination is a third method of control, but it cannot be considered
effective.
Isolation Method
The isolation method is the most frequently used method of cross-connection control.
This method involves the installation of an air gap or a mechanical device at the point of
cross-connection or at each fixture. Once the air gap or mechanical device is installed,
any contamination is isolated within a small region and cannot become a health hazard.
An air gap is a vertical, physical separation between the end of a potable water supply
and the flood-level rim of a receiving vessel, as shown above. For example, consider a
laboratory in which toxic chemicals may be poured into a sink. As long as the rim of the
sink is some distance below the faucet, water cannot get sucked back up into the pipe and
contaminate the potable water supply.
However, air gaps can be easily bypassed. In one situation, a sink in a bacteriological
laboratory was contaminated with undulant fever bacteria. The drain became plugged up,
allowing the sink to fill with water. A length of rubber tubing had been added to the end
of the faucet in order to allow scientists to easily direct the out-flowing water. In this
case, the rubber tubing eliminated the air gap, extending the inflow pipe down into the
contaminated water in the sink. Low pressure in the water system caused water to back-
flow up through the hose and into the potable water supply. As a result, one person died
and eighty other people were infected with undulant fever.
A mechanical device can also be installed at the point of cross-connection as another type
of isolation control. However, the device can be removed or can become inoperative
because of improper maintenance or future plumbing arrangements. So neither air gaps
nor mechanical devices can be considered fool proof methods of cross-connection
control.
Containment Method
The containment method involves the installation of a back-flow prevention device at the
service connection. The device contains any contaminants within the non-potable portion
of an in-land water system or within each customer's water system.
From the public health standpoint, the containment method is the most effective way of
protecting the public water supply. Contaminants are unable flow from the customer's
water system into the public water system and only one device per service connection
needs to be monitored.
The containment method should always be used in the following circumstances:

If a service connection supplies water to premises with an auxiliary water supply
such as a spring or well. This type of service connection can only be left unprotected if
the water supplier accepts the auxiliary water supply as an additional source and the
Health Department approves the source, or if the auxiliary water supply is permanently
abandoned.
If a service connection supplies water to premises on which any substance may

create an actual or potential hazard to the public water system. This type of
premises includes hospitals, medical-dental buildings, mortuaries, and all waterfront
properties, including piers, docks, and waterfront industry. Potential hazards also include
systems handling industrial fluids, sewage, and storm water.
If a service connection supplies water to premises with internal cross-connections.

This type of service connection can be left unprotected if the cross-connections are
abated to the satisfaction of the water supplier and approved by the state or local Health
Department.
Two types of back-flow prevention devices are commonly used to contain contaminants
within such service connections - the double check valve assembly (D.C.A.) and the
reduced pressure principle back-flow prevention device (R.P.D.) Both the D.C.A. and
the R.P.D. use check valves to prevent water from flowing backwards through the pipes.
A check valve is a disc or flap that can be pushed open when water flows in the normal
direction, allowing water to flow through the pipe. But the check valve is loaded with a
spring and closes when water attempts to flow in the opposite direction through the pipe.
The D.C.A. is a relatively simple system which can be used to prevent a cross-connection
when the back-flow would not be hazardous to health. The D.C.A. consists of a shut-off
valve on either end and two check valves in the center. When water flows in the normal
direction, as shown above, the check valves are forced open by the flow of the water and
water passes through the D.C.A. without hindrance.
But when water attempts to flow in the opposite direction (to back-flow), as in the picture
above, the springs force the check valves closed. Most of the water is stopped by the first
closed check valve. Any water which forces its way through the first check valve will
then be stopped by the second check valve.
The R.P.D. is a slightly more complicated device. In addition to the shut-off valves on
either end of the assembly and the two spring-loaded check valves in the middle, the
R.P.D. contains a hydraulically operating, spring-loaded pressure differential relief valve
between the two check valves. This addition makes the R.P.D. suitable for cross-
connection control when the back-flow could create a danger to public health.
The pressure differential relief valve is a a valve which opens and closes in response to
differences in pressure on either side of the valve. There are two pipes leading to the
relief valve. If the water pressure is equal in both pipes, then the valve remains closed.
However, if the water pressure is greater in one pipe than in the other, the relief valve
opens and allows water to flow out into an outflow pipe. This is a way of channeling
water away from the cross-connection during high pressure back-flow so that the high
pressure does not break through the check valves and allow contaminated water into the
potable water system.
When the water flows through the R.P.D. in the normal direction, as shown above, water
forces the check valves open just as it does in a D.C.A. In addition, some water flows
down two small pipes which lead to either side of the pressure differential relief valve.
Since pressure is being applied equally to both sides of the valve, the relief valve remains
closed.
However, when water flows in the reverse direction through the R.P.D., the check valves
close, as shown above. If the back-flow pressure is great, some water will break through
the first check valve and flow toward the second. Some of this water will also flow
toward the relief valve from above. Since no water is flowing toward the other side of
the relief valve, the pressure on the valve will be uneven. This will force the relief valve
to open, allowing water to run out into a backup system.
Chlorination Method
Chlorination is used to disinfect water at the treatment plant and in the distribution
system. However, it cannot be considered an effective method of dealing with water
contamination resulting from cross-connections for a variety of reason.
A properly chlorinated water system will have a minimum chlorine residual of 0.5 ppm.
However, this amount of chlorine will not disinfect a water supply if any appreciable
amount of sewage has back-flowed into the water. If any solid fecal matter is involved, a
much higher concentration of chlorine, plus a time factor, will be required to disinfect the
water. Decontamination will require 100 to 200 ppm chlorine to disinfect the system
even after the contaminated water is thoroughly flushed out of the pipes.
Toxic chemicals, such as poisons and carcinogens, can also back-flow into the potable
water system. These chemicals will not be neutralized by chlorine at any concentration.
Due to its limited disinfecting properties, chlorination should not be considered an

effective method of cross-connection control.
Types of Protection
• What are the degrees of hazard which can be posed by a cross-

connection?
• What is the appropriate type of cross-connection control to be used
with each type of hazard?
Degree of Hazard
One of the steps in any cross-connection control program is choosing an appropriate type
of cross-connection control. As discussed in the last section, the two primary methods of
controlling cross-connections are air gaps and back-flow prevention devices (double
check valve assemblies and reduced pressure principle back-flow prevention devices.)
The method most suited to each situation depends upon the degree of hazard presented if
back-flow through the cross-connection were to occur.
When back-flow occurs, the degradation of the potable water supply can vary in intensity
from a slight deterioration of water quality to large-scale sickness and death. Typical
cross-connection hazards have been classified into a series of categories which will be
explained below in order from the most serious to the least serious hazard.
A health hazard is a condition, device, or practice in a potable water system that could
endanger the health and well being of the water customer. Cross-connections which
would be considered a health hazard include any which could allow the back-flow of
sewage, chemicals, pesticides, or other toxic materials into a potable water system.
Back-flow of sewage, in particular, has caused many disease outbreaks in dockside
service connections to ships. Plumbing cross-connections are also considered to be
health hazards and are extremely dangerous when located in multi-storied buildings such
as hotels, apartment houses, hospitals, medical and dental buildings, or in any building
containing a bacteriological or chemical laboratory.
A next hazard in order of importance is the system hazard. A system hazard can affect
the financial stability of the water supplier by causing severe physical damage to the
public potable water system. For example, a water supply system contaminated with
crude oil or hot paraffin would be unusable until thoroughly cleaned. The associated
downtime, costs, and drop in water quality resulting from a system hazard are great, but
the back-flow does not pose a serious threat to human health.
The final hazard is a minor hazard. This type of hazard could cause minor damage to the
physical properties of the water system. A minor hazard can also pollute the water supply
in ways which are not dangerous to health but which would be a nuisance or would be
aesthetically objectionable. For example, water polluted with syrup, beer, soda pop, or
some other similar substance would have an objectionable taste or odor but would not be
dangerous.
Type of Protection
Once the degree of hazard has been determined, the type of protection can be decided
upon. In all cases, elimination of the cross-connection is the most definite method of
control. However, in many instances it is not physically or economically feasible to
eliminate all cross-connections. In such cases, cross-connections should be controlled in
a practical manner, with the type of protection proportional to the degree of the hazard.
A back flow prevention device

Photo Credit: VDH
If the cross-connection may be subjected to a vacuum or back pressure and the resulting
back-flow would pose a health hazard, an air gap or R.P.D. shall be installed at the
service connection. If an air gap is used, an emergency bypass including a R.P.D. shall
be installed. This bypass will channel water away into a back-up system if the amount of
back-flow is so great that it threatens to fill in the air gap and flow into the public water
supply.
In the case of a system or minor hazard, a D.C.A. or R.P.D. may be used.
Summary
Cross-connections are connections through which a non-potable fluid can flow into a
potable water system. The fluid which flows through the cross-connection is termed
"back-flow". Back-flow results from lower pressure in the potable water system than in
the non-potable water system. Two circumstances cause this difference in pressure -
back pressure and back siphonage. Depending on the nature of the back-flow, water
customers can become ill and even die as a result of cross-connections.
The water supplier is legally responsible for supplying safe water to customers, so the
supplier must implement a cross-connection control program. The water supplier or a
building inspector surveys each customer's premises in search of actual or potential cross-
connections. When cross-connections are found, the degree of the hazard is assessed and
a type of control is chosen. If a back-flow prevention device is needed, the customer is
responsible for buying, installing, and maintaining the device. The Health Department
oversees the water supplier, making sure that the supplier properly implements the cross-
connection control program and supplies all customers with potable water.
The types of hazards posed by cross-connections, the methods used to control these
hazards, and the devices used to prevent back-flow are summarized in the chart below:
Type of Device used for

Definition of Hazard Method of Control
Hazard Control
Health endangers the health of the water customer Containment method air gap or R.P.D.
can cause substantial physical damage to the Containment method or air gap, R.P.D.,
System
public potable water system Isolation method or D.C.A.
can cause minor damage to the water system, Containment method or air gap, R.P.D.,
Minor
polluting the water's taste or odor Isolation method or D.C.A.
Assignment
1. A toilet is a potentially serious source of contamination to the

potable water system. Water from the potable water system flows
into the toilet. The potable water is then contaminated with
sewage. However, toilets are not actually health hazards. Why
not?
2. The picture below is a back-flow prevention device which was

installed vertically. When installed vertically, these devices are
not as effective and are not considered adequate means of
controlling cross-connections. Why not?
3. You are implementing a cross-connection control program. One of

your service connections provides water to a hospital. What type
of hazard is this connection? Why? What is the best method of
controlling the connection?
Lesson 11:
Collection and Treatment of
Stormwater and Wastewater
Introduction to Wastewater Treatment
This lesson begins the second half of ENV 110. This half of the course is concerned with
the treatment of wastewater. Before beginning this lesson, you should have taken Exam 1
and visited two water treatment plants to conclude the water treatment portion of the
course.
Lessons 1 through 10 considered the water treatment process. Water flows from the
source through the treatment plant and to the consumer. But what happens to the water
after it reaches the consumer?
The second half of this course will concern itself with wastewater - the used water and
solids from a community as well as the storm water which runs off streets and other
surfaces during storms.
You will remember that water is naturally cleaned and reused as part of the hydrologic
cycle in the outside world. In the human world, water is also cleaned and reused. Our
wastewater is channeled to a wastewater treatment plant where it is cleaned and released
back into lakes and rivers. This water reenters the hydrologic cycle and will eventually be
pumped back up by another water treatment plant to be purified and released to
customers.
Storm Water
• What is storm water?

• How is storm water managed?
What is Storm Water?
Wastewater comes from two different sources. The first source is the consumer - homes,
businesses, and industries. The dirty water and solids flowing from this source are
sometimes called sewage, but the preferable term is wastewater.
Water may also enter the wastewater system from another source. This source includes
water running off roofs, streets, and other surfaces. This type of wastewater is called
storm water.
Storm water is usually kept separate from other types of wastewater since, in most cases,
storm water does not require treatment. If storm water is mixed with sewage, then the
entirety of the mixture will have to be treated in a sewage treatment plant, a process
which will be much more costly than if the sewage was treated alone.
Diluting sewage with storm water makes treatment costly and difficult for a variety of
reasons. The addition of storm water results in a greater volume of wastewater. The
diluted sewage will have a different concentration of wastes, so the amounts of sewage
treatment organisms will have to be adjusted. And, since storm water typically enters
sewage lines in large quantities at infrequent intervals, storm water which is allowed to
combine with sewage can wash out a wastewater treatment plant.
For all of these reasons, storm water and wastewater are best kept separate during
treatment.
Infiltration
Infiltration occurs when groundwater or storm water enters the wastewater system.
Infiltration is most likely to occur during wet weather when the water in the soil forces
its way through breaks in pipes and mingles with the sewage therein.
Treatment facilities strive to eliminate as much infiltration as possible since infiltration is

the single biggest robber of energy in most plants. The amount of water leaking into
sewage lines can be calculated by taking flow measurements within the system's
manholes (corridors used to access the sewage line.) Since nothing is stored in the
sewage lines, the amount of water coming into the line has to equal the amount of water
flowing out of the line. Consider the situation shown below.
The velocity of the water is tested at manhole A and then again, downstream, at manhole
B. Since the pipe size and material are the same at both locations, you can simply
subtract the velocity of the wastewater at manhole A from the velocity of the wastewater
at manhole B to find out how much water leaked into the pipe between the two manholes:
Manhole B - Manhole A = Infiltration
50 gpm - 45 gpm = 5 gpm
So, by simply measuring the velocity of water at two points in the sewage line, you have
discovered that 5 gpm of storm water are leaking into the pipe.
In many situations, the type of pipe varies throughout the collection system. If this is the
case, then Manning's equation must be used before subtracting the velocity of wastewater
in one location from the velocity at another location. Manning's equation takes into
account the type and size of the pipe as well as the measured velocity of the water in
order to determine the amount of water passing through the pipe.
At lower velocities solids settle out, but at high velocities water thins out and runs away
from the solids. Man's use of these principles is sedimentation basins on the lower
velocities and centrifuges on the higher velocities.
Smoke Test
If the amount of infiltration of storm water into a sewage line is great enough to cause
concern, the smoke test can be used to discover the location of the breaks in the pipe
which are allowing storm water to leak in. Smoke tests can also be used to find illegal
sewer hookups.
The smoke test involves dropping a smoke bomb down a manhole. The smoke spreads
and leaks out of the line at breaks in the pipe. These breaks are also likely to be sources
of infiltration during storms. By looking for the location of smoke, sources of infiltration
can be found.
The sewage authority must notify the public in writing, via the local newspaper, before
conducting a smoke test. During the test, smoke in the sewage line can go through dried
traps into homes, upsetting the population.
A dried trap (drain) occurs when a sink, shower, or toilet is not used for an extended
period of time, so that the water which usually stands in the pipe below the drain dries up.
Without this water, septic gases and smoke from bombs set off in the sewage lines can
leak back through the drain and into homes.
Gutters
In the past, gutters were often hooked to the sewage lines so that storm water ran down
into the sewage system, cleaning the sewer lines. However, this practice causes a great
deal of infiltration of storm water into the wastewater system, requiring costly treatment
of the mixture.
If leaking gutters are found on a homeowner's property, the sewage authority will order
the homeowner to cease infiltration.
Storm Water Treatment
In a few cases, storm water requires treatment even when it has not been mixed with
sewage. The EPA's National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
regulates industrial storm water by requiring industries to acquire a permit for every point
source which may discharge pollutants into natural waterways.
Construction sites are another potential source of problematic storm water. Disturbed
soil will erode during storms so that the resulting storm water is full of sediments. The
DEQ requires that anyone disturbing at least 10,000 sq. ft. of soil must develop a water
plan. This plan may involve sedimentation ponds which retain storm water and allow
the sediments to settle out, thus releasing the storm water over a longer period of time
and minimizing the impact downstream. The plan may also include cover crops, briars,
and weeds planted on the bare soil. These plants will help reclaim the site by slowing the
velocity of storm water running over the site and preventing it from picking up sediments
from the ground.
Storm water running over mines will often pick up metals as well as sediments. In this
case, the pH of the sedimentation ponds is raised to approximately 9 to precipitate out
most of the metals and other contaminants that may have been picked up by the water.
In most cases, though, local utilities do not need to treat storm water. As you may
remember from lesson 1, natural processes clean storm water, removing sediments,
ammonia, and microorganisms.
Erosion is also treated by nature. Quickly moving water erodes stream banks, causing the
rocks higher on the bank to roll down into the middle of the stream. Faced with the
obstacle of large rocks in the stream bed, the water naturally slows down and does not
cause as much erosion. Bare ground is quickly covered by plants which prevent storm
water from picking up sediments from the soil. As you can see, both man and nature
have devised many ways of minimizing erosion and keeping water clean.
Sewage
In this section, we will answer the following question:
• How is wastewater moved from the source to the treatment plant?
Lines
The other form of wastewater being generated is sewage. Unlike storm water, sewage
requires treatment and must be channeled to a water treatment plant.
Sewage originates in places of business, industries, and residences. From this source, the
sewage flows through some type of line, usually called a main line, into the collection
system. The main line can be made of PVC, cast iron, terra cotta, or other approved
materials based on the plumbing code.
The collection system channels the water from the source to the treatment plant. This
system must be entered by operators from time to time for maintenance and inspection.
Manholes and lines between manholes are used to access the collection system. The line
between manholes is usually made of concrete, so it is important to use some type of
material that is compatible with the line when building a manhole. A mixture of vinyl
cement and sand (usually one part cement to two parts sand) does an excellent job of
tying into a concrete line.
The water flows from one manhole to the next down the line, all the while picking up
sewage from service connections. The sewage in the collection system is either carried
directly to the sewage treatment plant or is carried to a pumping station.
Velocity
In addition to material of the pipes, other factors must be considered when laying down
sewage lines. The line must be of constant slope and must be properly bedded.
The slope of the line will affect the flow of wastewater through the pipes. Low spots in a
line will allow sewage to collect at these points and not flow out with the water. Even if
the slope is constant, too steep of a slope in the lines will make the water's velocity so fast
that solids will be left behind. Rather than using steep slopes, elevation changes in the
lines can be achieved using manholes or 45-degree fittings or Y's.
The velocity at which matter stops being suspended in water is called the critical velocity
and must be avoided. The bell-shaped curve in the graph above shows the critical
velocity. When water is moving very slowly, as seen at the left hand side of the curve, it
cannot hold very many solids. An example of this is a sedimentation basin where the
water moves so slowly that solids fall out of suspension. At an intermediate speed, water
can hold a great deal of solids. But as the water moves even faster, as seen on the right
hand side of the curve, solids are pushed out of the water. An example of this is a
centrifuge.
Bedding
Bedding the lines properly is also important. When bedding a sewage line, the ground
should be compacted beneath the line and then pea gravel or sand should be back-filled
above the line. The original fill is then installed over top of the bedding.
Pumping Stations
Energy is required to make the wastewater in the collection system flow from the source
to the treatment plant. The collection system can often be set up so that this energy is
supplied by static energy and by the change in elevation of the line. In other words,
wastewater will flow downhill without requiring any input of energy.
However, in some collection systems, the wastewater must be forced uphill. In this case,
a pumping station must be installed. Water flows downhill through the collection
system to a certain point, then is raised up by the pumping station so that it can again
flow downhill. Some pumping stations instead pump the sewage directly into the
treatment plant.
A pumping station consists of a wet well in which the sewage collects, a pump which
carries the sewage upward, and often a basket or bar screen to catch trash and other
debris which is too large to go through the pump. Bar screens at pumping stations must
be cleaned often.
As wastewater flows from the collection system into the pumping station, it eventually
fills the wet well to a certain depth which causes the pump to activate, as shown below.
Once the pump has reduced the sewage in the wet well to a certain depth, the pump
automatically deactivates until the wet well is again full of sewage.
Due to the pumping station turning on and off, the water is pushed toward the treatment
facility in surges. At the treatment facility, the first step in treatment is to smooth out the
surges so that the wastewater can be treated continuously. Automatic meters measure
flows and data is recorded on flow charts. A smooth flow is important since the amount
of flow affects how the wastewater will be treated.
Summary
Wastewater consists of two components: storm water and sewage (which is often just
called wastewater.) Storm water does not usually require treatment and presents
problems when mixed with sewage. As a result, the infiltration of storm water into
sewage lines should be avoided.
Wastewater is collected from businesses, industries, and homes and is piped through the
collection system to the water treatment plant. The collection system includes main lines,
manholes, and pumping stations. Materials, slope, and bedding of the lines are all
important.
Assignment
1. Why don't we usually have to worry about infiltration of storm

water into the distribution system in water treatment, but we do
have to worry about infiltration into the collection system in
wastewater treatment?
2. In the collecting system of your wastewater treatment plant, storm

water infiltration is a big problem. So you go out during a heavy
storm and test the velocity of water at various points in the
collection system, shown below.
In which area is most of the storm water leaking into the sewage
line? Once you know the general area of infiltration, how will you
find the exact breaks in the pipe which are causing the leaks?
3. Many environmentally friendly businesses with large parking lots
are installing artificial wetlands at the edges of their parking lots.
What problem would the parking lots have caused without the
wetlands? How do the wetlands solve the problem?
4. You are building a collection system. The source of wastewater in

your system is at precisely the same elevation as the treatment
plant. Does the collection system need a pumping station to move
the wastewater from the source to the treatment plant? Why or
why not?
Lesson 12:
Oxygen
Oxygen Cycles
• How does oxygen cycle through the environment?

• How does oxygen move into and out of water?
The Oxygen Cycle
Almost all living things need oxygen. They use this oxygen during the process of
creating energy in living cells.
Just as water moves from the sky to the earth and back in the hydrologic cycle, oxygen is
also cycled through the environment. Plants mark the beginning of the oxygen cycle.
Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis.
This means that plants "breathe" in carbon dioxide and "breathe" out oxygen.
Animals form the other half of the oxygen cycle. We breathe in oxygen which we use to
break carbohydrates down into energy in a process called respiration.
Carbon dioxide produced during respiration is breathed out by animals into the air.
So oxygen is created in plants and used up by animals, as is shown in the picture above.
But the oxygen cycle is not actually quite that simple. Plants must break carbohydrates
down into energy just as animals do. During the day, plants keep a bit of the oxygen
which they produced in photosynthesis and use that oxygen to break down
carbohydrates. But in order to maintain their metabolism and continue respiration at
night, the plants must absorb oxygen from the air and give off carbon dioxide just as
animals do. Even though plants produce approximately ten times as much oxygen during
the day as they consume at night, the night-time consumption of oxygen by plants can
create low oxygen conditions in some water habitats.
Oxygen in Water
Oxygen in water is known as dissolved oxygen or DO. In nature, oxygen enters water
when water runs over rocks and creates tremendous amounts of surface area. The high
surface area allows oxygen to transfer from the air into the water very quickly.
When the water in a stream enters a pond, microorganisms in the pond begin to
metabolize (break down) organic matter, consuming oxygen in the process. This is
another form of oxygen cycle - oxygen enters water in rapids and leaves water in pools.
Oxygen uptake rate (O.U.R.) is the rate at which oxygen is consumed by living
organisms in the water. Since organisms are constantly using up oxygen in the water and
oxygen is constantly reentering the water from the air, the amount of oxygen in water
remains relatively constant. In a healthy ecosystem, the rates of oxygen transfer (being
used up) and oxygen uptake are balanced in the water.
Attraction of Oxygen to Water
• What factors determine how much oxygen will dissolve in water?

Oxygen Concentration
Oxygen is constantly entering and leaving water, but there is a certain amount of oxygen
in water at all times. This is because water has a natural attraction to oxygen. When
oxygen comes in contact with the surface of water, the oxygen tends to enter the water,
becoming dissolved oxygen.
The amount of attraction between oxygen and water depends on the amount of oxygen
already in the water. If there is very little oxygen in water, then the water is very
attractive to oxygen. But when water has a high concentration of DO, then the water is
saturated, meaning that the water contains as much oxygen as it can hold. Saturated
water is not very attractive to oxygen.
Water's attractiveness to oxygen also depends on the concentration of oxygen in the air
coming in contact with the water. The higher the concentration of oxygen in the air, the
greater the attraction of the oxygen to the water.
You can think of an oxygen molecule as a person who likes to live far away from other
people. If this person is looking for a place to live, they will move into the area with the
lowest population. Oxygen molecules do the same thing. If the air is crowded with
oxygen but the water is not, the oxygen will move into the water. If the water is crowded
with oxygen but the air is not, then the oxygen will move into the air.
The greater the difference between the oxygen concentration in the air and the dissolved
oxygen concentration in the water, the faster the oxygen will move into the water. So if
there is very little oxygen in the water, oxygen will dissolve into the water very quickly.
This process of oxygen moving from an area with a high oxygen concentration to an area
with a low oxygen concentration is known as diffusion.
Other Factors
Concentration of oxygen in the air and water are not the only factors which determine
how much oxygen will be dissolved in water. The amount of surface area between the
water and the air will also determine the rate of oxygen exchange. A bigger surface area,
as when water runs over rocks in a rapids, will allow more oxygen to enter the water.
Water temperature is also very important in determining the amount of oxygen which
will become dissolved in water. As you can see in the graph above, cold water is able to
hold more oxygen than warm water.
Foreign substances in water, such as salt or sugar, can also affect water's affinity for
oxygen.
Attraction of Oxygen to Water
• What are the three types of oxygen requirements in bacteria?

• How do the oxygen requirements of organisms determine where
they can live?
Microbiology
Microbiology is the study of microscopic forms of life, such as bacteria. In

microbiology, organisms can be divided up based on the type of oxygen they require for
life. The three categories are aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative.
Water, the home of most bacteria, contains oxygen in two forms. The first form, free
oxygen, is the most readily available form. Free oxygen is basically the same as
dissolved oxygen - oxygen from the atmosphere which has become dissolved in water.
Aerobic bacteria require free oxygen in order to survive.
Oxygen can also be found in the water in another form. Food and even water itself
contain oxygen, but this oxygen is tightly bound to the food and water. As you can see in
the picture above, each molecule of water contains one oxygen molecule (O) and two
hydrogen molecules (H). The oxygen can be ripped out of the water molecule by
anaerobic bacteria, but it takes much more energy to break apart food and water in
search of oxygen than it does to simply use free oxygen. Since anaerobic bacteria use so
much of their time and energy scrounging for oxygen, they take longer to digest organic
matter in water.
The third type of microorganisms, those which are facultative, have properties of both
aerobic and anaerobic organisms. They can live with or without free oxygen. When the
oxygen content of water is high, facultative bacteria consume food very quickly using the
free oxygen in the water. In low oxygen concentrations, facultative bacteria are still able
to consume organic material, although they do so much more slowly.
Surface Area and Mass
Microorganisms take in oxygen through their surfaces. Just as oxygen from the air can
diffuse into water through the water's surface, oxygen enters a bacteria through its outer
surface. The larger the surface, the more oxygen the bacteria is able to take in.
A bacteria's oxygen requirement, how much oxygen it needs to survive, does not depend
on the surface area though. The oxygen requirement depends upon the mass, or bulk, of
the organism. Bacteria of the same mass and metabolism have about the same oxygen
requirement. The bigger the bacteria, the more oxygen it needs to survive.
The mass to surface area ratio is an important concept in a small microorganism:
Surface Area
Mass
You may remember that we discussed the relationship between surface area and volume
in Lesson 4 when discussing aerators. Small water droplets had a large surface area to
volume ratio (which you can think of as a surface area to mass ratio.) As a result, more
air was able to enter these small water droplets. Larger water droplets had a lower
surface area to volume ratio, so less air was able to enter the larger droplets.
Oxygen in water is known as dissolved oxygen or DO. In nature, oxygen enters water
when water runs over rocks and creates tremendous amounts of surface area. The high
surface area allows oxygen to transfer from the air into the water very quickly.
The same concept applies to the oxygen uptake by bacteria. Small bacteria have a large
surface area to mass ratio, so they are able to take up a lot of oxygen compared to how
much oxygen they need to survive. Large bacteria, in contrast, have a small surface area
to mass ratio. So these large bacteria take up a lot less oxygen compared to how much
oxygen they use up in their daily life.
Since large microorganisms have a harder time taking up enough oxygen to survive, they
have to live in water with a high oxygen concentration. If the DO content of water drops
below a certain point, only the smaller microorganisms will be able to survive.
Humans
Of course, larger organisms also require oxygen to survive. In humans, we breathe in

oxygen, which descends to our lungs, enters the blood, and then moves throughout the
body. The purpose of our lungs is to move oxygen out of the air we breathe and into our
blood. In order to make oxygen flow quickly from air to blood, the lungs are divided up
so that they have a very large surface area.
Like oxygen moving into water, oxygen naturally flows into blood through the process of
diffusion. Blood is composed of plasma (which is a liquid base) and red blood cells.
The red blood cells contain a molecule known as hemoglobin which binds to oxygen
and pulls it along as the blood flows from the lungs to the rest of the body.
The amount of oxygen in the air is very important to us. The normal oxygen content of
the air is about 21% and as the oxygen content raises or lowers, our bodies begin to have
problems. When the oxygen concentration is less than 16.5%, humans blackout. When
concentrations rise above 40%, toxic oxygen radicals are formed in the body. These
radicals damage cell structure and function in a process known as oxygen toxicity. Both
oxygen toxicity and extremely low oxygen content in the air can lead to death. Thus, our
lives are dependent on oxygen and are greatly affected by the concentration thereof.
Fish
Just as the oxygen content of the air in which we live is important to humans, the oxygen
content of water is important to fish and other organisms living in water. Fish take up
oxygen from the water using their gills. Fish with larger gills compared to their body size
are like bacteria with a large surface area to mass ratio - these fish can take up enough
oxygen to survive even in water with a low oxygen content.
A fish's metabolism also helps determine the amount of oxygen which a fish needs to
survive. Fish with a high metabolism are fast-moving but also require a great deal of
oxygen to survive. Fish with a slow metabolism are more sluggish and require less
oxygen.
Carp and trout are examples of the two extremes of fish oxygen requirements. Trout
have a small gill area and a high metabolism, so they only live in the ocean and in fast-
moving streams where the oxygen levels are high. Carp, in contrast, have a small gill
area and a slower metabolism, so they can withstand low levels of oxygen and live in
small lakes and ponds.
In order to maintain the diversity of life in streams, the oxygen content of water
discharged from wastewater treatment plants is monitored. Some fish can live with low
DO levels of 3 to 4 milligrams per liter, but the National Pollution Elimination Discharge
System (NPDES) requires that all discharge from sewage treatment plants must have a
DO level of at least 5 milligrams per liter so that organisms with high oxygen
requirements can also survive. To meet this standard, most wastewater treatment plants
must aerate the water before discharge. Step aeration is the most common type of
aeration used in wastewater treatment plants.
Wastewater treatment plants must also ensure that organic matter is removed from the
water in the plant. If water containing organic matter is released into streams and rivers,
then bacteria will quickly begin to metabolize the organic matter, using up the water's
oxygen in the process. In this way, a wastewater treatment plant could indirectly cause
the DO content of water to drop to a dangerous level.
Measuring Oxygen Concentration
• How is the DO content of water measured?
The DO Meter
Oxygen concentration in water can be measured with a DO meter, like the one
diagrammed below.
A DO meter consists of a probe filled with potassium chloride and covered with a semi-
permeable membrane, a wire carrying electricity, and two electrodes. When the probe is
placed in the water, the potassium chloride attracts oxygen, just as hemoglobin does in
our blood, and pulls the oxygen out of the water and into the probe. The semi-permeable
membrane allows oxygen to pass into the probe but does not allow water in.
The probe is connected to a wire through which DC electricity flows (the red dashes in
the drawing above.) There is a gold and a silver electrode on the wire, one on either side
of the probe. You can think of these electrodes as devices which measure the amount of
electricity passing through the wire at that point.
Where the probe joins the wire, oxygen mingles with the electricity. Oxygen is not very
ionized, meaning that it does not have a negative charge as electricity does, so the oxygen
dilutes the current at the electrode beyond the probe. The meter measures the difference
in current between the two electrodes and uses that difference to determine the amount of
oxygen in the water.
Care of the Meter
When using a DO meter, the meter must be properly cared for. The membrane must be
kept wet and have potassium chloride solution within it at all times. The electrode should
also be maintained. The electrode assembly can be cleaned by dipping the electrode tip
into ammonium hydroxide.
The meter must also be calibrated before use to ensure that the reading is accurate. The
meter can be calibrated using water with a known concentration of DO at at set
temperature. This can be done by filling a biological oxygen demand (BOD) bottle
halfway full of distilled water. The water is shaken vigorously to saturate the water with
air. Then the probe is placed in the bottle and the reading is adjusted to the known
concentration of DO in the bottle. Alternatively, the meter can be calibrated using the
Winkler method, which involves adding chemicals to the water and forming a precipitate.
Summary
Oxygen cycles through both air and water. It is produced by photosynthesis, enters water
in rapids, and is used up by respiration.
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of atmospheric oxygen dissolved in water. Oxygen

enters the water by diffusion, moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration. The rate of oxygen exchange is also influenced by surface area,
temperature, and foreign substances.
All organisms require oxygen in some form in order to survive. Aerobic bacteria use free
oxygen in water while anaerobic bacteria use the oxygen bound in water and in food.
Facultative bacteria can use either free or bound oxygen.
The amount of oxygen a microorganism requires depends on its type of metabolism and
on its surface area to mass ratio. Humans and fish also have unique oxygen requirements.
The DO content of water discharged from sewage treatment plants is regulated to
maintain the diversity of life in streams.
A DO meter measures dissolved oxygen in water by recording a change in an electrical

current.
Assignment
1. A wastewater treatment plant does not comply with NPDES

guidelines and discharges water with a low DO content and with
some organic matter suspended in the water. Which bacteria do
you expect will soon die out? Large or small? Aerobic, facultative,
or anaerobic?
2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are like the flip sides of a coin. The
production of oxygen often uses up carbon dioxide and vice versa.
Draw a picture of the carbon dioxide cycle in a stream.
3. At high elevations, the oxygen concentration in the air is much

lower than at sea level. The oxygen concentration at the top of
Mount Everest is only about 1/3 of the oxygen concentration at sea
level. People who travel to high elevations often feel sick as a
result of this lower oxygen concentration. How will the lower
oxygen concentration at high elevations affect the amount of DO in
streams and lakes? Will any other conditions of high elevations
either offset or add to the effect?
Lesson 13:
Septic Tanks
Introduction to Septic Tanks
• How do septic systems work?

• What are the benefits of septic systems?
What Are Septic Tanks?
Septic tanks are an alternative to treatment of wastewater in a wastewater treatment plant.

Septic tanks are often used in rural areas to deal with the small amount of sewage created
by a single household. The advantages of septic tanks include minimum maintenance
and minimum skills required for operation.
A septic tank is part of a septic system, a diagram of which is shown above. In a septic
system, wastes from the home flow down sewer lines into a tank or concrete box - the
septic tank. In this tank, solids settle to the bottom and are treated by anaerobic action.
The liquid drains off the top into another pipe which runs to a distribution box. From
here, the liquid is distributed into fill lines in a septic field. The fill lines allow the water
to leak out into the surrounding soil over a large area. As the water slowly percolates
down into the groundwater, it is cleaned naturally.
In the Tank
Due to the low velocity of the wastewater flowing into a septic tank, the solids settle to
the bottom. Any grease or oil rises to the surface. The clear liquids (known as
supernate) are allowed to flow out of the tank to the distribution box and then to the
septic field.
The environment in the septic tank is kept at a pH of 7. Since the water is not aerated, the
free oxygen in the water is quickly used up. This results in a perfect habitat for anaerobic
bacteria. These bacteria slowly and continually "eat" the solids at the bottom of the tank.
You may remember from the last lesson that respiration can be summarized by the
following formula:
However, when anaerobic bacteria break down carbohydrates, they do so using a slightly
different method. Rather than producing carbon dioxide and water as byproducts, they
produce other gases. These gases include the foul-smelling methane and hydrogen
sulfide.
The septic tank is designed so that methane and hydrogen sulfide, as well as water vapor
and carbon dioxide, can escape from the septic tank through a stink-pipe, or vent,
attached to the outside of the residence. The stink-pipe prevents the gases from building
up in the tank and from causing an unpleasant odor around the tank.
The Supernate
The supernate flows out of the septic tank and into a distribution box, which must be
constructed so that all of the lines from the septic tank receive equal amounts. From the
distribution box, the supernate is transferred to the fill lines and absorbed into the soil.
Maintenance
The need for only minimal maintenance is one of the major benefits of septic systems.
Most septic tanks are energy efficient because little energy is required for operation. The
initial installation of building and installing the tank, distribution box, and lines are the
major energy users. Preventing plant growth on the septic field is the most energy
required for maintenance after installation.
Tree must not be allowed to grow over septic tank systems. Leaves from trees
overhanging the septic field can clog the septic lines.
Grass must be mown above the septic field. This prevents brush and small trees from
growing in the field. These plants could sink their roots down into the septic lines and
break them.
Lesson 13:
Septic Tanks
Installation
• What steps must be taken when installing a septic system?
Permeability Testing
The supernate from a septic tank is not as clean as the water released by wastewater
treatment plants. This supernate would pollute streams and the groundwater if it came in
contact with them before trickling down through the soil. As a result, soil permeability
must be carefully tested before installing a septic system. Permeability refers to how
easily water can trickle down through soil.
Septic systems do not work well in clay soils since these relatively impermeable soils do
not allow the supernate to soak in. Instead, if a septic system is installed in a clay soil,
the supernate often rises to the surface of the ground, producing an obviously unsanitary
situation.
The Health Department has established soil testing procedures which must be followed
before a septic tank can be installed. These procedures test the permeability, or perk, of
the soil. The procedure is outlined below:
1. A 2 feet deep hole is dug in the soil.

2. The hole is saturated with water. Then the hole is filled with water to a known depth.
3. The water is allowed to sink into the soil for 30 minutes. After thirty minutes, the
depth of the water in the hole is measured.
The perk value is then calculated as follows:
So, if the water in the hole above was initially filled to a depth of 18 inches and, after
thirty minutes, sunk down to 16 inches, the perk value would be:
Perk values between 10 and 100 indicate usable soil, so the ground we tested above is
permeable enough to be used for a septic system.
Higher values, between 110 and 125, indicate relatively impermeable soils. Septic
systems can be placed in these soils if additional septic lines are installed. But if perk
values are greater then 125, then the soil is impermeable and the Health Department will
turn down any application for a permit.
Very permeable soils can also be a problem since the septic system will not hold water
long enough for it to be properly treated. Sandy loam soils, often found near rivers, have
a perk value of less than 10 and are unsuitable for septic systems. These areas are also
likely to have a high water table which can force the sewage to the surface and cause
unsanitary conditions.
Tank Size
Once the soil has been tested and the Health Department has issued a permit, the septic
system can be installed. The first factor to be considered is the size of the tank.
The size of the tank will depend upon the size of the family and the type of use to which
the tank will be put. A larger family will create more waste and will require a larger tank.
Households which use their tanks for garbage disposal will also require a larger tank.
The amount of available land will also influence which tank size is chosen.
Fill Line Installation
After the septic tank has been chosen and installed, the septic field must be put in place.
Laying down the fill lines in the septic field is somewhat similar to laying down
distribution lines in the water treatment system. But in addition to cushioning the fill
lines, they must be installed so that the water can continuously flow out of the lines and
into the soil without clogging and backing up.
Gravel is placed below, around, and above the lines to prevent soil from clogging the
lines. Above the gravel is a layer of pasteboard. Then soil is filled back in above the
pasteboard and is packed to the original surface contour.
The pasteboard is important to keep soil from filtering down into the gravel and clogging
the fill lines. Over time, the pasteboard will rot away, but that is not a problem because
by then the soil above will have stabilized and will not fall down into the gravel.
As we have mentioned previously, water flows out of the fill lines and trickles down
through the soil. Once the pasteboard rots away, water can also come up through the top
of the fill pipe and out of the surface of the soil. In non-permeable regions such as some
areas in the Appalachians, 60% of the water comes to the top of the ground and will be
dispersed through transpiration (breathing) of plants. The other 40% will become
groundwater.
Septic Fields on Hills
The last consideration when installing fill lines is that the supernate must be distributed
evenly across the ground. When the ground is sloped, then the lines should be connected
in parallel or in series to provide efficient removal.
The lines should also be placed so that they are perpendicular to the slope of the land.
Another way of saying this is that the fill lines should be parallel to the contour lines of
the land.
In the drawing above, the house is sitting on top of a hill and the septic field (outlined in
yellow) is to be placed on the side of the hill. Contour lines have been drawn on the
hillside in pale green. You can see that the fill lines roughly parallel the contour lines of
the hill.
You can imagine what would happen if the fill lines were installed perpendicular rather
than parallel to the contour lines of the hill. The supernate would all flow quickly to the
end of each fill line and would then flow into the soil all at the bottom of the hill. This
would not evenly distribute the supernate through the soil.
Summary
Septic tanks are an alternative to wastewater treatment plants in rural areas. After the
initial expense of installing the system, mowing grass and removing trees are the only
maintenance required to operate the septic systems.
Septic systems consist of:
• a septic tank, where the sewage collects and is treated by anaerobic

action,
• a stink-pipe, through which gases escape from the septic tank,
• a distribution box, where the supernate collects,
• and a septic field, where the supernate is evenly distributed into the
ground.
The first step in installing a septic system is to test the permeability of the soil. Then the
Health Department issues a permit. The septic tank is chosen and installed, then the
septic field is put in place.
Assignment
1. Septic systems dispose of organic waste by anaerobic action. In

contrast, wastewater treatment plants dispose of organic waste by
aerobic action. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each
type of system?
2. You are testing the permeability of soil in preparation for installing

a septic system. You fill a hole with water 20 inches deep. After
half an hour, the water is 19.8 inches deep. What is the perk value
of the soil? Will you be able to install a septic system on the site?
Lesson 14:
Ponds
Introduction to Sewage Ponds
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using ponds to treat

wastewater?
• What requirements must be met when constructing a sewage
treatment pond?
Introduction
Ponds are probably one of nature's most economical ways of treating sewage and
producing a highly purified effluent (end product.) The degree of treatment provided by
ponds depends upon the type and number of ponds used. Ponds can be used as the sole
type of water treatment or can be used in conjunction with other forms of wastewater
treatment.
The beginning of this lesson will be concerned with raw sewage stabilization ponds in
particular and with the requirements which must be met when building sewage treatment
ponds in general. The second half of the lesson will consider other types of ponds used in
wastewater treatment.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Sewage ponds are a way of treating wastewater on a larger scale than the septic systems
which we considered in the last lesson. The ponds have many advantages and
disadvantages compared to package plants, small treatment plants often manufactured at
a factory, hauled to the site, and installed as one facility to treat wastewater.
Both ponds and package plants have to deal with aeration of the water being treated. In
the sewage pond, oxygen is transferred directly into the water across the surface area
without the need for any equipment. A package plant, in contrast, must install an aerator
to add oxygen to the water.
But the natural method of aeration used by a sewage pond takes much longer than an
aerator does to add oxygen to the water. As a result, ponds treat sewage much more
slowly than package plants do. The minimum detention time of a pond is 45 days. In
contrast, a package plant has a two to four hour detention time. And, since ponds must
hold the wastewater much longer than package plants do, the ponds must also have a
much larger area to retain the sewage.
If the time and area are available, sewage ponds are very economical facilities to
maintain. Package plants require frequent monitoring for various parameters such as
ammonia and B.O.D. In contrast, ponds require only one visit per day to monitor pH and
D.O.
Requirements
Sewage ponds are very simple to construct. A bulldozer is used to remove soil from the
ground and create a basin in which water can collect. However, the pond and
surrounding area must be planned in such a way that the human and natural environments
surrounding the pond are not damaged.
The first requirement of a sewage pond is that it must be surrounded by a berm (a mound
or wall of earth) or an embankment (a raised structure to hold back the water, such as
that shown in the photograph at the beginning of this lesson). The berm or embankment
prevents storm water from running into the pond. Without a berm, a heavy storm could
cause the sewage pond to overflow and send untreated sewage out into the surrounding
area.
The soil in which a pond is built must be impermeable. This will prevent the sewage
from being absorbed into the ground and from leaking pollutants into the area.
A pond must be completely fenced to keep unwanted visitors out. In addition, the area
around the fence must be mowed to keep out vermin which could dig holes into the sides
of the pond. Tree growth must be restricted near the pond since roots could enter the
pond and provide a way for sewage to escape if the trees died.
Sewage ponds must be encircled by a windbreak, which usually consists of a row of pine
trees. The windbreak will prevent the pond's odors from disturbing the nearby residents
and will also make the area aesthetically pleasing.
The depth of the pond is another important factor. The pond must be greater than two
feet deep at all parts to exclude plant growth. Plants growing at the edge of a pond will
create areas of still water in which mosquitoes will lay their eggs. But at depths of over
six feet, anaerobic conditions occur, so regulations stipulate that the depth of a sewage
pond can be no more than 5 feet.
Health of the Surrounding Environment
The final requirement which must be met when constructing sewage ponds is to be
sensitive to any streams or rivers into which the effluent from the pond will be released.
This entails knowing the classification of the stream, whether the stream contains any
endangered species, and whether there are any existing contaminants in the stream.
One way of protecting the surrounding environment is by adding a finishing pond. A

finishing pond, also known as a polishing pond, is like a finishing school - it prepares
the water to go out into the world. The finishing pond is installed between the sewage
pond and the stream as shown below.
One of the largest problems when water is released directly from a sewage pond into a
stream is algae. Sewage ponds are perfect environments for these one-celled plants.
Food is readily available, as is moisture and sunlight, so algae grow quickly and become
quite numerous.
When water from a sewage pond, rich in algae, is released directly into a stream the
stream can be harmed. The large quantities of algae use up the water's oxygen at night or
during an algal bloom (when the algae reproduce very quickly). Without the oxygen
they need to survive, the fish in the stream die.
A finishing pond can eliminate this problem. Finishing ponds are usually stocked with
fish, such as carp, which eat the algae in the water. Finishing ponds also allow the
quality of the effluent to be monitored before it is released into the stream. As a result,
streams being fed by finishing ponds tend to be healthier than those fed directly from
sewage ponds
Lesson 14:
Ponds
Types of Ponds by Location
• What are the three types of sewage ponds based on location in the
wastewater treatment process?
Introduction
Ponds can be classified based upon their location in the wastewater treatment process and
on what type of waste they receive.
Whether wastewater is being treated in a pond or in another type of treatment facility, it

follows the same general path. First, the water passes through a series of pretreatment
processes including screening and shredding the sewage. Next, the wastewater receives
primary treatment which allows some of the solid matter to settle out. From primary
treatment, the wastewater moves to secondary treatment where biological processes
convert the remaining organic matter into a form which is easier to remove from the
wastewater. Treatment may stop after secondary treatment or may continue with tertiary
treatment, which reduces the nutrient content of wastewater to prevent algae blooms in
the body of water into which the effluent will be released.
The raw sewage stabilization pond, which we explored in depth in the last section, is a
primary treatment pond. After water has been treated in a raw sewage stabilization pond
or in some other type of primary treatment facility, the water can move on to an oxidation
pond, which is a type of secondary treatment. Finally, a polishing pond is a type of
tertiary treatment.
These three types of ponds can be used in a series, as shown in the picture above.
Alternatively, they may be used in conjunction with primary, secondary, and tertiary
treatment in a wastewater treatment plant. The wastewater may receive primary
treatment in the treatment plant then receive secondary treatment in an oxidation pond.
Or the wastewater may receive primary and secondary treatment in a treatment plant and
tertiary treatment in a polishing pond.
Raw Sewage Stabilization Pond
The raw sewage stabilization pond is the most common type of pond. It is a primary
treatment facility which receives wastewater which has had no prior treatment (except
screening or shredding.)
Like any other primary treatment facility, the purpose of the raw sewage stabilization
pond is to settle out most of the solids in the water. In addition, aerobic, facultative, and
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter begins in this pond. Oxygen is provided by
diffusion from the surface of the pond and from photosynthesis by the algae in the pond.
All of these processes occur over the minimum 45 day detention time during which the
water stays in the stabilization pond.
As shown in the previous section, the stabilization pond consists of an influent structure,
berms or walls surrounding the pond, and an effluent structure designed to permit
selection of the best quality effluent. The normal operating depth of the pond is 3 to 5
feet.
The raw sewage stabilization pond is designed to receive no more than 50 pounds of
BOD5 per day per acre. The biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD5, is the amount of
organic matter which can be biologically oxidized in 5 days at 20°C in the dark. This is a
way of measuring how much organic matter is in the water.
The quality of the water discharged from a stabilization pond will depend on the time of
year. During the summer, the pond removes most of the BOD5 but not very much of the
suspended solids. In contrast, during winter months, the pond will have poor BOD5
removal but excellent suspended solids removal. In either case, the water is usually
transferred from the raw sewage stabilization pond to some type of secondary treatment
facility.
Oxidation Pond
Water from the stabilization pond or from primary settling tanks of a treatment plant
flows into the oxidation pond. In this pond, additional settling of solids and biological
treatment of organic matter in the water occurs. Some of the fecal coliform in the water
is also removed.
The oxidation pond is very similar in design to the stabilization pond.
Polishing Pond
We have already dealt with polishing ponds to some extend in the last section. These
ponds, also known as finishing ponds, receive water flowing from the oxidation pond or
from some other secondary treatment systems. Here, additional BOD5, solids, fecal
coliform, and some nutrients are removed from the water.
Polishing ponds have a much shorter detention time than stabilization ponds since they
rely entirely on biological processes and no settling occurs here. Water remains in
polishing ponds for only 1 to 3 days. A greater detention time may result in an increased
concentration of suspended solids in the effluent.
In addition, polishing ponds are typically deeper than the other types of ponds, usually
operating at a depth of 5 to 10 feet.
Types of Ponds by Processes
• What are the three types of ponds based on the types of processes
occurring within the pond?
Aerobic Ponds and Aerated Ponds
Ponds can also be classified based on the type of processes occurring within the pond.
The types refer to the three types of respiration which we treated in more depth in the
lesson on oxygen.
An aerobic pond is a pond in which oxygen is present throughout the pond. All
biological activity in the pond is aerobic decomposition. This type of pond is not widely
used because, without some type of aeration, the lower portions of a pond tend to lack
oxygen and to host anaerobic bacteria, as shown in the picture below. This is why the
mud on the bottom of a pond smells like sulphur when it is stirred up. A pond would
have to be very shallow in order to host only aerobic decomposition without any aeration.
One way of maintaining aerobic processes throughout the pond is to add oxygen to the
water using mechanical or diffused air systems. Ponds which add oxygen to the water in
this way are known as aerated ponds. Aerated ponds allow the depth of the pond and/or
the acceptable loading levels to be increased. The mechanical or diffused aeration
systems can be used to supplement natural oxygen production or to replace it.
Facultative Pond
The typical pond shown above, with an aerobic zone near the surface and an anaerobic
zone near the bottom, is a facultative pond. Like a facultative bacteria, a facultative
pond can carry out both aerobic and anaerobic processes based on the presence or
absence of oxygen. This is the most common type of pond.
Oxygen is present in the upper portions of the pond, so aerobic processes occur here.
there is no oxygen present in the lower levels of the pond, so the processes here are
anaerobic or anoxic (lacking sufficient oxygen.)
The facultative pond must have a balance between photosynthesis and aerobic
decomposition as shown in the picture below.
Facultative Stabilization Pond
Oxygen is added to the water in two ways. The wind and the surface area prompt oxygen
to diffuse into the water from the air. Algae also produce oxygen during photosynthesis
when the sun is present.
The oxygen is then used up by bacteria in the aerobic portion of the pond. These bacteria
use oxygen to break down organic matter suspended in the water. In turn, the bacteria
produce the carbon dioxide which the algae use in photosynthesis.
Some of the solids settle to the bottom of the pond. These solids are broken down by
anaerobic bacteria which produce methane or hydrogen sulfide.
Anaerobic Pond
The final type of pond is the anaerobic pond. No oxygen is present in this type of pond,
so all biological activity within an anaerobic pond is anaerobic decomposition.
Wastewater is not usually treated in anaerobic ponds, but these ponds are used to treat
high strength industrial wastes.
Summary
Ponds can be used to treat sewage. The solids settle to the bottom of the pond and
organic matter is broken down by bacteria. Sewage ponds have an advantage over
package plants since they require less equipment and less frequent monitoring. But
sewage ponds also have disadvantages - they require a greater area and a longer time to
treat sewage.
Requirements which must be met when building a sewage pond include:
• a berm or embankment
• impermeable soil
• a fence surrounding the pond
• area around pond mowed and tree growth restricted
• a windbreak
• two to five feet deep
• sensitivity to nearby streams and rivers
The three types of ponds based on location within the treatment process:
• Raw Sewage Stabilization Pond - primary treatment

• Oxidation Pond - secondary treatment
• Polishing, or Finishing, Pond - tertiary treatment
The four types of ponds based on type of respiration:
• Aerobic Pond - oxygen present throughout the pond; aerobic

respiration
• Aerated Pond - oxygen artificially introduced; aerobic respiration
• Facultative Pond - oxygen present in upper portions of the pond;
aerobic and anaerobic respiration
• Anaerobic Pond - no oxygen present; anaerobic respiration; used
to treat high strength industrial wastes
Assignment
1. Both sewage ponds and septic systems treat wastewater and release
clean water into the environment. But sewage ponds require
impermeable soil while septic systems require permeable soil.
Explain the treatment method of each system, giving special
attention to the differences in soil requirements.
2. Your company treats wastewater in a relatively rural area, but one
in which sewers have already been installed to pump wastewater to
a central location. Land prices are low, so your company has
bought a large area of land to use for its treatment facility. After
the initial construction, you will have a low budget with which to
hire operators to keep the facility running. You must also consider
a nearby river which is home to several endangered species of
mussels. What is the best type of wastewater treatment system for
this area? Septic systems, ponds, or a package plant? If you
choose to install ponds, which type(s) of pond will you install?
Lesson 15:
Extended Aeration and Packaged Plants
Hello, I’m Jay Blevins from Mountain Empire Community College. Detention time is the
main difference between an extended aeration plant and a package plant. In both plants,
the influent is first filtered through a bar screen to remove large objects. After passing
through the bar screen, the influent enters the grit chamber and the velocity is reduced to
allow the solids to settle. Once the influent has passed through the grit chamber, the
remaining influent reaches the comminutor. The comminutor or grinding pump grinds the
organic matter into small particles in order for the microorganisms to be able to utilize
the food. From this point, the influent is pumped to the aeration basin. In the aeration
basin, the B. O. D. or the organic matter within the water comes into the chamber where
the B.O.D. is digested. The organic material is seeded with microorganisms, which
begins a period of feeding and multiplying. The microorganisms multiply very rapidly
and consume the B.O.D. in a short period of time, usually within the first two hours of
entering the aeration basin. After the food is consumed in an extended aeration plant, air
is pumped to the microorganisms for two additional hours. In this process, the
microorganisms start dying for lack of food and the microorganisms feed on each other,
thus reducing the sludge. A packaged plant produces more sludge than an extended
aeration basin plant or oxidation ditch.
Packaged plants do not allow time for oxygen to produce a major reduction in the sludge.
The influent leaves the aeration chamber and enters the clarifier. The microorganisms,
which have food, grit, and other particles stuck to the enzyme coating, are heavy and floc
out in the clarifier. The clarifier is located at the back of the extended aeration chamber or
the packaged plant. The clarifier is an important part of the whole operation. The main
distinction between a clarifier and extended aeration is the use of forced air. The air helps
keep the microorganisms suspended; keeping the microorganisms from settling. In the
clarifier, the microorganisms floc out (settle) and the supernate (clear liquid) rises to the
top. The supernate is then chlorinated and de-chlorinated before being released. The
microorganisms that have flocked out in the clarifier are re-circulated to become seed for
the new influent. All of the microorganisms, however, are not re-circulated because of the
food to microorganism ratio concept. An easy way to visualize this concept is to imagine
having10 hungry football players trying to eat 1000 sandwiches. There are too many
sandwiches for the number of players and there will be a large portion of the sandwiches
left over. Conversely, if there are 100 hungry football players and only 10 sandwiches
available, the players would likely fight and the sandwiches would be torn apart and
probably not eaten anyway. Though this is a simple visualization, this is what essentially
happens with microorganisms. The food to microorganism ratio must to be matched on
order to have efficient B.O.D. removal. One manufacturer, Clow, suggests the food to
microorganism ratio be about 0.6. The remaining sludge not used for re-circulation that
is produced per day of treatment is wasted. The re-circulation rate is controlled by a
pump and valve combination. The valve can be opened or closed as needed in order to
secure the optimum food to microorganism ratio.
In both the packaged plant and the extended aeration plant, the sludge must be aged and
stressed to achieve maximum benefits. Each day’s floc or sludge is added to the top of
the previous days sludge and the oldest layer is retained about 10 days before being
pumped as seed to the aeration chamber. The 10-day cycle is important because the
microorganisms have been stressed enough so that they are ready to feed again and are
able to reduce the B.O.D. in the water in a short period of time. The stressed
microorganisms not only eat rapidly, the microorganisms also multiply rapidly. A
packaged plant and an extended aeration plant removes B. O. D. in about two hours or
less because the developed microorganisms provide optimum food removal and a good
quality effluent.
Though the standard ten years ago, packaged plants and extended aeration plants are no
longer in large demand because of poor ammonia removal. New regulations limit the
amount of ammonia that can be released into a waterway system and are listed on the
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued to a plant. A
trickling filter or a rotating biological contactor must be added to remove ammonia. Most
communities are now using oxidation ditches instead of packaged plants or extended
aeration plants because oxidation ditches remove both B.O.D. and ammonia. Only a few
packaged plants and extended aeration plants still operate near the college.
The food/microorganism ratio is usually (.6) in a water treatment plant.
Let's do some food/microorganism ratio (f/m) calculations with the above information:
Food In is:
*Use standard conversions for these calculations. Refer back to Math Formulas if
necessary
Food/Microorganism Ratio:
F 30
----- = ----- = 50.04 lbs. of microbes
M .6
Take a sample of Return Activated Sludge (RAS):
*100 grams of RAS, or sludge, dried is equal to 5 grams

*Cooked at 550*C yields 3.0 grams of sludge
*2% of 100 grams, or 2 grams, of the sludge is microbes
50 lbs.
RAS lbs = ---------- = 2502 lbs/day
.02
To find the feedrate in pounds per minute:
At 1440 minutes in a day, the feedrate per minute is:
2502 lbs/day
------------------ = 1.738 lbs/min
1440 min/day
To find the feedrate in grams per minute:

Use the standard conversion here for pounds and grams.
(1.738 lbs/min)(454 g/lb) = 789.05 g/min.
*Put a dish under the RAS that you know the tare weight of.
(WeightTotal) - (WeightTare) = Sludge in Grams
*Do this for 1 minute, the grams/minute should be (789.05)
*If the feedrate is greater than calculated, lower the volume pumped.
*If the feedrate is lower than calculated, raise the volume pumped.
*After the process levels out, increase the feedrate slightly and see what happens to the
B.O.D. in the
effluent.
*If the effluent B.O.D. raises, reverse the feedrate.

*If the effluent B.O.D. lowers, continue until the optimum condition exists.
*When the B.O.D. in the effluent is the minimum, this is the optimum RAS
Sludge wasted = (Sludge made per day) - (RAS)
Age and Mix of Organism in Activated Sludge
Aerobic Organisms
Under a microscope at 400 power

*Rotifers are the larger microorganisms in old sludge, a few are in the right age
sludge, and none are in the young sludge.
Anaerobic Organisms
Under a microscope at 400 power

All are a single cell type
Good Settleability
*The good settleability comes from the sticky enzymes that help hold them together.
Lesson 16:
Oxidation Ditch
An oxidation ditch treats sewage in many ways like a packaged plant. The main
difference between a packaged plant and an oxidation ditch is the retention time and type
of organisms. A packaged plant usually has two to four hours of retention time, while an
oxidation ditch has two days. The D.O. (dissolved oxygen) is higher in an oxidation
ditch, which allows for a greater variety of microorganisms to live and be able to eat the
sewage. In a packaged plant, the treatment usually depends upon a few types of
microorganisms to eat the sewage. Packaged plants age the microorganisms for a period
of about ten days and when the aged microbes are introduced into the influent containing
the B.O.D., the microorganisms begin a feeding and multiplying frenzy and remove
B.O.D. from the water.
Packaged plants do not remove ammonia efficiently as a trickling filter or oxidation

ditch. Oxidation ditches can operate the two sets of ditches or chambers at different pH
levels to facilitate the removal of ammonia. This creates a niche for certain
microorganisms by controlling the parameters around the microorganisms. An oxidation
ditch removes B.O.D. and converts the ammonia to nitrates through a process of time and
has a better efficiency removal than a packaged plant. Most new treatment facilities are
designed as oxidation ditches because of better removal efficiency.
A rotational biological contactor (RBC) is used to increase the amount of D.O. in the
water by increasing the surface area and creating waves and movement within the
ditches. This method of aerating is more efficient than pumping of air in a packaged
plant. Once most of the B.O.D. has been removed, the mixed liquor is pumped to the
aerobic digester where the sludge is thickened with the help of aerator pumps. This
method reduces the amount of sludge produced.
In an oxidation ditch, only about 15% of the original B.O.D. ends up as sludge, compared
with a packaged plant where about 60% of the B.O.D. becomes sludge. Though less
sludge is produced by an oxidation ditch, the monetary cost is very high per ton of
B.O.D. removed, in some cases nearly 350 dollars per ton. An environmental drawback
of oxidation ditches is the electricity used to operate the plant causes sulfur dioxide and
other contaminants to be released into the atmosphere from coal-burning electrical plants.
Some oxidation ditches, like the one located in Big Stone Gap, Va., have a diversion
basin to hold the influent when flows increase because of excessive rainfall. The
diversion basin allows more time for treatment and helps prevent washout in the
oxidation ditches. A washout occurs when a large amount of influent enters the plant and
carries the microorganisms through the plant and pushes the sludge into the steam or
river. To prevent a total washout from occurring, an operator can shut off the inner
ditches and allow the outside ditch to circulate the influent and provide primary treatment
before being released. In periods of excessive rainfall, oxidation plants can be operated
on high flow settings for a month at a time. Oxidation ditches provide the most thorough
process for treating sewage, but oxidation ditches are also one of the most costly forms of
treatment.
Lesson 17:
Fixed Media Filters
Trickling Filters
Hello, I'm Jay Blevins from Mountain Empire Community College. There are many ways
to treat sewage. Plant designs vary greatly from one site to the next, but, basically the
microbial action that consumes waste can be divided into two categories. In package
plants and oxidation ditches, the microorganisms are free-swimming in the water. While
in plants such as trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, the microorganisms
are attached to a medium and the wastewater is circulated.
There are two types of fixed media filters used to treat sewage; trickling filters and
rotating biological contactors. Fixed media filters can be made of rocks, plastic, or metal.
The trickling filter located nearest to the college is in Kingsport, Tennessee. A trickling
filter treats wastewater in the following manner. The influent (raw sewage) is filtered
through a bar screen to remove large objects. Then the influent is passed through a grit
screen or chamber to remove inorganic materials such as eggshells and tissue. The
comminutor shreds the solid matter into smaller pieces, which allow the solids to enter
the plant without causing mechanical problems or clogging the pumps. At this point, the
influent is pumped through a separator. The separator acts as a primary clarifier in that
the organic solids are separated out by changes in velocity. Part of the organic matter
(mostly liquid) goes to the trickling filter and part (mostly solid) goes to the anaerobic
digester. In the anaerobic digester, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide are
produced from the action of the anaerobic organisms. The remaining B.O.D. and
ammonia are pumped to the trickling filter. Both B.O.D. and ammonia are required to
produce the right growth of microorganisms on the media to provide good treatment. The
influent is piped to the spray heads, which rotate above the media. Both aerobic and
anaerobic microorganisms grow on the media. Trickling filters are especially efficient at
removing ammonia. Once the influent passes through the media, the influent and any
sloughed off solids from the filter bed reaches the clarifier. Solids from the clarifier are
separated out from the supernate and sent back to anaerobic digester. A portion of the
supernate (now effluent) is re-circulated through the trickling filter to reduce the B.O.D.
loading and the remaining part is chlorinated and de-chlorinated or passed through a UV
light. This disinfection process helps wipe out most of the microorganisms and coliforms.
The effluent then is pumped to a step aerator to raise the dissolved oxygen level before
releasing into a stream or river. Trickling filters are very efficient and use a minimal
amount of power. The cost to remove B.O.D. is only a few dollars per ton.
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS
Rotating biological contactors, commonly referred to as RBC's, are less prevalent than
trickling filters or oxidation ditches; however, contactors produce a high quality effluent
and wastewater operators should be familiar with them. There are only two RBC's
operating in the southwest Virginia area, one being in Conaway, and the other in Haysi.
The water/wastewater students at Mountain Empire Community College were recently
given the opportunity to tour the site at Haysi. The influent from the service area is
collected in a 50-foot wet well. The influent is then screened through a basket and
pumped to the grit chamber. After solids such as eggshells, corn, and sand settle out from
the decrease in velocity of the grit chambers, the influent is introduced into the grinder
pump for further mechanical treatment. The influent is retained in the primary clarifier
for more settling. The influent is now ready for the RBC. The RBC consists of large
successive discs supported on a single shaft rotated slowly by an air driven motor. The
RBC is covered by removable fiberglass housing and has access portals at each end. The
disks are covered with a thick coating of slime. This slime is the microorganisms, both
aerobic and anaerobic, which treat the wastewater. RBC's operate much like a trickling
filter in that the contactors perform well at removing B.O.D. and converting NH4OH to
NO3. The efficiency is about 85%. From time to time, the slime builds up in an area and
the excess is sloughed off. This material, along with the treated influent, is sent to the
secondary clarifier. From the bottom of the secondary clarifier, the sloughed off microbes
are pumped to the sludge digester and aerated. This action reduces the amount of sludge
that will end up as solid waste. Once the solids in the digester reach around 4%, the
aerators are turned off and the sludge is allowed to settle. The supernate collected from
the top is re-circulated through the plant. The remaining sludge is then pumped to the
drying beds for eventual land application. The supernate from the top of the clarifiers is
treated with chlorine to destroy most remaining coliforms and bacteria. The effluent must
be treated with sulfur dioxide in order to remove the chlorine. The effluent is released
over step aerators to raise the oxygen level before entering the south fork of the Big
Sandy River. No matter how a plant is designed, or what approach a plant decides to take
in treating wastewater, the results are the same. Some type of mechanical and biological
treatment occurs. The supernate is drawn off, treated for bacteriological contamination,
and aerated before being released. Solid waste is produced from sludge and graded for
land application or dumping. Man can only mimic the processes that nature already uses.
A healthy, vibrant stream contains microorganisms that live on rocks and pebbles. These
microorganisms produce a slick coating that is able to trap and consume the B.O.D.
(food) in the water. This is the way nature constantly renews the earth's water supply and
is the same process that operates a trickling filter or RBC. The more an operator knows
about the natural processes at work, the more successful the operator will be at producing
a good quality effluent.
Slime Growth Processes (Trickling Filter, RBC)

In the slime growth process, pH, concentration of food and oxygen are the big control
factors. In microbiology, with the yeast organisms greater concentration of food
restricted, the growth, enzyme saturation, space and waste build-up were the controlling
factors of concentration.
Increasing Recirculation decreases concentration of food, but allows excessive cooling

in cold weather. Increasing recirculation increases the amount of oxygen in the water and
can help in the removal of B.O.D.
Recirculation of cleaned water is optimized when the effluent B.O.D. or C.O.D. is

minimized.
Lesson 18:
Efficiency
Hello, I’m Jay Blevins from Mountain Empire Community College. Efficiency can be
stated as the act of being adequate in performance with a minimum of waste or effort.
There are many different types of efficiencies that play a role in water and wastewater
treatment. At a sewage treatment plant or a water treatment plant, efficiency often
involves the removal of a substance. For example, if a 200-milligram per liter of B.O.D.
(influent) in a sewage treatment plant is reduced to 10 milligrams per liter of B.O.D.
(effluent), what is the efficiency? The efficiency is found by subtracting the amount
reduced to- 10 milligrams, from the initial amount- 200 milligrams to find the amount
reduced- 190 milligrams per liter. Since190 milligrams per liter were removed, the
efficiency is190 divided by 200, which yields an efficiency of 95%.
The efficiency of removal works in other processes in addition to water and sewage
treatment. The second type of efficiency involves being able to add a substance. Oxygen,
for example, must be added to water during wastewater treatment. Nature adds oxygen to
water by the air to surface ratio, atmospheric pressure, and temperature. In a sewage
treatment plant, an operator changes the rate of oxygen being added to the water by
increasing the surface area between the air and water.
The surface area can be increased in several ways. Large bubbles having less surface area
for the mass of air are less efficient than small bubbles at the transfer of oxygen because
the surface area is actually less for the mass of oxygen. Most treatment plants use the
larger bubbles (greater than 1/8") because less maintenance is required on the aerator
nozzle. The air, in order to be pumped, must be compressed and this requires energy.
When the air is released, the energy of compression is lost within the system. Pumping
air is one of the most inefficient ways of putting oxygen into water. Even so, most
sewage treatment plants pump air.
The second method for increasing the amount of oxygen in water is achieved by the use
of step aerators. Since water can be pumped and is non-compressible, the energy of
compression is not lost in the system. Operators can pump water over a set of baffles, or
steps, and increase the surface area of the water, thus transferring oxygen at a much
cheaper rate. The limiting factor is being able to supply enough space for the reaction to
occur. At the Blountville, Tennessee sewer plant, water is pumped over baffles and the
average electricity cost per ton of B.O.D. removal is $89. In contrast, the CNW plant at
Coeburn, Virginia pumps air and the average cost per ton of B.O.D. removal for
electricity is $350. (Note- Blountville does not thicken sludge. The plant mixes the sludge
with lawn clippings, wood chips, leaves, etc. to make compost for land application.)
Efficiency is sometimes measured against a standard. Often the standard is the most that
can be achieved given a set of circumstances. For example, if a plant requires $50 worth
of energy to remove a ton of sewage from the water, then that number establishes the
efficiency for the energy required to remove the ton of sewage. When all the sewage is
removed at a cost of $50, the system is 100% efficient. If it takes a $100 worth of energy
a ton to remove the same ton of B.O.D., what would the efficiency be? The efficiency
would be 50%. How does efficiency work? 100 % efficiency is the standard by which all
processes are rated. Efficiency ratings are useful for progress monitoring. In other words,
efficiency compares work required with work accomplished in a meaningful way. For
improvements to occur in any system, a set standard is required to enable goals to be set,
maintained, and even broken. Efficiency deals with the utilization of the energy involved
within a system.
Efficiency can also be an inverse function of the process in the situation of transferring
energy. To illustrate, look at the process of raising animals. In order for a farmer to make
a profit from selling livestock, the output must be greater than the input. A pig farmer
would determine efficiency by the pounds produced in meat verses pounds in grain fed.
To improve efficiency, a farmer would only breed pigs, which consistently yielded an
increase in weight with the least amount of food. This process optimizes the food to
organism ratio. Organisms differ in efficiencies. Pigs are only about 35% efficient at
converting food to weight, while fish have been determined to be about 75% efficient in
food to weight gain. Some of the reasons for the difference can be attributed to the fact
that pigs and other warm blooded animals must keep themselves warm (sustain a
metabolism) while fish are dependent upon the surrounding water temperature to
maintain body temperature. Since less energy is spent controlling body temperature, fish
are more efficient at increasing weight for the same amount of food.
So far this lesson has covered the efficiency of removal, efficiency of transfer, and the
efficiency of gain, of which the example is weight. The concept of efficiency is important
when dealing with microorganisms. Microorganisms eat organic matter in the water.
Matching the food to microorganism ratio optimizes the growth of the microorganisms
and removal of B.O.D. Other conditions, such as pH, temperature, and D.O., affect
microorganisms and thus have an impact on efficiency. Conditions can be changed to
favor the growth of one type of microorganism over another to produce a desired effect
such as ammonia treatment by raising the pH and lowering the D.O. Water temperature is
harder to control because heating requires energy and is not cost effective.
Efficiency, power, and energy are interrelated. The energy produced divided by the
energy supplied defines the efficiency. For example, fuel oil is burned in a furnace to
produce heat. If all the fuel oil consumed provided useable heat, the furnace would be
100% efficient. Some of the heat is lost through the chimney and all the fuel is not burned
within the furnace. A furnace is only 80 to 85% efficient. Thus energy is related to
efficiency by the utilization there of. Energy is the ability to do work and can be either
potential or kinetic. Power is the way or system in which the energy is harnessed. There
are five basic power systems: electrical, mechanical, heat, light, and fluid. A car with a
200 horsepower motor has twice the power of a car with a 100 horsepower motor. The
car with more power is faster or in other words performs the same job at a faster rate. As
the power and rate increase, the effective utilization of energy decreases. To illustrate this
principle, water is transferred from inside the college to the greenhouse below. If the
water is allowed to flow through a 3/4-inch line all day, gravitational pull would be the
only energy required to accomplish the task. However, if the same amount of water was
supplied in 5 minutes throught the same size line and over the same distance, a 5000
horsepower pump would be required to accomplish the task. The distance of pipe, the
amount of water, and the size of the pipe remained constant in both situations. When the
allotted time was decreased, the amount of power required was increased, and the
efficiency of energy utilization decreased. Thus the faster a job is performed, the less
efficient a system becomes in the transfer of energy and the higher the monetary cost.
Efficiency requires balance in many different problems. All components must match for a
system to be efficient in energy transfer. For example, pumps have to match hydraulic
systems and even hammers have to match nails. A small hammer is ineffective at driving
a large nail and vice versa. The hammer must match the nail in order to provide the most
efficient transfer of energy. In addition among the concepts, vector forces contribute to
efficiency. The direction of force a hammer is applied can organize the power and energy
is such a way that either drives the nail in or glances off. Efficiency is an important
concept to an operator and is often implemented in the water waste/water field.
Lesson 19:
Disinfection
Note: All can kill or mame
I. Chlorine Gas: Produces Hypochlorous Acid. Disinfectant HOCl.
Gas - 99.9% concentrated yields100%
Toxic
• Heavy
• Corrosive
• Irritant
II. Sodium Hypochlorite: Up to 12%
Decomposed by:
• Temperature
• Light
• Physical Energy
III. Calcium Hypochlorite: 65-70%
HTH Swimming Pool type

IV. Bleach: 5% Chlorox, 3.5% Some other brands
V. Chlorine:
Kills bacteria and viruses, E-coli, Salmonella, Typhoid, Cholera, Shingella, Polio, but not
protozoans, Guardia, or Cryptosporidium.
Advantages:
• Well known
• Economical
Disadvantages:
• Produces trihalomethanes
• Slows the nervous system in people
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons are considered health hazards
• Corrosive
VI. Chlorine Dioxide: ClO2
• Oxidize all metals and organic matter

• Oxygen converts organic matter to carbon dioxide and water
• Kills protozoans and bacteria
• Generated on site
• Dangerous around activated carbon
• Must monitor chlorite
• Can produce odors
• Corrosive
VII. Chloramine of Ammonium Chloride:
Ammonia + Chlorine
Ratio: 4.5 : 1
• Good on bacteria and some protozoans

• Bacteria heat light breakdown
• In nature ammonia is converted to nitrate and uptaken by plants
VIII. Ozone:
• Kills by direct affect on DNA

• 30,000 times faster than chlorine
• Kills all pathogens but has no residual for system
• Corrosive
IX. UV Light:
• Deactivates protozoans so they can't reproduce

• Significantly reduces bacteria
Lesson 20:
Chemistry
pH
1. I have two containers in front of me, both are distilled water. One has a pH
of 6.93, the other has a pH of 7.3. No acid or base has been added to this
distilled water. What is in it?
2. Let's discuss pH. pH is a measure of a weak acid or base. Strong acids and
bases are measured in percent (%) concentration, molal, and normal.
These will be discussed in greater detail later. The Acetic acid in front of
me is 99.7% concentration or 99.7% pure. The base is one normal or one
molal. This is determined by dissolving (40 grams/assay value) in a liter of
water.
3. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. This corresponds to the disassociation

constant in water, 1014. This is not many of the number of molecules in a
gram molecular weight of a substance. This is a very small percentage of
the whole, approximately .00000007%. It makes no sense for us to
duscuss this in percentage concentration.
4. pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral.
5. pH is a scale that mimics normal environmental conditions. The pH of

Coke is approximately equal to 3. The pH of sodium bicarbonate is
approximately 9-10.
6. Calculations will be taught later.

7. What is in the water of (1). pH meters are electrically conductive,
therefore anything that ionizes or deionizes the water will read pH. Even
though it may be found concentrated in nature. Salt is in the solution,
sugar would do likewise, but in the opposite direction.
8. We will now do a lab on the use of a pH meter and an actual use in the
environment.
Lab
1. Calibrate - define buffer.
2. Check curve for hysterisis (known values are not coming back up when
new values at a different point are added.) This is calibration curve.
3. Measure substance.
4. Record measurement and change value to desired value.
The Case of a Chemical Reaction
What is a chemical reaction? Fire is an example of a chemical reaction. Normally a

chemical reaction gives up energy or absorbs energy. A chemical reaction normally goes
to a lower energy state. Here's an example: I want to burn a piece of paper. This will
depend upon:
• closeness of the paper and air

• thorough mixing of the paper and air
• reactive components
• energy give off, taking components to lower energy state
• catalyst or ignition source
The stages of fire are:
1. Ignition
2. Rapid combustion
3. Sustained combustion
4. Extinguishment or loss of energy released until a flame or reaction
cannot be sustained
This reaction occurs because of:
• closeness of paper, air and ignition

• by thorough mixing of reactive components
• paper + O2 → H2O + CO2
both reactive components and low energy states
• energy is released
• ignition occurs by a match which was ignited by mechanical
energy heat
Acids and bases react the same way. Diluted solutions do not have a rapid rate (K) of the
reaction. All of the reactants do not disappear as a solution is diluted. There is not enough
energy or closeness for a 100% reaction to ever occur. Like reactants do not react. (HCl +
HCl → HCl + HCl). It is harder to remove diluted concentrations than concentrated
concentrations. Too concentrated of a concentration will cause violent releases of energy
in some substances. In the lab we will give some examples of this. Calculations will
follow later. Protein synthesis absorbs energy.
The Case of Density and Specific Gravity
What is density? How is it used? From the earliest of times we have known about
density. Why do things float? Density is . Density is useful, it describes
closeness of materials in comparitive of soil to whether a substance floats if spilled on
water.
Specific gravity is . If specific gravity < 1, then it floats. If specific

gravity is > 1, it sinks. So dense objects sink in water and less dense objects float.
Now, let's take a sample of soil. We weigh the sample. We put sand in the hole to find
volume. The current density is . We dry the soil out, subtract it from the
original weight. This is % moisture.
Moisture determines compaction. Some soils won't compact best until moisture is 7-8%.
Dry dust doesn't compact and wet soil doesn't campact well.
The dried soil is now heated in a muffle furnace to 550°C. This weight subtracted from
the dried weight gives % organics.
Organics in soils help plants and permeability (to be discussed later). Organics in soils
hurt compaction and cause slipping and stability problems.
Density or specific gravity will determine where a compound can be found in water in
case of a spill. The specific gravity of gasoline is .6, so it floats. The specific gravity of
palmalive plus is 1.1, so it sinks.
The Case of Solubility
What is dissolved? What is suspended? Dissolved completely disappears into the water.
It cannot be removed by mechanical means, filtering, etc. Suspended can be removed by
filtering. Salt dissolves, flour suspends. Sometimes something that is dissolved suspends
such as water vapor converting to fog particles. Particles in a soltution reflect light and
hence we get turbidity. The reflected light being 90° from the source acts just like fog in
the air. Turbidity will be covered later on in detail.
Solubility is the amount of a substance that dissolves at a temperature. When this occurs,
we call the solution saturated. If a solution is heated to a warm temperature, dissolving
more substance and then cooled, we call this super saturated. If I lay a string in this super
saturated liquid salt, I can grow a crystal. Solubility is how much of a substance that
dissolves at a temperature. Examples will follow in lab.

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Lessons

Lesson 1: Wastewater (Nature's Way)

Lesson 4: Treatment Well

Lesson 5: Water Supplies

Lesson 6: Water Treatment

Lesson 8: Distribution System

Lesson 9: Water Tank Design

Lesson 10: Cross-Connections

Tips for Exam 1

Lesson 11: Storm Water

Lesson 12: Oxygen

Lesson 13: Septic Tanks

Lesson 14: Ponds

Lesson 15: Package Plant Aeration

Lesson 16: Oxidation Ditch

Lesson 17: Trickling Filter

Lesson 18: Efficiency

Lesson 19: Disinfection

Lesson 20: Chemistry

Evaporation and Rainfall

Purification in the Sky

Natural Water Treatment

Excerpted from: http://www.alltel.net/~mikeric/GLOSSARY.htm

From: College Chemistry, 1980 LC 79-88562 page 427:

1. The Importance of Watersheds

In this section we will answer the following questions:

Why Study Watersheds?

What in a watershed would be of concern to a potable water treatment operator? Let's

Potable Water Treatment

Waste Water Treatment

In this section we will answer the following questions:

Watershed Boundaries and Contamination

Another example of the effect of distance and greater volume on dispersing

Defining Watershed Boundaries on a Topographical Map

nearest city and state in the "Place Name Search" area.

Guest River Watershed

The Water/Wastewater department at Mountain Empire Community College did some

Responding to Contamination in Your Watershed

As a plant operator, you need to have an understanding of what potential sources of

Other Watershed Problems

Cryptosporidium Life Cycle

1. Find a topographical map which shows the region in which you

2. Mark the boundary of the watershed in whick you live or work.

4. Mark the first order streams in the watershed.

5. Mark potential sources of pollution in your watershed. Do you

Conditions for Reactions

In this section we will answer the following questions:

• What conditions are necessary for a reaction to occur?

Ingredients for a Reaction

To understand the treatment of water, we must gather a basic understanding of reactions,

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Acids and Bases

The following scale shows the pH of some common substances:

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The concentration, or strength, of a reactive component is important in determining

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Groundwater is an economical source of water, especially for small communities.

Treatment of Well and Spring Water

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• How is a new well disinfected?

While hypochlorinators are usually used to perform continuous chlorination in smaller

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