AGRO-FORESTRY

IN
ARID AND SEMI-ARID ZONES

Editor-in-Chief
K.A. SHANKARNARAYAN

ICAR

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE

JODHPUR - 342003, INDIA
1984
 Printed December 1984

CAZRI Publication No. 24

Editorial Board
K.A. SHANKARNARAYAN
Edi/or-in-Chie!
R. K. ABICHANDANI
P. K. GHOSH
AMAL KAR
S. KATHJU
A. K. SEN
Editors

. Copyright @ 1984, Central" Arid Zane Research Inst·itute; Jodhpur - 342003, India.
All rights reserved.
 Foreword
The concept of agro-forestry/farm
forestry has long been recognised as a
valuable device to help develop optimal
land uses under different agro-climatic
situations, particularly in the drought-
prone areas in the tropics and sub-tropics.
The National Commission on Agriculture
has also given considerable emphasis on
Agro-forestry in their Report (1976).
Introduction of tree component in
cropping systems in arid areas which
suffer acutely from water stress, and also
nutrient stress, offers a valuable cushion
against total crop failure to provide fuel,
fodder and even food under certain situa-
tions.
While the broad principles of agro-
forestry are well known and awareness
about the significance of agro-forestry is
increasing, there are also obvious gaps in
our knowledge when it comes to actual
New Delhi
November 29, 1984
practice of agro-forestry - particularly on
the social and ecological aspects. There
is considerable scope for multi-disciplin-
ary research in this field. The Central
Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
(ICAR) has already taken a lead in this
direction. With support from the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, the
CAZRI organised a Summer Institute in
1981 to review the current status of know-
ledge in the field of agro.forestry, its
relevance to our farming systems and
future needs for research. The Summer
Institute brought out many important
points and made valuable recommenda-
tions. Publication of the Proceedings of
the Summer Institute will be useful to
the scientists and development workers
alike. The Director and the scientists of
CAZRI who have worked for this publica-
tion deserve our appreciation.
a.p.Gautam
Director General, leAR
 Preface
Although the terminology Agro-
forestry is new and has only recently
been scientifically defined, the practice of
having trees in the farm fields and
cultivation of crops in the inter - spaces
of trees, particularly Khejri (Prosopis
cineraria) and Bord; (Zizyphus nummu[ar;a)
has been in vogue traditionally among
the farmers of Western Rajasthan. They
have long recognised the fertility building
characteristics of trees and their symbiotic
effects for good crop growth and higher
yields. Admittedly however. there was no
scientific approach to it because trees were
permitted to grow_ at random in the fields
and no attention \'vas paid to compatibility
and choice of trees and crops for greater
yields.
It has now been amply demonstrated
that in the fragile ecosystems of the arid
regions, agriculture alone would not be a
stable enterprise and, therefore, it has to
necessarily look to the support of
forestry into the farming system in
order to confer stability and generate
assured income.
The function of Agroforestry is
precisely to look into problems of land
use systems invo'ving both agriculture
and forestry and this would certainly need
a change in our research approach. To
begin with, we need to appreciate the
fundamental characteristics inherent in
all such systems: that they provide
multiple outputs from the same unit of
land in a sustainable way and that in some
form Or another interactions occur bet-
ween the two or more constituent plant
species, one of w"ich at least is a woody
perenni1t1 (tree or shrub, etc.). We are to
deal with relatively elaborate systems
for which programmes of investigations
need to be established that encompass
more complex space and time dimensions
than. tbose normally encountered in
agricultlJre and forestry. While we
explore the problems and possibilities of
intimately mixing trees/agricultural crops
and/or ~rasses, sometimes in conjunction
with animals as secondary producers, it
is bound to bring into focus constraints
requiring new lines of research approach
like (i) shade tolerance of various
agricultl.lral species, (ii) forest species
which protect the soils but do not reduce
the energy levels on the understorey,
(iii) breeding programmes designed to
obtain in both forest and tree species
and in crops those attributes and
characteristics that are necessary for
successful and efficient intercropping, and
(iv) the plant (topfeed)-animal interactions
and thei:r management.
To meet the foregoing objectives on
a concerted basis in the fragile ecosystems
of arid 3.nd semi-arid zones, and to com-
municate;: the latest technological advances
in this field to the concerned teachers and
vi ]
!Ip~cialists,
the Indian Council of Agricul-
tural Research thoughtfully arranged a
Summer Institute on Agroforestry in July,
1981 at the Central Arid Zone Research
Institute, Jodhpur. The topics for the
lectures covered in the Summer Institute
embraced such themes as:
(i) Agroforestry-Concept and Scope
(ii) Agro-c1imatology I iii) Soils and soil
fertilily (iv) Land use systems (v) Trees,
shrubs and crops in agroforestry
(vi) Complementary systems to agrofore-
Central Ar:d Zone Research Instit1lte,
Jodhpur.
stry (vii) Plant protection and t9xicology
(viii) Soil and Water conservation: Water
use (ix) Appropriate utilisation of agro-
forestry products and (x) Socio-economic
factors in agroforestry.
The defiberations of, and the future
lines of research that emanated from, the
Summer Institute have been compiled in
this volume in the hope that it will be of
value to the researchers and planners
engaged in this field of work.
K. A. Sbankaroarayao
Director
 CONTENTS

Foreword by G.P. Gautam ill

Preface by K.A. Shankarnarayan v
I. Agro-forestry-concept and scope
Agro-forestry, its concept and implication for a sound
land use goal by K.A. Shaftkarnarayan i
II. Agro-climatology
Climatic features of the arid and semi-arid regions
with special reference to agro-forestry by B. V. Ramana
Rao and A.S.R.A.S. Sastr; 5
Forest microclimate and its importance in agro-forestry
by Y.S. Ramakrishna 9
Studies on droughts and agricultural droughts : A
climatological approach by A.S.R.A.S. Sastri .•. 15
III. Soils and soil fertility
Soils of arid and semi-arid regions: their characteris-
tics and properties by R.P. Dhir 20
Soil physical constraints in relation to increasing the
arid zone productivity with particular reference to
agro-forestry "by H.P. Singh 30
Micronutrient status of soils for developing agro-
forestry in arid regions by D.C;. Joshi 35
Significance of agro-forestry programme as .indicated
by land use capability surveys in arid region by A.S.
Kolarkar 39
Management of sandy soils for higher productivity
by J.P. Gupta 43
.Management of saline and alkali soils by B.L: Jain 50
Influence of Prosopis cineraria and Acacia nilotica on
soil fertility and crops yields by K.A. Shankarnarayan 59
Role of micro organisms in improving the fertility of
aridisols by A.V. Rao 67
 viii)

IV. Land use systems

Agro-forestry-a multiple land use production system
by KA. Shankarnarayan 71
Shifting cultivation/Taungya cultivation-The need for
integrated and systematic approach by KD. Muthana 75
Land use pattern and overexploitation in Indian arid
zone by Amal Kumar Sen 80
Site quality assessment for afforestation by Suresh
Kumar .... 88-
V. Trees, shrubs and crops in agro-forestry
Tree and shrub species for agro-forestry systems in arid
and semi-arid regions by H.S. Mann 94
Soil-water-plant relationship in agro-forestry system
by A.N. Lallir; 99
Agro-forestry systems for drylands of arid and semi.
arid regions of India by R.P. Singh 107
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and bordi (Zizyp/zus nummu-
/aria)-multipurpose plants of arid and semi-arid regions
of India by S.x. Saxena ... III
Leucaena - a mUltipurpose leguminous tree for arid
and semi-arid zones by Subhash S. Arora 122
Improved crop varieties in agro-forestry by M. B.L,
Saxena 126
Intercropping systems for stabilizing agricultural
production in arid and semi-arid ZOnes by H.S. Daulay 132
VJ. Complementary systems to agro-forestry
Silvipastoral system-A pragmatic approach to efficient
integrated land management by KA. Shankarnarayan 137
Inter relationships of tree overstorey and understorey
vegetation in silvi-pastoral system by Vino~ Shankar 143
Grass - component in silvi-pastoral system with special
reference to Indian arid zone by T.K. Bhati 150
Role of horticulture in agro-forestry by B.B. Vashishtha 156
Range management in 'agro-forestry system in arid
regions of India by L.D. Ahuja 167
High yielding legumes for arid and semi-arid rangelands
by S.M.' Yadav 167
 [ ix

lJreediog for desirable forage attributes in range grasses

and legumes by R.S. Paroda 171
Utilization and management methods for browse
(Native) stands l1t1d plantations by R.B. Das 174
Palatability, digestibility and nutritive value of :some
'important top feeds of arid and semi-arid regions of
India by P.K. Ghosh and B.C. Bohra 180

VII. Plant protection and toxicology

Diseases in arid land crops and their management by
Satish Lodlza 186
Prospects of pest management in crops· and trees of arid
area by Satya Vir 192
Rok of rodent pests in agro-forestry system by Islrwar ," /

Prakash ... •.. ... .•. ' .. , 199

Termites and their control: a paramount need in agro-
forestry by D.R. Parihar ' •• 206
Role of birds in agro-forestry by B. D. Rana 211
VIII. Soil and water conservation: water use
Soil and water conservation in agricultural land by
M.L. Khybri 216
Conservation farming in arid areas by K.C. Singh 222
Optimum use of scarce water in arid agriculture by Y. V.
Singh 227
Saline water use in agro-forestry by B.L. Jain 232

IX. Appropriate utiJisation of agro-forestry products

The problems of fuel wood in arid and semi-arid regions
of Rajasthan by R.C. Soni 239
Selection of species for fuel wood plantation in arid
and semi-arid areas by K.D. Muthana .,. 243
Industrially economic plants in agro-forestry by Ashok
K. Raina .• ,. 253
Chemical constituents of economic value from plants
of arid and semi·arid regions by Abu Ghanim 257
Post harvest technology - solar energy utilization by
Jagdish P. Gupta 261
x 1
X. Socio-economic factors in agro-forestry
Traditional agro-forestry practices in arid zone oC
Rajasthan by S.P. Malhotra 263
Consolidation of holdings, land tenure and related
problems in agro-forestry by M.L. Purohit 267
. Benefit-cost considerations in agro-forestry by Mruthy-
unjaya 276
Role of institution in agro-forestry development by
L.P. Bharara ... 231

XI. Reflections for the future 287

Acknowledgements by K.D .. Muthana 239
List of Contributors 291
CAZRI Monograph Series 294
 Agro-forestry, its concept and implication
for a sound landuse goal
K. A. Shankarnaryan
The concept of agro-forestry implies
the integration of farming with forestry
practices on the farm to the benefit of
agriculture. This concept perhaps origin-
ates from the realisation that trees play a
a vital role in safeguarding the long range
jnterests of agrkulture and in making
agricultural economy viable.
The practice of agro-forestry is of
immense importance to us in India for it
is intimately linked with the question of
increasing food production ~o meet the
needs of our burgeoning population, the
conservation of our soil and moisture
resources so very important for arid and
semiarid regions.
Properly distributed tree growth acts
as a foster mother to agriculture. This is
particularly true in dry inhospitable clim-
ates. Tree growth in such cases conserves
soil moisture, increases atmospheric hum-
idity, improves soil fertility, protects field
crops against the scorching and desiccat-
ing effects of winds and generally make
the climate more equable and pleasant,
thereby stepping up agricultural yields.
Although these beneficial effects have
been fully demonstrated in some advance-
cd countries like Canada, the U.S.A. and
the U.S.S.R., no such systematic efforts
have been made in India. Yet, enterpris-
ing farmers in most parts of the country
have been generally aware of the advant-
ages accruing from tree growth and hence
often encouraged it through individual
efforts.
In addition to amelioration of
adverse climatic conditions, tree culture is
necessary to ensure readily available and
adequate supplies of cheap fuel wood in
villages, so that cow-dung, which is still
being burnt on large scale (about 60 per
cent) for cooking purpose, is released for
Use as farm yard manure. Besides fuel
wood trees, fruits and/or timber yielding
trees would not only enrich the diet of
rural population but will also meet the
demand of timber for farmers and small
scale rural industries. Further, the integ-
ration ()f fodder trees in the programme
would also provide the much needed top
feed (fodder) for sustenance of livestock
during the two major lean periods. In
other words, we need to devise such a
land management and farming system
which would produce food, fruit, fodder
and wood and at the same time conserve
the ecosystem. Such a system is agrofo-
restry.
Agro-!orestry defined
King (1978) while clarifying the
concept of agroforestry, has distinguished
the various sub-divisions of agroforestry
as stated below:
 Agro-silviculture " The conscious and
de,liberate use of land for the concurrent
production of agricultural crops and for-
est crops.
Agri-silvipastoral " Here the land is
managed for the concurrent production
of agricultural and forest crops and for
rearing of domesticated animals.
Multipurpose forest tree production
system: In this system the forest tree
species are regenerated and managed for
their ability to produce not only wood
but also leaves and/or fruits that are
suitable for fodder and/or food.
In all agroforestry land management
systems,there are two essential and related
aims : the systems should conserve and
improve the site and at the same time
optimise the combined production of
forest crops and agricultural crops.
A unique soil nutrient recycling system
It is well known that in the tropics,
there is often considerable loss of nutri-
ents through erosion and leaching as well
as loss sustained by the removal of
nutrients by agricultural crops. In
such instances if a system can be devised
whic,h will minimise erosion, through the
judicious selectiQn of tree species which
tap nutrients that are not normally avai-
lable to the shallower rooting agricultural
c_rops, that system will increase the level
of fertility and will replace the nutrients
taken out by the annual agricultural
crops. Agro-forestry is no doubt an .ans-
wer for such a system.
Agroforestry is thus versatile and
~ay be ,aptly compared with the "Mul-
tiple cropping" systems of agriculturists
2
(Beets, 1978), which enjoins the cultivation
of more than one crop on the same piece
of land at different times of the year and
this might be likened to the planned
fallows of agroforestry in which forest
land is cleared and cultivated and their
tree species chosen mainly for their rapid
soil ameliorating characteristics. These
trees are in turn felled after the original
level of soil fertility is restored or impro-
ved and the sequence is continued.
Biological principles in agro-forestry
Having defined the agroforestry
systems and their comparison with
multiple cropping system of agriculture,
it is necessary now to examine the vast
range of biological principles and data
which ought to be taken into considera-
tion in the practices of agroforestry. This
calls for animated discussion on the
possibilities of new approaches in the
selection of forest species and agricultural
crops and in the choice of managcmentJ
practices.
The mam problem besetting this
system is the inherent potentiality of
competition among the different types of
species for solar energy, nutrients and
water. We must, therefore, in agro-fores~
try aqdress ourselves to the selection of
species that are compatable with each
other and indeed complement each other.
The object should be to optimise the joint
productivity of both agricultural and
forest crops.
If this principle is accepted then the
tree species chosen to be grown in con-
junction with agricultural crops should
inter alia have the following characteris-
tics (King, 1979) :
(a) they should be, amenable to early
wide espacement,
(b) they should, tolerate relatively high
incidence of pruning, i. e., their
photosynthetic efficiency should not
decrease with heavy pruning.
(c) they should have a low crown dia-
meter to bole diameter ratio, i.e.,
the width of the crown should be
small relative to bole diameter,
(d) they should be light branching in
their habit,
(e) they should be tolerant of side-
shades,
(f) their phyllotaxis should permit the
penetration of light to the ground,
(g) their phenology, particularly with
reference to leaf flushing ~nd leaf
fall, should be advantageous to the
growth of the annual crop in con-
junction with which they are being
raised.
(h) the rate of litter fall and litter
decomposition should have posi-
tive effects on the soil,
(i) the above gound changes over time
in structure and morphology should
be such that they retain or improve
those characteristics which reduce
competetion for solar energy. nutri-
ents and water,
(j ) their root systems and root growth
characteristics shoUld ideally re~;ult
in exploration of soil layers that are
different to those being tapped by
agricultural crops.
The same procedure applies to the
agriculture crop components of the
system.
3
The concept 'oj ,plant architecture and
geometry
From the foregoing it is obvious
that the plant architecture and geometry,
morphology, the phenology of trees, root
growth and activity are important para-
meters influencing the growth and produc-
tion of associated agriculturel crops. Cho-
ice of multipurpose trees can be of econ 0-
mic and social significance on the farms of
individuals and in villages. Other factors
that need attention are the influence of
genotype and environment on dry matter
distribution in herbaceous and woody
plants, the effects of management on plant
growth, dry matter distribution and plant
development and the factors affecting the
plant nutrient neeels.
The genetics and breeding aspects
for both trees and crops for the desirable
attributes mentioned above need no
emphasis if agroforestry is to improve
and take the pride of place in any land
management system practised today.
Systems approach-A paramoullt need
In order to optimise the management,
the environmental resources and the plant
responses to agroforestry. it is paramount
to adopt a systems approach to agrofor-
estry. This is important if we are to
encompass and appreciate all the variables
which 'exist in a system which attempts
to combine the concurrent production of
annuals and perennials of herbaceous
and woody plants-a system in which the
problems of utilising the space effectively
are compounded by the problems of
change in size, shape and responses over
time.
Institutional requirements in agro forestry
Above all, like any other system of
rural developments, the success of the
system depends in many cases upon the
provision of incentive, social amenities
and services and marketing facilities.
Therefore, this factor has to be borne in
mind while examining the relevance of
agroforestry systems to social and eco-
nomic development. To this end the
Institutional requirements also assume
great importance.
Looking to the magnitude and
complexity of factors involved, the need
for eschewing the false dichotomy bet-
ween forestry .and agriculture cannot be
overemphasised if agroforestry system is
to be successful.
While the agroforestry system port-
ends to be the most efficient and integra-
4
ted landuse management system, ever
devised by man, systematic and organized
researches are required into the various
facets of investigations outlined above,
in order to generate quantified data that
shall have immense value for field appli-
cation. The challenge is great, but the
rewards are far reaching.
REFERENCES
Beets, w.e. 1978 : Multiple cropping
systems reviewed. Span 21(3),
King, K.F.S. 1978 Agroforestry. PCIJ?,er
presented to the 50th Agricultural Con-
ference. Amsterdam.
King, K.P.S. 1979. Some principles of
agro-forestry. Key note address deli-
vered at the Nationai Seminar on Agro-
forestry in India, May 16-18, 1979.
Shillong.
 Climatic features of the arid and serni-arid regions
with special reference to agro-forestry
B. V. RamaDa Rao aDd A. S. R. A. S. Sastry
For the development of agro-fore-
stry in the arid and semi-arid regions of
India, it is of primary importance to
understand the climatic features of the
regions, so that major climatic constra-
ints can be identified.
As a matter of fact the important
climatic constraints for the development
of agro-forestry are the moisture and
light factors. The moisture availability
is a climate-dependent parameter based
on the distribution of rainfall and
evapotranspiration, while light factor is
dependent more on biological factors
like species of the forest, age of the
trees as well as the spacing of the trees,
rather than the climatic factors.
Before analysing the climatic
feature for the development of agro-
forestry in arid and semi-arid regions, it
is important to identify the arid and semi
arid regions. Here two major climatic
classifications that are widely used (i.e.,
Koppen's and Thornthwaite's) and as
applied to India are discussed.
Based on the analysis of different
water availability periods, the possibility
of agro-forestry in the arid and semI-arid
regions of Rajasthan are examined.
Climatic classification
Koppen, in 1900, divided the earth's
surface into five great zones, separated
from each other by certain critical values
of temperature and rainfall. The main
climatic types, Tropical (A), Warnv tem-
perate (C), Boreal (D) and Polar (E) were
separated from each other by the mean
values of temperature and the sub-divis-
ions under each were demarcated accord-
ing to the seasonal distribution of rainfall.
His dry climates (B) were those with
annual rainfall less than a threshold
value that depended on the annual
-temperature as given below:
R=O.44 (T-K)
Where R is the critical value of precipita-
tion (inch), T is the annual tempera-
ture CF) and K is a constant whose
magnitude is determined by the seasonal
distribution of precipitation.
Stations having rail fall greater than
R thus come under humid group, while
those with annual rainfall less than R/2
are called absolute deserts (BW) and
stations' with annual rainfall between R
and R/2 are under steppe climate (BS).
Based on Koppen's classification
5
Subrahmanyam et af (1965) found Moisture index Climatic type Ceod
that the Steppe (BS) climate is the most
100& adove per humid A
extensive irl India running from north
India down to the central portion of
80-100 )
60-80
40-60 } Humid
1H3
H4
B2
south India, To the west of the semidry 20-40 HI
region in the north is the true desert 0-20 Moist subhumid ,C2
zone. The Steppe (BS) climate and the -33.3 to-O Dry subhumid Cl
-66.6 to -33.3 Semi arid D
true desert :zone can be attributed to the
-100 to -66.7 Arid E
arid region according to Thornthwaite's
classificatiorl. Thus the arid and semi-arid regions
Thornthwaite's (1948) scheme is are mainly dry regions with the moisture'
based on fundamental considerations of indices less than 33,3.
thermal and moisture effectives. For this
purpose he proposed an index- "Potential A map was prepared by Subrahm-
evapotranspiration" (PE) which is defi- anyam et ol (1965), delineating different
ned as the maximum evaporation from climatic zones of India according to
soil and transpiration from vegetation Thornthwait scheme. According to this
that can take place over an extended area, classification the whole of western
provided there is adequate supply of India is arid with the' semi arid zone
moisture. Taking this PE as water adjoining it on the other end extending
demand and rainfall as supply, Thornth- downward to the tip of the Peninsula.
waite (1948) proposed a water budgeting Analysis of water availability periods
technique by a book-keeping procedure
A knowledge of the commencement
which he later modified with Mather
and duration of the water availabity peri-
(1955). From the water budget analysis
ods gives an idea.of the moisture status of
one can arrive at the actual evapotrans-
the soil and it helps in proper planning
piration, water deficit and water surplus,
of agro-forestry in a given region. The
with rainfall and PE as inputs.
different periods of water availability
From the water balance parameters
are designated following the method
Thornthwaite worked out moisture
proposed by Cocheme and Franquin
index as
. (S-D) (1967).
1m = 100 (PE) ,
Humid period: When rainfall exceeds
Where S = annual water surplus potentia\ evapotranspiration {P> PE}
D = annual water deficit
PE = annnal water need. Moist period : When rainfall exceeds
Regiorls with positive values of half the PE values but falls below the
moisture indices come under' humid (PE>P< PE).
PE va Iues 2
climates and with negative values come
under dry climates. The climatic class i- Submoist period: When rainfall exceeds
ficat,ion proposed by Thornthwaite (1955) PE/4 and falls below PE/2 values
is as follows: (PE/2>P> PE/4).

6
'tl
o
.;:
<l)
~

,
gz.~>.g~
, .
:l ::s :l ::; ::J :l
~-,,~......, .......
o-.r"''1"'''"¢
N _ .....

....
ii ::>
C>.
o .c
~ -0
.c ...,o
0...

7
 Using the graphical interpolation of light factor. With proper management
monthly mean potential evapotranspira~ of light penetration into the forest, with
tion estimated by Penman's method and regular lopping, agro-forestry can be
the rainfall, along with the lines of PE/2 developed in these regions.
arid PE/4, the water availability periods
RFEERENCES
worked out for various arid and semi~
arid regions of Rajasthan. It may be Cocheme, J. and Franquin, P. 1967. An
seen from Table 1 that in the arid regions agroclimatology survey of a semi-
of Rajasthan, the humid period normally arid area in Africa: South Sahara.
does not occur in any region except FAO/WMO Tech. B?lll. 86.
Jodhpur and that too only for a period Koppen, W. 1990. Versuch einer klassifi-
of 7 days. Under these circumstances, cation der Beziehungen zur pflazenwelt
chances of success of agro~forestry are Geograph Z. 6: 593-611; 657-679.
rathes poor in these regions, but suitable
Krishnan, A. 1978. Climatological
silvi-pastoral systems may be adopted
Research at CAZRI, Jodhpua, 1962-
here. Krishnan (1978) observed that the
68. CAZRI Monograph No. 10,
native vegetation in the arid zone extract
Jodhpur.
moisture even below the wilting point and
is more extravagant in water use comp- Subrahmanyam, V. P., Subba Rao and
ared to bajra crop which restricts the Subramaniam, A.R. 1965. Koppen
success of agro-forestry systems. and Thronthwaite system of climatic
classification as applied to India. Ann.
However, in the semi arid region
Arid Zone. 4, (1): 46-55.
of Rajasthan the humid period may
occur, ranging from 31 days in Ajmer Thornthwaite, C. W., 1948. An appro-
arid Jaipur to 91 days in the Udaipur ach towards rational classification of
region. Thus, agro-forestry can be climates. Geog. Rev. 38: 55-94.
developed in the semi-arid region of - - - - - and Mather, J. R. 1955. The
Rajasthan under normal rainfall condit- water balance. Publ. in Climatology,
ions. Here the only climatic constraint Drexel Inst. Tech., New Jersey, 8(1):
for development of agro-forestry is the 104.

8
 Forest microclima te and its importance In
agro-forestry
Y.S. Ramakrishna
With the increasing importance of
afforestation in the arid and semi-arid
regions the need to understand the forest
microclimate has become an essential
factor in selecting suitable tree species
that can come up in a specified region.
Before any species, whether a crop or a
pasture, is introduced in to a forest eco-
system knowledge of its compatability
to the environmental conditions available
beneath the tree canopy pecomes essen-
tial. A clear understanding of the forest
microclimate, thus, becomes a prerequisite
for its successful adoption.
Of the various microclimatic para-
met~rs, knowledge of the incidence of
radiation and its interception by the forest
canopy, the temporal variations in air
temperature, soil temperature, relative
humidity, wind speed and interception of
rainfall by the canopy structure are of
great importance in the silvipastoral and
agro-forestry systems as they decide
the suitability of a particular crop or
grass to be introduced into the forest
ecosystem.
Radiant energy penetration
In the tropical regions radiant
energy is generally assumed to be abun-
9
.
dant for plant growth. This is true to
certain extent since in plants, exposed
to full insolation, there is tremendous
excess of unused light. However, leaves
transmit about 10 per cent of light imp-
inging on them and as such light and
energy penetration is often affected by
the screening action of the foliage, with
the tallest species (the tree) receiving the
full insolation while the under-shrubs
receive subdued insolation. Thus radiant
energy penetration is one of the important
factors that influences the success of the
pasture or crop establishment in an effici-
ent silvipastoral/agroforestry system. This
is so because most of the seeds require
considerable light energy for stimulation
and they germinate better with proper
exposure to light and under proper soil
thermal environment, maintained by
adequate radiant energy (Jackson, 1959).
Apart from this, photosyn thesis utilises the
visible wave lengths (0.3 to 0.7 p.) of radia-
tion and plant growth demands synthesis
in excess of the respiratory use by carbon
compounds which defines the minimum
amount of light energy required for the
pl~nts and is known as the 'compensa-
tion point'. Thus, when insufficient light
energy is available and photosynthesis is
curtailed, the roots of the plants suffer
 the most restriction in growth. Inadequate
development of root system in turn
inhibits the plant growth and dry matter
production (Daubenmire, 1974).
Attempts were made at the Central
Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur,
to introduce in 1977 Cenchrus ciliaris
grass over a 4 ha plot having 13 year
old un lopped tree of Acacia tortiUs. The
grass seeds were sown in the interspaces
(3m x 3m) in the Acacia tortilis plantation
during the third week of July just after
substantila rains (ISO mm) were received.
The moisture content in the soil profile
was adequate (6 to 7 per cent) and was
not a limiting factor for germination.
However, germination and growth of the
grass seedlings remained very poor. the
reasons for which could be found in the
diurnal variations in the total and net
radiant energy available beneath the tree
canopy.
The total radiant energy received
and the net radiant energy available in
the open field and beneath the Acacia
tortiUs plantation are presented 111
Table l.

Table 1. Diurnal variation of radiation in open and under Acacia tortilis plantation
(Monsoon 1977)
Hour of Total radiation (Watts/m:!) Net radiation (Wattsfm 2 )
the day In open Under Energy In Under Energy
(hrs 1ST) Acacia penet- open Acacia penetration
torti/is ration(%) tortilis (%)
1100 814 187 23 335 57 17
1200 788 205 26 323 77 24
1300 1068 278 26 402 68 17
1400 978 235 24 306 46 15
1500 814 244 30 278 61 22
1600 692 180 26 254 38 15
1700 394 55 14 201 32 16
It can be clearly seen that there that for successful introduction of
was a ~harp decrease in the net and total grasses in a silvi-pastoral system or for
radiant energy ben(!ath the mature Acacia .adoptioll of agro-forestry system success-
tortilis plantation. The total incoming ful manipulation of the canopy cover, if
radiation was only 14 to 30 per cent of necessary through lopping, is essential
that received in the open while the net so that light/radiant energy does not
radiant energy was only 15 to 24 percent, become a limiting factor for the growth
indicating poor light energy available for of the crop or grass in the system (Rama-
growth of grass beneath the tree canopy. krishna et al., 1980).
The result was a poor establishment of
Air temperature
the Cenchrus ciliaris grass cover because
sufficient energy was not available for As both the growth and reprodue-
photosynthesis. This study, thus indicates tion of crops depend upon the. efficient

10
rate at which plants accumulate organic
compounds, optimum (cardinal) tempera-
tures are essential for photosynthesis.
The photosynthesis-respiration relation-
ship which depends highly on the ambient
temperature, plays a vital role in the
accumulation of carbohydrates and in
controlling the adaptability of crops in
the agro-forestry system.
It has been the feeling of the earlier
workers that temperature is a factor which
need not be considered in the tropics,
since the monthly average temperatures
calculated for most of the meteorological
sites in the tropical forest zone is prover-
bially equal (Kooper, ]927). However the
diurnal variations in temperature does
indicate considerable fluctuations in
temperature which may become obscure
when mean monthly temperatures are
considered. Forest ecosystem does show
a diurnal variation in temperature which
is different from that recorded in open
sites. Superimposed on these diurnal and
seasonal fluctuations are the differences
in temperature between various layers of
the forest canopy.
Studies carried out in a 7 year old
Acacia tortilis plantation (Ramakrishna
and Sastri, 1977) during the monsoon
season at Jodhpur showed that during
the morning period air temperature
beneath the tree canopy were lower by
0.1 ° to O.7°C than those recorded in the
open, while during the afternoon period
the temperatures underneath the tree
canopy remained lower by as much as
0.6° to 2.0°C than those recorded in the
open.
Studies by Cachan and Duval(1963)
in the rain forest of the Ivory Coast
II
showed that the diurnal 'temperature
ranges were higher near the top of the
tree canopy and decreased towards the
surface. They recorded a diurnal range of
1O.8°C at 46 metre height near the top
of the emergent trees, while the diurnal
ran'ge was only 4.4°C at I metre above
the ground in the under-growth. Their
studies have also shown that a remark-
able similarity in minimum temperatures
exist along the whole vertical profile
beneath a forest canopy.
Soil temperature
The temperature of plant organs
tends to follow that of the immediate
environment closely. Root temperatures
of crops and trees remain almost identical
to soil temperatures except where rising
transpiration stream pulls cool water
through roots into the warn surface
layer of the soil (Waggoner. 1953). Thus.
in an agro-forestry system soil tempera-
ture in the top soil layers is of great
importance to the growth of crops
beneath the tree canopy.
Inside the forest canopy soil tempe-
rature is controlled mainly by the average
air temperature an~ is only slightly affec-
ted by changes' in soil moisture. The
differences in soil temperature recorded
beneath the tree canopy and that in the
open are highest at the surface and the
difference decreases with soil depth. Also
the diurnal range of soil temperature is
lower under the tree canopy because of
the interception of the radiant energy by
the forest canopy.
Measurement of soil temperatures
in' an agro-forestry system wherein guar
was sown beneath the Acacia tortiUs
(7 year old) tree cover during the 1977
khariJ season indicated that the mean
 daily maximum soil temperature beneath are usually 4 to 10 times greater than
the tree cover were lower by as much as those measured under the tree canopy.
10° to 16°C in the top soil zone (0.5 cm) Johnson el at (1975) interestingly found
and 4 ° to 5°C at 30 cm depth than those a correlation between decrease in wind
recorded in the open, which indicates a travel and interceptlon of solar radiation
better soil thermal regime under the tree beneath forest canopies. This correlation
plantation for the adoption of the agro- does not, however, imply a direct rela-
forestry system. tionship between these two parameters,
Studies by Schulz (1960) in the but indicates that both the parameters
Surinam rain forest interestingly revealed are partially depenent on the same
that the yearly average soil temperature parameter, viz. density of leaves on the
was practically equal to the average air tree canopy. In the forest zones in the
temperature in the under-growth of the arid and semi-arid regions of India, wind
forest. Studies by Ramakrishna et of speed and interception of solar radiation
(1980) indicated that the soil temperature can be expected to be Jaw during the
at 5 cm depth in the open and the screen monsoon season (June to September)
air temperatures are highly correlated when the leaf density is at its maximum.
indicating the possibility of estimation Wind profile studies by.Oliver(l975)
of soil temperatures from air temperature show that under lapse conditions wind
measurements itself. Such studies can structure under the tree canopy follows
also be extended to the forest canopy in the normal logarithmic profile while
the arid and semi-arid regions to study under stable atmospheric conditions wind
their suitability for adoptin'g agro-forestry penetration into the canopy is less. In
system. the trunk region, however, wind profiles
Wind structure show an increase in wind penetration,
When air is in motion the evapora- which increased with decreasing wind
tion process becomes strongly affected speed and greater instabilities. This is of
by convection. Wind increases transpira- great consequence in agro - forestry
tion by removing layers of humid air systems as it indicates the possibility of
which tend to accumulate adjacent to the air-borne diseases to be transported over
plant 'surfaces. Under the influence of considerable distances from one canopy
dry!ng wind, plants never' attain satis- to other via the trunk space as well as
factory levels of turgidity and the consti- across the top of the trees aQd also
tuent cells become fixed at subnormal affects carbondioxide exchange in the
sizes resulting in dwarfing, low dry cropped area beneath the tree canopy.
matter production and early maturity of Relative humidity
crops. Knowledge of wind speed and 1!-ir All factors remaining constant, an
flow patterns within a forest are thus of increase in the relative humidity decreases
great importance in agro-forestry. the rates of evaporation and transpira-
Studies by Geiger (1965) indicate tion, because the vapour pressure gradient
that the wind velocities outside a forest between the atmosphere and the moist

12
 surface is lpwered. The evaporative . plant~tion. On an average 25 per cent of
power of the air is increased by high the rain water falling over the area is
temperature and wind as well as by low directly evaporated from the crown of
relative humidity beneath the tree canopy the .tree canopy (Freise, 1936) and in
also plays an important rofe in thick forests 40 per cent of the rain water
promoting the growth of crops beneath runs down the limbs and trunks of the
the tree canopy in an agro - forestry tree as stem flow and is partly absorbed
system. As the inter - tree spaces are by the Qark and partly evaporated from
covered by crop vegetation. the shading the area near the tree trunk .
. by the crop as well as by' the tree
Rainfall interception studies carried
canopy above, reduced air temperature,
out in Acacia tortilis plantations of 13 and
interference in wind movement and the
7 years of age and in Holoptelia integri-
water vapour given off by the leaves, all
folia plant cover (8 year old) at Jodhpur,
conspire to reduce the evaporation rate
indicated that under moderate to heavy
(Daubenmire, 1974). Studies carried out
rainfall conditions (20 to 35 mm) the
in an agro-forestry system comprising of
rainfall interception varied between 23 to
Acacia torti/is (7 year old plantation)
33 per cent and 14 to 19 per cent respe-
and guar crop at Jodhpur (Ramakrishna
ctively under the two Acacia torti/is
and Sastri, 1977) indicated that the mean
plantations while it was only 3 to 8 per
daily relative humidity values recorded
cent under the Holoptelia integrifolia
beneath the tree canopy during the active
plant cover, which can directly be attri-
cropping season of guar w~re found to be
buted to the plant shape and dense plant
about 7 per cent more than that in the
cover of the Acacia tortilis tree species.
open.
These studies thus indicate that tree
Rainfall interception canopy structure and density also control
the water availability beneath the tree
One of the m3jor factors that need
canopy and thus play major roles in the
careful consideration in agro - forestry
successful adoptation of the agro-forestry
system is the rainfall interception by the
system.
tree canopy and the stem flow. In the
arid and semi-arid regions where water Conclusion
availability is a limiting factor for crop Agro-forestry in the arid and semi-
growth, the normal success of a crop in arid regions involves a host of problems
a given region does not indicate that it for its success, the first and foremost
would be successful in an agro-forestry being the water availability beneath the
system, since the characteristics of rain tree cover for the unde rgro\\>th crops 10
water availability for plant growth is survive and succeed. Various other
completely different beneath the tree mi<;roclimatic factors also influence, to
cover as compared to that in the open. a great extent, the adaptability and
The rainwater availability to crops is success of the crop factor in the agro-
often very less in an agro-forestry system forestry system, like the light and radiant
because of the canopy structure of the tree energy availability at the surface beneath

13
the tree cover, the air and soil tempera-
tures, humidity and wind flow. There is
thus a strong need to study and under-
stand the microclimatic conditions
available, before any crop is introduced
in the forest ecosystem.
REFERENCES
Cachan, P. and Duval, J. 1963. Varia-
tions microclimatiques verticales et
Saisonnieres dans ]a forest Sempervi-
rente de Basse Cote d' Iveire. Ann.
Fac. Sci. Dakar 8: 5-87.
Daubenmire 1974. Plants and Environment
Wiley Eastern Private Ltd. New
Delhi. 422 P.
Freise, F. 1956. Das Binnenklima von
Urwaldern in Subtropicehen Brasilien.
Petermann's Milt. 82: 301-7.
Geiger, R. 1965. The climute near the
ground. Hardward University, Cam-
bridge, Mass., 611 P.
Jackson, L.W.R. 1959. Relation of pine
forest overstory opening diameter to
growth of pine production. Ecology
40: 478-80.
Johnson, F.L., Bell. D.T. and Sipp, S.K.
1975. A comparison of urban and
14
forest microc1iruates ih the midwestern
United States. Agri. Met. 14: 335-45.
Kooper, W.J.C. 1927. Sociological and
ecological studies on the tropical
weed-vegetation of Pasurvan (the
Island of Java), Recl. Trav. bot. neer,
24 : 1-256.
Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sastri. A.S.R.A.S.
1977. Microclimate under Acacia torti-
lis plantation. Annual Progress Report
1977. CAZRI, Jodhpur 69-70.
Ramakrishna, Y.S., Sastri, A.S.R.A.S.
and Muthana, K.D. 1980. A note on
the importance of radiant energy
penetration in silvipastoral systems.
Myforest (Accepted for publication).
Ramakrishna, Y.S., Sastri, A.S.R.A.S.
and Krishna. G.V.S.R. 1980. Soil and
air temperature relationship in the
Indian arid zone (communicated to
Ind. J. Soil Sc.)
Schulz, J.P. 1960. Ecological studies on
rain forest in Northern Suriname. Ams-
terdam, North Holland.
Waggoner. P.E. 1953. Stem and root
temperatures, Phytopath 43: 317-18.
 Studies on droughts' and agricultural droughts .
A climatological' approach
A.S.R.A.S. Sastri
Drought is a climatic anomaly
characterised by deficient supply of
moisture. Such deficiency may result from
sub-normal rainfall, erratic rainfall dis-
tribution, excessive water need or a com-
bination of all thesethree. As the required
magnitude of deficiency was not agreed
upon, drought means different things to
different people (Maunder 1970). Several
definitions of drought are available in the
literature. However, no universally accep~
ted definition has so far been developed
(Haunam, et ai. 1975.) Bagnouls and
Gaussen (1957) considered a month as
dry when its mean rainfall (p) is less than
twice the normal temperature (T). Dry-
ness prevails when
P< 2 T
where P is in mm and T is in °C
Ramdas and Mallik (1948) defined
drought as a week with actual rainfall
equal to half the normal rainfall or less.
According to the National Commi-
ssion on Agriculture (1976) droughts can
be classified in to 3 categories.
i) Meteorological drought: It is a
situation where there is significant (more
than 25 per cent) decrease from normal
p' ec' pitation over an area.
ii) Hydrological druught : Meteoro-
logical drought, if prolonged, results in
15
hydrological drought with marked deple-
tion of surface water and consequent
drying up of reservoirs, lakes, streams
and rivers, cessation of spring flows and
fall in ground water level.
iii) Agricultural drought: It occurs
when soil moisture and rainfall are
inadequate during the growing season to
support healthy crop growth and cause
extreme crop stress and wilt.
As the hydrological drought is the
result of prolonged meteorological
drought, and as the data on ground water
level is not as readily available as the
meteorological data, drought studies on
meteorological and agricultural aspects
are described below:
1. Meteorological droughts
The meterological drought over an
area for a year has been defined recently
by India Meteorological Department as a
situatioll when annual rainfall over the
area is less than 75 per cent of the normal.
Moderate drought prevails when 25 to 50
per cent of the norm mal allnuaf rainfall
occurs.
The drought can be defined in terms
of' the moisture deficiency which is a
balance between the water availability and
water demand. For an analytical study
of drought in India, the aridity index Ja
(ratio of annual water deficit to annual
water need) of Thornthwaite (1948) is
found to be a very useful parameter
(Subrahmanyam and Subramaniam,
1964). For classification of drought inten-
sity the departure of aridity index from its
mean value was chosen and an arbitrary
scheme was developed by earlier workers
(Subramaniam, 1961; Subrahmanyam,
1967).
However, an analysis of the aridity
and drought occurrences revealed that
this criterion does not reflect the true
conditions in the arid region of western
Rajasthan. Hence the scheme of drought
classification reported by the earlier
workers was slightly modified (Sastri and
Ramakrishna, 1967) as
Departure of La Drought
from the normal Intensity
Less than mm t T Moderate
i - to IT Large
(1 to 1t 'T Severe
G;eater than I!,. Disastrous
Where q is the standard deviation
of la, worked out for a maximum number
of years.
Based on the modified scheme of
drought classification, the drought clima-
tology of various regions of western
Rajasthan was studied (Sastri & Rama-
krishna, 1980). According to the study
the years 1918, 1968 and 1969 were the
disastrous drought years in more or less
all the regions of Western Rajasthan ..
Also, it was observed that the
decades 1911-20, 1921-1930 and 193!-40
were the highest drought-affected decades
16
and as a whole during the period 1911-40,
drought conditions prevailed in some part
of the region or the other.
Incidence of droughts
Droughts do not descend all of a
sudden, but are usually the ultimate result
of a set of weather sequences that require
extended periods to develop (Linsley et
al., 1959). In view of this, studies on the
incidence of droughts over Western
Rajasthan were carried out by Ra111a
krishna and Sastri (1980). The study indi-
cated that the occurence and spread of
drought is not a sporadic event in Western
Rajasthan but has a general tendency to
originate in the northeast region, spread
towards southwest direction and dissipate
with an easterly movement. .
Agricultural droughts
Knowledge of the frequency of
occurrence of agricultural drough t of
varying intensities for different crops is of
fundamental importance for identifying
the crops better suited in a given region.
Not much literature is available on classi-
fication of agricultural droughts with
respect to field crops in India. Krishnan
and Thanvi (1970) proposed a drought
classification by considering the aridity
index, la, during the monsoon season but
it was not crop-specific.
George and Krishna (1969) and
George and K alyana Sundaram (1969)
have assessed the agricultural droughts
on the basis of water availability periods
and monthly rainfall. However, no classi-
fication has been developed on a
rational approach for classifying droughts
of various crops during the same season It can be seen that the minimum
in a given region. required value of AE/PE is higher for
Sastri. (1978) and Sastri etal (1981) kharif pulses than for pearl millet. If
developed a new method of drought pearl millet and kharif pulses are sown
classification based on the crop yields and simu ltaneously, the pulses mature first
index of moisture agequacy, known as as they are short duration crops (within
AEjPE, for two crops, pearl millet and 65-70oays). The rainy season of Rajas-
klwrij pulses. than is also limited· to 65-70 days.
The minimum required values of The following criterion was adopted
AEjPE in respect of the two crops for for classifying the drought intensity of
getting average yields were worked out the two crops.
from a graphical interpolation and are
given below for three regions. The yields
Departure of AEjPE below Drought
would be above average if the AEjPE
the minimal required value. intensity
value is more than the minimal required
value and vice versa. Less than 10 Moderate
10-20 Large
Region (AEjPE Index) Severe
20-30
Pearl millet Kharifpulses
Greater than 30 Disastrous
Sikar 65 68
(Semi-aried) Using the minimal required values
Jodhpur (Arid) 46 55 of the two crops for the three regions, the
Barmer 39 55 drought intensities were worked out for
(Extremely arid) the period 1956-75 as shown below.
Crop Drought Regions
intensity Sikar Jodhpur Barmer
Pearl M 1958 1958, 1962, 1958, 1962
millet 1972 1972
L 1965 1968, 1974
1966
S 1961 1960 1966
D 1969 1968, 1969
Kharif M 1965, 1966 1959
pulses L 1958, 1958, 1963, 1957, 1962,
1965, 1972 1967
1966
S 1968, 1974 1958
D 1961 1969 1966, 1968,
1969
M = Moderate, L = Large, S = Severe
D = Disastrous.
17
 It can be seen that in all the three
regions the drought for kharif pulses was
al ways one degree higher than that of
pearl millet.
For example, in Sikar, 1958 was
moderate drought for pearl millet while
the intensity was large in respect of kharif
pulses. Similarly in Jodhpur, during the
years 1958, 19£'8, 1972 and 1974 the dro-
ught intensities for kharifpulse were one
degreee higher than that of pearl millet.
Same is the case in Barmer during the
years 1962, 1966 and 1967.
Thus, it is found that though kharif
pulses are of short duration and are grown
during the assured rainfall season, they
are more susceptible to drought than
pearl millet, in case water stress occurs
during the growing season.
The above scheme of drought classi-
fication is a useful yardstick in assessing
the frequency and intensity of droughts
for various crops. Such studies provide
information on the relative climatic suit-
ability of any crop variety for a given
region.
REFERENCES
Bagnouls, F. and Gaussen, H. 1957. Les
c1itnats biologiques et leur classificat-
ion. Ann. de Geogr. 355 .: 193-220.
.George. C. J. and Kalyana Sundaram, V.
1969. A use of monthly rainfall deciles
for assessing agricultural droughts in
Bihar State. Pre. Publ. Sci. R.;:p. 96,
IMD.
George, C. J. and Krishna AIda 1969.
Assessment of agricultural droughts
from water ~vailabity periods. Pre
Publ. Sci. Rep. 95, IMD.
18
Hounam. C. E .• Burgos, J. J., Kalik, M.
S., Palmer, W.C. and Rodda, J. 1975
Drought and agriculture. WMO Tech.
Note 38, Geneva.
Krishnan, A. and Thanvi, K. P. 1971
Occurrence of droughts in Rajasthan
during 1941-60. Proc. All India Seminar
on Dry Farming, New Delhi.
Linsley, Jr. R. K., Kohler, H. A. and
Spithaus, J.L.H. 1959. Applied Hydro-
logy. Mc Graw Hill, New York.
Maunder, W.l. 1970 The value oj the
weather. Methuen and Co. Ltd. Lon-
don, 388.
National Commission on Agriculture
1976. Climate and agriculture, Part IV.
Govt. of r ndia.
Ramakrishna, Y.S., Sastri, ASRAS. 1980
Studies on the incidence of droughts
over Western Rajasthan. The Nat.
Geogr. Joul. of India 26 (1-2) : 44-49.
Ramdas. L. A. and Mallik, A. K. 1958.
Agricultural situation in India. IMD
Report, 1-5.
Sastri, A.S.R.A.S. 1978. Studies on some
agroC/imatic aspects of Andhra
Pradesh. Uupublished Ph. D. thesis
submitted to Andhar Univ. Waltair.
226.
Sastri, A.S.R A.S. and Ramakrishna,
Y. S. 1980. A modified scheme of
drought classification as applicable
to the arid zone of western Rajasthan
Ann. Arid Zone 19 : (1-2) 65-72.
Sastri, A.S.R.A.S. Ramakrishna, Y. S.
and Ramana Rao, B.V. 1981. A new
method for classification of agricult-
ural droughts. Arch. FlIr. Met. Geophy.
and Bio. Clim. Austria (In Press).
Subrahmanyam, V.P. 1967. Incidence and
I
spread of continental droughts. Report
on WMO/IHD Projects, Rep. No.2,
WMO, Geneva.
Subramaniam, A. R. 1961. Some studies
of aridity and droughts in the dry
climatic zones of India. Unpublished
Ph. D. thesis submitted to Andhra
University, Waltair.
19
Subrahmanyam, V.P. and Subramaniam,
A.R. 1964. Application of water
balance concepts for the climatic study
of droughts in South India. Ann. Arid
Zone 4, (1) 46-55.
Thornt~waite, C.W. 1948. An approach
towards the rational classification of
climates. Geogr. Rev, 38 No. (1).
 Soils of a rid and semi -arid regions :
their characteristics aud properties
R. P. Dhir
Despite the common feature of
general moisture deficiency, the arid and
semi-arid regions of our country are
characterised by an immense variability
of soil cover. The sediments from diverse
rock source and varied history of land-
scape evolution have given rise to a range
of soils from Black soil through Red
loams and sandy Aridisols to dunes. Even
within a taluka or panchayat sal11iti large
variations occur along with the depth of
soil, erodibility to wind and water, mois-
, ture storage capacity and runoff. In many
situations presence or absence of a hard
pan or dense subsoil are important fac-
tors to be reckoned with. All these soil
features have a large bearing on the use
of ,land and un the management practices.
Often these alsp determine the choice of
crops ano tree species. Therefore, in any
programme of land management to incre-
ase the yield efficiency of the crops by
introducing a new system such as agro-
forestry, knowledge of soil resources is
very helpful and essential. Within the
given time and space, it is not possible
to give detailed treatment to the subject.
Therefore, much of the discussion IS
. limited to the major soil groups only.
20
I. Soils of Semi Arid Zone
I. 1. Deep Black Soils
These are dark coloured clayey soils
with a property to swell when wet and
crack when dry. The width of cracks can
be from 1 to 5 cm with a downward
extension to 50 cm or more. These are
generally derived from basaltic parent
material. These are commonly identified
as "regur". Since cotton is an important
crop on these soils, these are also called
"Black cotton soils".
The soils are a meter or more deep.
The texture of the surface and subsurface
layers is same and is silty clay to clay
(table I). The soils have a fine to medium
moderately subangu!ar blocky structute.
The. pH is generally between 8 to 8.5 and
the soils are non saline, though substrate
can have appreciable concentration of
soluble salts. The soils have high moisture
retention capacity (38 to 51 %), of which
nearly half is in available form. The soils
have hydraulic conductivity values bet-
ween 1 to 4 mm/ hour (Table 2). There-
fore, large runoff or ponding of water
does take place. The soils have high base
exchange capacity because. of 2 : 1 type
of clay minerals. The soils are low to
mediun in organic carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus but high in potassium.
1.2. Medium alld shallow Black Soijs
These soils are similar to above in
their morphology except that medium soils
have a depth range of 20 to 50 cm only.
These soils. therefore, have less water
retention capacity. However. compared
to deeper variant, these are better drained.
13. Red Sandy Soils
These soils are. generally derived
from granites, coarse grained granites,
quartzites, sandstones. etc. and are chara-
cterised by being rich in the fine and
coarse sand fractions. The clay minerals
become coated with red hematite or yellow
limonite or a mixture of the two oxides
of iron, forming a red, yellow or reddish
yellow soil. Ferruginous gravel, formed of
imrure iron, alumina and silica concre-
tions and bits of quartz, are the common
accessory constituents of Red soils. The
characterstic clay minerals present in these
soils are of the kaolinitic and illitic types
and exchange capacity of this is about
0.25 to 0.5 m.e. per gram of clay. The
base exchange capacity of the soils gene-
rally varies from 5 to 15 m.e. per 100
grams, depending upon the amount of
clay and organic matter. The majority of
these soils are neutral to slightly alkali
with pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.5.
The soils have medium moisture reten-
tion capacity. i.e. 10 to 18%, of which
nearly 70% is in available form. The soils
are quite porous with an infiltration rate
3.5 to 12 cm/hour and hydraulic conducti-
vity values of 1.5 to 6.3 cm/hour. However,
in some situations the sub - soil is quite
21
dense (CAZRI. 1970) and this.-significantly
reduces infiltration rate and induces run-
off. The soils are low in organic carbon
and low to medium in phosphorus.
1.4. Red Loamy Soils
The Red loamy soils in particular
are formed by the weathering of the rocks
like gneisses, charnockites, diorites and
others which are relatively richer in the
clay forming minerals and correspondingly
poorer in silica, the acid component. In
some Red soils, lime concretions in the
form of nodules or thick veins are found
to occur. The latter result from the weat-
hering of the feldspars containing lime in
the rocks which occur as intrusions in the
surrounding rock mass. The texture of
these soils may vary from loam to silty
clay and clay. The normal red loamy soils
have a pH around neutrality or else sligh-
tly on the acid side, while the soils contai-
ning lime may show a pH of !l.5.
The soils have a water retention
capacity of 15 to 20% of which 65 to 70%
is available to plants. Their fertility status
is higher than that of sandy soils descri-
bed above.
/.5. Suils on Alluvium
This covers a large assemblage of
soils, with large variation in texture and
colour. For example in Kota, Bundi
qnd Jhalawar, with provenance from
basalts lying further east, the soils are
quite dark coloured and also fine textured.
In rest of the eastern Rajasthan with
contribution from Vindhyan sandstone
and Aravallis the soils are reddish brown
to brown and medium textured. Further
north in Jaipur tract the soils are very
deep but light textured. In the semi-arid
tracts of UP, Haryana and Punjab, the
soils are generally light to medium textu-
red, very deep with a calcic layer at 80
to 200 cm. There is also problem of sali-
nity and sodicity. Accordingly, depending
on texture and depth, large variations are
encountered III moisture retention
capacity. Fertility status of soils is rea-
sonably good, though nitrogen remains a
key factor limiting production.
II. Soils of Arid Zone
II. I Dunes
In arid Rajasthan dunes are a
dominant formation in 30. 6% and sub-
dominant associate in 34% area .. They are
mostly coalesced parabolic type, though
longitudinal, transverse and barchan types
are also noticed. They are highly sandy
with 1.8 to 4.5% clay, 0.4 to 1.3% silt,
63.7 to 87.3% fine sand and 11.3 to 30.3%
coarse sand. Alkaline earth carbonate
is largely present in a diffuse form, with
a dominant range of 0.6 to 5.0% though
some in Barmer (Roy et ai, 1969) have
been found to contain up to 15%. The
dunes are devoid of any pedogenic featu-
res, except for a very weak segregation of
alkaline earth carbonates as filaments or
nests. Otherwise, the profile exhibits a
uniformly structnreless, sandy mass. with.
colour at different localities ranging from
pale brown to brown (10 YR 6/3, 5/3.
5/40). The dune landscape has some
accumulative interdunes with 2.9 to 12.3%
clay, 2.1 to 16.5% silt and 1.5 to 29.9%
free alkaline earth carbonates.
The dunes are very low in organic
matter (0.04 to 0.12% Org. q, low to
medium· in phosphorus and fairly well
22
supplied with potassium. But looking to
the limitations of climate, the fertility
status is quite adequate to establish and
support natural vegetation. The moist-
ure retention capacity is low, being only
3 to 5% by weight or 80 to 90 minim
depth. However, nearly 80% of it is
available to plants. The infiltration is
very high, being 7 to 15 cm/hour. The
soils do not have any aggregation and
therefore. these are highly erodible.
II. 2. Light Brown Sandy
Light brown sandy soils, associated
respectively with a few to many dunes
occur in 84 and 30.6% of the area. The
soils are characterised by a varying
hummocky surface (3.6 to '6.2% clay, 1.8
to 3.1 % silt), very weakly blocky loamy
fine sand (Table 3), dominantly brown
(10 YR 5/30), sometimes pale brown
(10 YR 6/3), weakly calcareous subsoil,
followed at 80 to 120 cm by a weakly to
moderately developed zone of alkaline
earth carbonates. The calcium carbonate
concretions form 3 to 25% by weight and
besides their diffused form, another 5 to
10%. Within this dominant picture are
found sizeable patches, apparently associ-
ated with old drainage lines, of soils
whiclihave heavier texture and a massive
concretionary stratum of calcium carbon-
ate.
Compared to dunes, these soils
have 0.08 to 0.2% organic carbon, 15 to
25 kg/ha of available P 20S and 150 to
250 kg/ha of potassium. The water
retention capacity is 6 to 9% by weight
or 90 to 110 mm/m depth.
l/. 3. Brown leight Loams and Grey Brown
Loams
Brown light loams have prolluvium
and alluvium derived from fine grained
sandstone as their parent material. The
soils occupy 1.7% of the area and are
characterised by loamy fine sand to fine
sandy loam, brown, weakly blocky
surface, a slightly heavier darker (10 YR
5/4D), calcareous subsoil, followed at 40
to 90 cm by a zone of lime concretions.
The grey brown loams occupy 13.6%
of the area and occur in the alluvium
and weathering zone of medium and fine
grained' sedimentary rocks in the south
eastern and central parts. These soils
are devoid of wind worked deposits and
have apparently escaped the deflation
breakdown experienced on other landsc-
apes. Soils are dark greyish brown to
brown (10 YR 4/3,4/3, 5/3D), modera- .
tely subangular blocky, sandy loam to
loam on the surface. The subsoil is
heavier with a weI! developed subang-
ular blocky structure. It is followed by
a zone of calcium carbonate as concre-
tions and as coatings on gravels.
Because of the aggregated and dry
state strength, the wind erodibility is
slight to none. The soils have somewhat
higher fertility status than the so!ls descri-
bed above.
II. 4. Soils with Hard Pan
Soils with hard pan (5.9%) are
brown (10 YR 5/3, 5/4D), generally light
textured with a hard, largely indurated
pan at depths of 40 to 80 cm. At places,
the hard pan is close to surface and even
exposed. The major area of the soils is
located in the central part, though small
23
pockets are scattered throughout. The
thickness of the indurated horizon is
more than a metre thick and it is formed
by a calcium carbonate cementation of
gravels and concretions. The stratum is
lightly permeable to water and difficult
for plant roots, particularly for useful
top feed species, the growth of which is
severely restricted.
Besides the above, we have in arid
zone the sierozems, the medium black
and red loamy soils (similar to those
described for semi-arid zone) in Kachchh
and Saurashtra, the sea inundated saline
flats and few other soils.
II I. Soils in Relation to Agro-Forestry
The foregoing account shows that
our arid and semiarid zones are endowed
with a large variety of soils that differ
greatly in their effective soil depth, mois-
ture retention capacity, infiltration rate,
hydraulic conductivity, salinity sodicity
hazard and so on. These properties seem
to have great bearing on success of agro-
forestry system. For example, the dunes
and light brown sandy soils are charact-
erised by low moisture retention capacity
and high infiltration rate. With the
frequency and intensity of wetspells
encountered in the arid zone, the amount
of water at times is more than what soil
profile can hold. For example in an year
when 628 mm of rainfall was received
during the season as much as 55% of it
went as deep percolation in a cropping
system. This water can be used to sustain
a suitable association of trees with crops.
The sandy soils also have a characteristic
feature in that their capillary porosity is
very low. Therefore there is very little
movement of water from one point to
another. This becomes an important
consideration in our choice of tree
species.
A few of our soils are characterised
by hard pan or dense sub soil. This is
a hindrance in moisture movements and
particularly to root penetration. There-
fore, the tree planting technique should
aim at first breaking this barrier. This
is necessary for successful growth of trees.
Likewise a number of alkali soils are
most sodic in their top 50 to 70 em. Nor-
mal tree planting technique exposes the
plant to highly adverse soil conditions and
consequently poor growth and high mort-
ality. Here auger-hole method of plan-
ting, which enables the roots to be placed
24
below the soidic layer, has proved quite
rewarding in this situation.
Likewise underneath many of our
medium deep or shallow soils, the sub-
strata is a weathering crust murrum or
coarse alluvium. This may be of limited
value for cropping, but through its mois-
ture retention capacity and porosity, it
can provide an effective foothold to tree
species. Therefore, while examining soil,
the substrata should be studied also. For
trees, substrata characteristics can be as
important factor as soil itself.
The black soils, because of their
properties like cracking and periodic
stagnation, create a unique habitat with a
bearing on choice of tree species.
 U! .. l' ~ ,- ./.

00
0
U O
p;;j:::::
1,0
r...:
N
0'1
0
r-
r-:
OO r...:
r--;
on
00 on
r...: N r...:
00
00 r...: 0
0'1 1,0
C'! r-
M 0\ 0\
1,0
°
UU on '<t' '<t' '<t' on
S
'-'

.,!. - . ""'
S
-() on
•• ----
til
::l_
"0 ___ ..c
0
........ .... on ....
on 1,0 00 on
0
00 0'1
0
0'1
.....
..... 0 0 0 '<t' 00 0'1 '<t'
('1
t:: >. S 0 0
f"') '<t' 1,0 N
0 ....
U·_ ~
:> ___
t:: 0
° 6
° 6 6 6 6
° 0 i i i 0 0 0 0

en
'0
0""
.- Z Z ..... ....
VJ
~)
u<:<J r-: 1,0
~ .... ~
V)
..... N
N

N
t::
0
U
r-.
~
'-'
1,0 1,0 N '<t' Z Z ZZ Z Z 0
"0
·C
.-6<:<J

v on V) 0 on on N r-
-' 0'1 V) .... r- N
..,.. 0 0 0 1"'1 N
o0~
en -' f"') 00 0
'<t' '<t' '<t' '<t' on (V) 1,0
~ M
0 0 '"':
f"')

6
(V)
f'! N
V 0 0 0 0 0 0
-5
..._
° 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0
cn
~~
.... >.
<:<J ___
,._
r--; '<t'
en ~ ,..; r--; 00
~ M C? 0
~ 0 ~ on -.:J; 00
·c 0 1,0 1,0
M 0\
1,0
V)
or)
1,0
'<t' <r) .,..; QO
N
0:--:
N
0\
N
00
.... 0\ 0\
N
0
'<t' M
0\
V
.....
()

....<:<J<:<J
.e ~ r-. N '<t' If)
"! (V)
~ ~ '<t' '<t' ~ .... N 00 00 V)
()
....
~J
Vi (>-!?
'-'
..,; 0
N M
M
N
0\ QO M (V) '<t' N 0\ V) r...: -aN N
r-
..... N
N
-5
0
"0 V"O ~
~ r- r- V)
~
.... 00 ~ ~
0'1
'"': ~
t:: .9 ~* ...... r...: on -.i .....
~
t::
u..~'-" en
N 0
N
0\ 1,0
'<t' N
on
N
1,0
'<t' '<t'
V)
N ....
.3
....
en
0 ....
0.. v <:<J
....v
E ~~ -. .... ,.;.:
g ;;;c ex: r...: r-
00 r- 0 0 ~ 0\ M ~. 00 ~ N 0 r--; 0
0 0\ M r- ~ '"': ..... >.
(.)

";j U en 0 0 0 0 0
N
(V)
rri
V)
-.i
'<t' ....
M 00
(V)
M
N
-.i
V)
00
'<t' '<t' ....,
<:<J
,.;.: ~

0
'5 _._
ttl
..c :I:"!
0 o..N ....
0 V) V)
..... .... ..... f'! ...., .....
V
::E -
'-'
-
·CS
00
~
00
V)
00
r--;
00
~
00

~
r...: r...:
0 0'1
-a r...: ~
00

~
M
r- r...: r- ......
Vl
0
N
r-
N N
r...: r...: r- OO

Vl "= ';:s
0
......
I::s .~
v
::0 .e_._
~ 0 0 Vl N 0 0" '"-l on 0 ... .... M 0
Ctl
f-< 0,6 cq
~
..'::! ....
0
I
0
1,0
I
0
0'1
I I
.... .....
N·V)
I
"!:l 00
~
Q:j 0
N
I
V)
if)
I
M
.....
I
0
N
N
V)
N
I
"!:l
~
Q:j 0 - ......
I
0
V)
I
.....
'<t'
I
;:: ('I
:::::: ......I
"'<:
V)
I
0
-'
....I
.....
00
I -.I-

-
V () 0 0 0 0 0 00 If) 0 If) 0 0 N M 0
O._., M 1,0 0\ N N If) M 0 if) V) 0 00
...... N

25
 Table 2 Moisture retention capacity and other characteristics of
semi arid zone soils

Moisture retention Plant available Hydraulic conductivity Infiltration

capacity (mm/lOO cm moisture capa- (cm/hour) rate
soil depth) city (mm/IOO cm) (cm/hour)
Deep Black Soil
550-700 200-300 0.1-02 0.1-0.4
Red Sandy Soil
130-220 80-140 1.5-6.3 3 5-1.2
Red Loamy Soil
160-330 100-210 0.6-2.2 0.7-46
Alluvial Soil
140-280 100-220 0.9-3.3 1.5-6.6

26
 -- :::~bbq
oooo~Z:
0'11'-"1"'<1"
00·0 ~
0000

o
:: ::

:: :: -
o

'<1"00 O'Itr)ION('.IO"'"
"-;.,jvi.,jtr)vi,.....,j.,ftr)

'<I"",!OO~,,"! '<1"001'-"'"
...i ......
0"I0 ...i\c)ori-.or-:
'1'"""'4""": ........ P""-4

~ ·00 ('.I ..... tr) ~ N tr) '<1" 0 OOr-OOMO

-...i..,f...i....,-r-:r-:r-:vi
000000000000r-r-r-r- ~~~t!;:!

r-O"IOO,<:!;ooO\O"IM tr)
000-000""';"";

('.1-«1"1;10'<1"('.1 ..... ,....00

..,f..,f'<T'<I".,f";tr)orivi.,f

__
~s
--
......
__ u
r-r-10101Or-00r-r-00
~oqoo~OOOO
oooooooocio
O"I('IMIOIO
o
00000
u..'"
-=o
UlS
::Cs
0.. __ OO~~~IOtr)'<1"~""'M
00000000000000000000
('I M M
000000

o ")
00
Otr)0
000
tr)ON 0'1 0 tr) 0 tr)
0'1
I
N'<1"
• -I
r N, ~~~-:'7 - I '<TI r-I
000 00
10 0\ on
Otr)OOO
'<1"No\
oono
N ..".

27
 .....
..... :: ~~d
o 0 i:: ::

0 00 I"'l 0 N 0 N ~ 00 I"'l 00
N N 0 0 ~ 01 00 r- \Ci
\0 ..... ..... .....

N 00 I"'l
\0 ""': I"'l on ~
0\ 0
..... Z :: 00 01
Z :: ..... ..... .....

00 00 00 ~
..... \0 N "'! r-: 00 00 I"'l
~ 0 00 ...-i ..... I"'l or) ..,f
on ..... .....
.....

01 N ~ 00 01 N 0 I"'l \0 on
r- ~ ..,f
..... N ...-i
..... I"'l 0 .....
0 0\ 0
..... ..... 00

..,
::o::s
~
..!:: ~ 00 I"'l .... In 0 N I"'l r-
\Ci 0
r-
s:::
;s:
on 0\
'V
or) r--: 0 0 N
.,... on In .,... .,... .... ...-i
00
....
~
...C '"
or) I"'l
...~ N
N 00 \0 on t-
...-i N 0 ...-i N
.... r-:..... ~ N
I"'l ...-i
00 I;!:) ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

..,f 00 ""': \0 I"'l

"'! ....or) ..... r-: N I"'l
~
c--.i ..... N 0\ 00 00
00 00
..... N ..... .....
00
N N N N I"'l

00
..... ....
N
r- on
N
.... ...
I"'l
t-
<"'I
.....
.... ('<')
r- .,...
t-
...-i
0 0 0 0
I"'l
'"
0 0 0 0 0 0

r- I"'l on \0 00 t"I 10
I I
onI r-I OO
I
N 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00

.,... 0 .,...
.,....
0 0 on 0
0
..... \0 ..... +~ \0 N 0\
~
0\
0
I
on 0
I I
00 N
.,... I I
V"l
I +
0
r- \0 0
..... ..... N \0 0\

28
Table 4 Moisture retention capacity and other characteristics of arid zone soil

Moisture reten- Available moisture Hydraulic conduc- Infiltration ratio

tion capacity (mm/IOO cm) tivity (cm/hour) (cm/hour)
mm/lOOcm)
Dunes
80 - 90 65 - 70 6 - '12 15 - 60
Light Brown Sandy
90 - 110 70 - 90 2-4 4 - 15
Brown light loam
95 - 150 70 - 120 1-2 3-6
Grey Brown loam
200 - 240 130 - 240 0.5-1.5 0.6-1.2

29
 Soil physical constraints in relation to increasing
the arid zone productivity with particular
reference to agro-forestry
H. P. Singh
Soils of Indian arid zone are sandy,
the texture ranging from sand to sandy
loam. Occasionally in areas unaffected by
aeolian activity, heavier soils (Ioams, clay
loams) are also met with, developed in
depressions by deposition of silt carried
in runoff from catchments or by sedentary
soil forming processes. However, nearly
70% of the area is covered by sand and
loamy sand soils and sand dunes. The
limitations inherent in soil with respect
to productivity of the region are, there-
fore, as follows:
(J) Wind erosion-formation and
movement of sand dunes.
(2) Low soil watcr storage capacity-
losses of soil moisture in evapo-
ration and deep percolation.
(3), Poor soil fertility.
These limitations are further aggra-
vated by adverse climatic conditions i.e.
low and erratic rainfall, high atmospheric
temperatures, high wind velocity and low
humidity.
Tree is the all important component
of the desert eco-system. Traditionally,
trees ~ike Prosopis cineraria and bushes-
Zizyphus nummularia, are retained in the
30
crop fields by the farming community.
There is hardly any competition between
such vegetation and crop plants and in
the events of drought these serve as 'fall
back' to the farmer and his animals.
Apart from conscrvation value which is
well recognised, trees, 'thus, impart a
degree of stability to production which
otherwise is so uncertain due to 'depen-
dence on amount and distribution of
rainfall.
Trees have a modulating effect on
nearly all the SOli problems listed above.
Some of the pertinent aspects are discu-
ssed below.
(1) Wind erosion
Wind erosion is one of the vital pro-
bleIIls to increase the productivity of the
arid zone. Some times, the damage is so
acute that entire field get buried under
the sand. Unlike water erosion. wind
erosion is dOUbly harmful, as both the
areas from where the sand is blown off
and where it is deposited are lost in so
far as crop production is concerned
(Singh, 1980 a).
The factors causing wind erosion
are loose surface soil condition, lack of
 vegetative cover and, high wind velocity. ery (sandstone) strata, plantation or-trees
Trees can favourably influence all these has not met much success mainly due to
three conditions effectively. Apart from this limitation. Fortunately in Arid Zone
providing vegetative cover and reduc nearly 70% 'soil area is underlain by mois-
ing the wind speed, when established as ' ture retentive Murrum strata where the
shelterbelt, trees help stab,ilizing the soil, agro-forestry system can be implemented
due to their vast root networks. All these without the "Soil depth" limitation.
aspects have been studied in considerable
detail. It is now well established that th'e Excessive evaporation is another
wind erosion hazard can be sufficiently factor that limits plant growth in the
reduced by the incorporation of proper Arid Zone. It has, however, been establi-
tree species in proper alignment, into the shed that in sands and loamy sands once
production system (Singh, 1977). the surface soil dries up, evaporation is
reduced to bare minimum (Daulay et aI,
(2) Loss of moisture in deep percolation
1979). Hence, it is in sandy-loam and
and evaporation
loam where surface evaporation limits
It has been estimated that 25 to 40 water use by crop plants considerably. It
per cent of rainfall penetrates to is, however, established that trees may
Murrum substratum beyond the crop alter the micro-climate of the area over a
root zone, in normal to good years (Singh, period of time and make it more condu-
1980b). The possibilities for upward cive to plant growth. Obviously, trees
movement of this moisture d).lring the help in lowering the wind speed and
kharif season are very low and hence, increasing the relative humidity which in
crop plants cannot make use of this turn reduce the surface evaporation. Thus,
moisture towards their evapotranspiration greater availability of moisture to crop
requirement. The Murrum moisture is plants can be effected if grown in associa-
thus of no avail in so far as moderately tion with trees in a suitable agro-
rooted kharif crops are concerned. This forestry system.
limitation, however, does not apply to
trees which have deep root system (Singh 3. Soil Fertility Management
1980c). Hence, if trees and crops are There are two reasons for low fertil-
grown in association; the loss of moisture ity of arid zone soils :
in deep percolation is made good. This
can be achieved by a proper agro-fore- (I) Low inherent status of organic
stry system which will enforce two storied matter caused by poor vegeta-
moisture extraction pattern-crops feeding tion, high temperatures and
from soil profile proper and trees from low rainfall etc. Addition of
the Murrum stratum. The system will organic residue to soil is very
work, provided the tree species selected is low.
deep feeder and soil is underlain by (2) Slow but constant removal of
Murrum stratum having good moisture top fertile soil layer in wind
storage capacity. In areas having bould- erosion.

31
 It is apparent that both these condi-
tions' can be suitably regulated with
the incorporation of trees in the produc-
tion system. As already discussed planta-
tion of trees has proved to-be the most
practi cal and feasible means of~reducing
the wind erosion hazard in the arid zone.
Apart from th'is, it is- also established
that relatively greater quantity of organic
residue is added to the soil under tree
system. Aggarwal et ai, (197.1.) reported
considerable improvement in soil fertility
under the tree stands of Prosopis ciner-
aria and Acacia tortiUs over a 10 year
period. Thu~ a suitable agro-forestry
system in which crop and tree portions
of the field are rotated every 15-20 years
can help manage the fertility of arid
zone soils effectively, over a long run.
To conclude, agro-forestry is., just
not only a conservation measure but can
also help ameliorate the adverse physical
condition of the soil resource consider-
ably. Thus, while ensuring the conserva-
tion of resources, productivity can als~
be increased in the long run.
It is obvious that since agro-fore-
stry is practised on agricultural lands,
total yield from crops will be reduced
due to occupation of a part of the field
,by the tree system. However, this deficit
can b,e made good to, some extent due to
increase in the production per unit area
32
from the cropped portion of the field III
subsequent years.
REFERENCES
Aggarwal, R.K., Gupta, J,P., Muthana,
K.D. and Saxena, S.K. 1974. Some
physico,chemical and ecological chan-
ges of soil under permanent vegeta-
tion. Indian Forester 102 (12):863-872.
Daulay, H.S., Singh, H.P., Singh, R.P.
and Singh, K.C.1979. Effect of differ-
ent mulches on yield and moisture
use of pearl millet Penisetum tpyhoides
Ann. Arid Zone 18 (1&2): 108-115.
Singh, H.P. 1977. Wind erosion in west-
ern Rajasthan and its control. Soil
Conservation Digest 5 (2); 80-86.
Singh, H.P. 1980a. Management of desert
soils. Soil Res. Review .. 12lh Int. Cong-
ress of Soil Science, New Delhi, 1982.
Singh, H.P. 1980b. Improving the mois-
ture storage in sandy desert soils by
sub-surface moisture barrier. Arid
Zone Res. & Development. 245-252,
Sci. Pub/i. Jodhpur, 1980._
Singh, H.P., Sharma, K.D. and Pareek,
O.P. 1980. Effect of runoff concentra-
tion on soil moisture storage under
ber plantation in the arid zone. Natn.
Symp, on Soil Conservation and Water
Managment in 1980's, Central Soil
• Water Conservation Research Insti-
tute, Dehradun (India), March 1980.
 Micronutrient status of soils for developing
agroforestry in arid regions
D.C. Josbi
Introduction
For conservation of soils and reha-
bilitation of marginal lands mono-culture
of trees is generally practical but it is not
as rewarding' because local needs for
grazing etc. are also to be met from these
areas. To achieve it, the agroforestry i.e.
cultivation of grasses or other plants of
economic importance in forest enclosures
is advocated. A variety of biomorphs trees,
shrubs, under-shrubs, perennials and
annuals may be taken up simultaneously.
This is a better utilisation of soil resources
as these biomorphs are of different heights
and their roots extend to different depths.
To establish such a multi storey system we
should see our foundation i.e. the nutri-
tional status of the soils. In this section
we shall concentrate on the micronutrient
status of soils of arid region.
In soils micronutrients occur in
different forms viz., (a) water soluble (b)
exchengeable (c) extractable precipitates
(e) occluded by oxides and hydroxides (f)
held in biological residues and living
organisms and (g) component of lattice
structure of primary and secondary
minerals Distribution of micronutrients in
different forms is governed by the nature
of parent material and pedogenic proce-
33
sses. Micronutrients are distributed
around the matrices of secondary silicate
minerals, iron and aluminium oxides and
particulate organic matter. Soil texture,
pH, organic matter and CaC0 3 contents
markedly influence the availability of
these nutrients.
Micronutrient Statlls of Arid Soils
In arid regions, due to low and
erratic rainfall and high temperature suffi-
cient moisture is available only for a short
interval of time to support scanty vegeta-
tion. Vast area is sandy plain covered
with coarse textured soils, interspersed
with hummocks and dunes. The medium
and fine textured alluvium occurs only in
the south eastern part of western Rajas-
than at the fringes of Aravalli. Arid soils
distinguish from rest of zonal soils in
having low organic matter, alkaline
reaction and coarse texture and there is
likely-hood of micronutrient deficiency.
The different forms of iron, manganese,
zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum and
cobalt and factors affecting their availa-
bility have been discussed below.
Iron
Shukla and Singh (1973) for siero-
zem soils of Haryana reported available,
reducible and total iron content ranging
 from 2.2 to 27.2 ppm, 94 to 1213 ppm
and 2.05 to 6.87 per cent respectively.
For arid soils of western Rajasthan Joshi
et al. (1981a) reported total, HCI soluble
exchangeable and DTPA extractable rang-
ing from 1.2 to 3.4 per cent, 0.59 to 2.08
per cent, 3.3 to 21.5 ppm and 3.4 to 8.8
ppm respectively. They observed that pH,
organic carbon, CaC0 3 • silt and clay
contents significantly affected only the
HCI soluble form of iron and these factors
together accounted for 87.7 per cent
variability. Joshi and Dhir (1980c) further
observed that nearly 40 per cent samples
contained 2 to 5 ppm, 54 per cent 5 to 10
ppm and 80 per cent ~amples more than
5 ppm available iron. When viewed from
the critical limit of 2 ppm DTPA extract-
able iron (Takkar and Randhawa, 1978)
none of the samples was found to to defi-
cient in iron and even the dune sands were
seen well provided. On the other hand
Shukla et al. (1975) reported 52 per cent
arid brown soils of Haryana deficient in
iron.
Manganese
Total and HCl soluble manganese
varied from 250·' to 875 and 142 to 405
ppm respectively in arid soils of western
Rajasthan (Joshi et al., 198Ia), Haryana
(Shukla,et al." 1975) and Gujrat (Mehta
and Patel, 1967). The reducible and active
manganese vdried from 3.2 to 123.4 ppm
and 3.9 to 127.8 ppm respectively in
western Rajasthan soils (Johari et al.,
1978, Joshi et al., 1981 a). Contents of both
these forms were relatively low in soils
collected from Jaisalmer and Barmer
districts partiuclarly in soils with higher
pH values (Joshi and Dhir, 1980b). When
compared with the contents of Punjab
34
and Haryana soils, in general all the arid
soils of Rajasthan contaIned low reducible
and active manganese. The exchangeable
and DTPA extractable forms ranged from
0.5 to 13.6 and 3.3 to 19.4 ppm respecti-
vely. Significant correlation ofHCl soluble
with reducible, active and available; redu-
cible with active and available; and active
with available indicated that these forms
are in equilibrium. Thus HCI soluble,
reducible and active forms of manganese,
contribute to the available pool. Multiple
regression analysis of soil pH, organic
carbon, CaC03 , silt and clay contents
with different forms indicated that total
manganese content was not governed by
these factors. But all these factors together
accounted for variability to the extent of
82.2 per cent in HCI soluble, 64.9 per
cent in reducible, 56 per cent in active,
50 per cent in exchangeable and 58.9 per
cent in DTPA extractable forms of man-
ganese. These studies further revealed
that reducible manganese,which is a poten-
tial source for available status is not so
much governed by the pH and pH +
CaC03 effects as by the organic carbon
and organic carbon + clay effects.
Deficiency of manganese in arid
soils has been indicated by Vinayak et al.
(1~64), Lodha and Baser (1971) and
Joshi and Dhir (1980c). Frequency distri-
bution of reducible manganese (Joshi and
Dhir, 1980c) indicated that 15 per cent
soil samples contained less than 15 ppm,
67 per cent less then 50 ppm and 87 per
cent less than 100 ppm. In 63 per cent
samples the exchangeable manganese was
less than 3 ppm. When viewed from DT
PA extractable manganese content 23 per
cent samples contained less than 5 ppm.
While considering with the critical limit
of 15 ppm reducible, 5 ppm DTPA extrac-
table (Takkar and Randhawa, 1976) and
3 ppm exchangeable (Sherman and Har-
mer, 1942) manganese, at least 15 per cent
samples arefound defi~ient in this nutrient.
Zinc
Different forms of zinc viz., HCl
soluble, exchangeable and DTPA extrac-
table showed wide variation of 9.8 to 48.4,
0.24 to 1.28 and 0.27 to 2.36 ppm in
different arid soils of Rajasthan (Joshi et
aI1981b). All these forms were in low
ranges in soils associated with dunes,inter-
dunes, sandy plains and medium textured
alluvium than the fine textured alluvium.
The HCI souble zinc was found associated
with finer fraction and all the soil para-
meters accounted for 54 per cent variation
in this fraction. However, exchangeable
and DTPA extractable forms were not
seen related with any ofthe,se soil charac-
teristics. While viewing with the critical
limit of 0.6 ppm DTPA extractable zinc
barring few exceptions all the soils, inclu-
ding those from the extermely arid part
(Dhir and Joshi, 1980a) was sufficient.
Lal and Biswas (1973) also observed that
desert soils of Rajasthan are fairly high
in zinc status. Shukla and Singh ( 1978)
however have reported that desert and
sierozem soil groups of Haryana are
deficient in zinc. Widespread zinc deficie-
ncy has also been observed in other parts
of the country including Punjab and
Himachal Prrdesh.
Copper
Total copper content in sierozem
soils of Haryana ranged from 10 to 245
ppm and in some soils it was quite high
(Shukla and Anand, 1969). Randhawa
35
and Kanwar (1964) reported" a range
of 6.6 to 36.4 ppm copper in the
soils of Punjab and noticed significant corr-
elation with silt and clay fraction. In arid
Rajasthan soils (Joshi et al., 1981b) the
ranges of HCI soluble, exchangeable and
DTPA extractable forms of copper were
respectively 6.3 to 24.3, 0.23 to 1.56 and
0.28 to 1-.25 ppm. In comparison to fine
textured alluvium, soils associated with
sandy plain, interdunal plain and dunes
contained lower amount of these forms.
All these fractions were significantly
related with the finer fractions of soil.
The multiple regression analysis of pH.
organic carbon, CaC03, silt and clay
contents of these soils accounted for 52.4
per cent variation in HCI soluble, 44.9 per
cent in exchangeable and 57. J per cent in
available contents. When viewed from
the critical limit of 0.2 ppm exchangeable/
DTPA extractable copper all the soils
were found to be ~ufficient.
Boron
Boron is present in soils as
water soluble, acid soluble and total.
Hot water soluble boron is a good indica-
tor of its availability to plants. Satyanar-
ayan (1958) reported that water soluble
boron content of western Rajasthan soils
varied from 2.6 to 12.2 ppm and appeared
related with soil texture and organic
matter content. Moghe and Mathur
(1966) also observed higher available
boron (0.89 to 10.24 ppm) in these arid
soils.
Gajbhiye and Kolarkar (1979) in
some rainfed arid soils of Rajasthan
reported water soluble boron ranging from
0.43 to 2.58 ppm of which the lowest was
in Bikaner and the highest in Jaswantgarh
soils. Considering safe limit upto 0.5
ppm none of these soils were found in
the deficiency range. Water soluble boron
appeared significantly related with the
electrical conductivity at saturation and
silt+clay contents. Accumulation of
total and available boron was observed
by Mathur et al. (1964) in some Jodhpur
and Pali soils irrigated with high boron
containing waters. Singh (1970) has
reported total boron content ranging from
14 to 48 ppm. Immediately available
and absolutely available boron content
in Haryana soils varied from 0.13 to 1.56
and 0.75 to 5.75 ppm respectively. These
contents were also above the deficiccny
level.
Molybdenllm
In some saline sodic soils of Kamal
Dabasi and Gupta (1978) recorded
total molybdenum content ranging
from 2.87 to 12.25 and available from
0.44 to 2.88 ppm. Majority of the soils
contained 3 to 7 ppm total and 0.5 to 2.5
ppm available molybdenum. These soils
can be considered normal to very high
in total molybdenum. Lal and Biswas
(1973) reported 0.09 to 0.23 ppm avail-
able and 1.02 to 1.82 ppm total molybde-
!lum in some desert soils of Rajasthan.
While considering with the limit of 0.05
ppm, rione of the soil ,"vas found deficient
in this element.
Cobalt
Total Co in the soils of erstwhile
Punjab ranged from 4.4 to 32.5 ppm
and most of the soils contained more
than the critical limit of 5 ppm (Randh~
awa and Kanwar, 1964). Availabl(;! cobalt
was. significantly positively correlated
with soil pH, electrical conductivity and
36
silt+clay and negatively with organic
carbon and available phosphorus cont-
ent (Yadav et ai, 1975). For arid soils
of Rajasthan no work has been reported.
on the cobalt status so far.
Dynamics of lIutrients under agroforestry
The micro climate under agroforcs-
try ecosystem is likely to be different than
under barren and arable farming, Rama-
krishna and Sastri (1977 a, b) observed
lower air and soil temperature under
Acacia terti lis and rainfall interception
by A. torlilis and Cenc/zrlls ciliaris ranged
from 14 to 19 and 23 to 33 per cent
respectively. Gupta and Saxena (1978)
observed better soil moisture regime
under Prosopis cineraria and Tecomella
rmdulata than that under Prosopis juliflora,
Albizzia lebbek and Acacia senegal. Such
changed condition will have profound
influepce on the available status of the
m,trient elements. These areas are regu-
larly under some or other canopy and
part of it is being returned to soil. This
will also add to the organic matter and
nutrient content of the soil. Singh and
Lal (1969) after investigating the profile
characteristics of the soils under P. ciner-
aria and under Acacia nilotica concluded'
that high organic matter, total nitrogen
and available phosphorus and better
mechanical composition of soils upto
120 cm depth under Prosopis cineraria
promoted growth of crops in its
vicinity. Aggarwal et al. (1976) concJude,d
that status of available micronutrients
generally improved under plantation,
specifically under P. cineraria. Dhawan
and Dhand (1950) observed that natural
vegetation influence the available boron
status of the soils. Available boron con-
tent under Caparis ap/zylla was similar to
barren soils (9.0 to 10.2 and 9.3 to 10.9
ppm) whereas under Sall'adora (2.0-4.1
ppm) and Sauaeda fructicosa (5.0 to 8.0
ppm) its content appreciably decreased.
These observations indicate differen-
tial depletion and addition of micronu-
tricnts in soils. Looking to the present
situation most of the arid soils of Rajas-
than appear well provided with the iron,
manganese, zinc, copper, boron and
molybdenum contents. However, defici-
ency of manganese and zinc may be
encountered at few places. In other parts
of country, including arid wils of Haryana,
widespread deficiency of zinc followed
by iron has been reported. A successful
agroforestry progromme will 'require a
continuous monitaring of micronutrient
status of soils under the system.
REFERENCES
Aggarwal, R.K., Gupta, J.P., Saxena, S.K.
and Muthana, K.D. 1-976. Studies on
the soil physicochemical and ecologi-
cal changes under twelve years old
five desert tree species of Western
Rajasthan. Indian Forester 102: 863-
872.
Dabasi, D.S. and Gupta, V.K. 1978.
Studies on saline sodic soils of Karnal.
Paper presented at the 43rd Annual
Meeting of the IndIan Soc. Soil Sci.
held at Ludhiana, Feb. 25-27.
Dbawan, c.L. and Dhand, A.D. 1950.
The occurrence and significance of
trace elements in relation to soil
deteriotation. II Boron. Indian J.
Agric. Sci, 20: 479-435.
Gajbhiye, K.S. and Kolarkar, A.S. 1979.
Study of water soluble boron in some
rainfed soils of wastern Rajasthan.
Ann. Arid Zone 18 : 246-252.
37
Gupta, J. P. and Saxena, ,So K. 1978.
Studies on the monitoring of the
dynamics of moisture in the soil and
the performance of ground flora under
desertic communities of tree. Indian J.
Ecol. 5: 30-36.
Johari, S.N, Joshi D.C. and Sharma,
V.C. 1978. Studies on the managanese
status of some soils of western Rajas-
than. Ann. Arid Zone 17: 133-135.
Joshi, D.C. and Dhir, R.P. 1980a Status
and distribution of different forms of
copper and zinc in the soils of extre-
mely arid part of western Rajasthan.
J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. (in press,'.
- - - - 1980. Distribution of different
forms of manganese and iron in the
soils of extremely arid part of westren
Rajasthan. Ann Arid Zone (in press).
- - - - 1983. Available froms of
manganese and iron in some arid soils
and their relation with soil properties.
Ann. Arid. Zone (in press).
Joshi, D.C.; Dhir, R.P. and Gupta, B.S.
1981 a. A study on the forms of iron
and manganese in some soils of arid
Rajasthan. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci.
(in press).
- - - - - (198Ib). The distritution of
different form of copper and zinc in
some soils of arid Rajasthan. J. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci. (Comm).
Lal. F. and Biswas, T.D. 1973. Factors
affecting the distribution and availabil-
ity of micronutrient elements of major
soil groups of Rajasthan. J. Indian
Soc. Soil. Sci. 21: 455-466.
Lodha. P.S. and Baser, B.L. 1971. Avail-
a~le micronutrients in sandy soils of
Rajasthan. Ann. Arid Zone 10: 99-104.
Mathur, C.M., Moghe V.B. and Talati,
N.R. 1964. Distribution of Boron in
soils of Western Rajasthan irrigated
with high boron water. J. Indian Soc.
Soil Sci. 12: 319-24.
Methta, B.V. and Patel, N.K. 1967 .Forms
of manganese and their distribution in
soil profiles of Kaira district in Gujarat
J. 1ndian Soc. Soil Sci. 15: 41-47.
Moghe, V.B and Mathur, C.M. 1966.
Status 'of boron in some arid zone
soils of Western Rajasthan. Soil Sci
PI nutr. 12: 3.
Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sastri, A.S.R.
A.S. 1977a, Climatological studies on
rainfall interception, diurnal variation Singh, M. 1970. Distribution of boron in
in the total and net radiant energy
available under Acacia tortilis tree. pp.
69. CAZRI, Ann. Rep.
Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sastri, A S.R.
A.S. 1977b. Microclimate under
Acacia tortilis (1970) plantation. pp.
69-70, Annual Report, CAZRI, Jodh-
pur.
Randhawa, N.S. and Kanwar, J.S. 1964.
Zinc, copper and cobalt status of.
Punjab soils. Soil Sci. 98: 403-407.
Satyanarayan, Y., 1958. Water soluble
boron in some desert soils of India'
J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 6: 223·226.
Sherman, G.D. and Harmer, P.R. 1942.
Man'ganou-smangani~ equilibrium in
soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 7: 398- Yadav, D.V., Chaudhary, M.L. and
495.
Shukla, U.C. and Anand, S.S. 1969. Quo-
ted from Micronutrient research in
soils and plants of India-A review.
ICAR Technical Bulletin (Agric.) No.
55; pp. 105.
Shukla, U.c., Gupta, B.L. .and Singh, R.
1975. Available and potentially avail-
able forms of iron and manganese in
surface arid brown soils of Haryana.
J. Indian Soc. S"i/. Sci. 23: 484-488.
Shukla, U.C. and Singh, R. 1973., Forms
and distribution of iron in some siero-
zem soils of Haryana. J. Indian Soc.
Soil Sci. 21: 35-40.
Shukla, U.C. and Singh, K. 1978.
Micronutrients in Haryana soils. Their
forms and distribution, areas of pefici-
encyand factors affecting availability.
A review. [n Land and Water Manage-
ment in Indus Basin. Vol. 1,369-379.
relation to soil properties. J. Indian
Soc. Soil Sci 18: 141;146.
Singh, K.S. and Lal. P. 1969. Effect of
khejri (Prosopis spicigera Linn.) and
Babool (Acacia arabica) trees on soil
fertility and profile characteristics.
Ann. Arid Zone 8: 33-36.
Takkar, P.N. and Randhawa, N.S. 1978.
Micronutrients in agriculture. A
review. Fertilizer News. 23: 3-26.
Vinayak C.P., Talati, N,R. and Mathur,
C.M. 1964. Distribution of mangan-
ese in saline alkali soils and its rela-
tion with some of the soil charcteris-
-tics. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 12: 275-
279.
Khanna, S.S. 1975. Cobalt status of
Haryana soils and its relationship
with some soil characteristics. J. Res.
(HAU),5: 103-109.

38
Significance of agro-forestry programme as indicated
by land use capability surveys in arid region
A. S. Kolarkar
Introduction
The concept and criteria of land
use capability classification was flrst evo-
lved, developed and adopted by United
States Department of Agriculture (Klinge-
biel and Montgomery, 1961). The
adopted form of the same has been
followed in India (IARI, 1971).
All these classifications are on the
sub-continental scale and therefore, when
applied to local environment, considerable
elaboration/modification is required. For
example, in original USDA System arid
climate is considered too adverse to per-
mit arable farming even with best avail-
able soil and water conservation practices,
while in our Indian arid zone, arable
arid zone, arable farming is supposed to
be feasible and is practised widely. This
may partly be so because of economic
factors here and also partly due to pecu-
liarities of monsoon climate which do
permit some cropping often with certain
success.
Land use capability surveys in arid region
of Western Rajasthan and their results
Field surveys conducted by CAZRI
in arid zone of Western Rajasthan have
revealed that the land utilization in the
arid zone is conditioned by such factors
39
as relief, - soil and its characteristics,
climate and above all by the economic
and social conditions of the people. Field
observations on present land use, during
surveys in most areas, have shown that a
lot of marginal lands which should have
ordinarily been left over to pasture and
forestry or should have been developed
for grass and forest vegetation, are prese-
ntly being put under plough. Such lands
are not capable of giving sustained agric-
ultural production for long time. Yet they
are put to cultivation. Ta ble 1 shows the
data on percentage area of cultivable
lands as adjusted and considered from
land use capability classification surveys
as well as the data on the cultivated and
cultivable areas on revenue records in
various areas surveyed by CAZRI. The
data reveals a glaring fact that the total
areas of the so called cultivable lands in
revenue records are far in excess to that
scientifically mapped by land use capab-
ility classification surveys. This shows
and confirms that lot of marginal
vulnerable lands which are not suited for
cultivation are brought under cultivation
eve.ry year. Field observations also reveal
that at places even dune flanks, and high
hummocky areas comprising of single
grained fine aeolian sandy soils are also
 disturbed by cultivation and cropping to
utilize hidden moisture in deep layers. In
fact these areas need to be stabilised by
propagating pasture and forest plan-
tation. These areas, when disturbed, serve
as focii of wind erosion. Such coarse tex-
tured soils of marginal value extensively
occur in Bikaner district, Chohotan
(Barmer district) and Saila Blocks where
rainfall is comparatively low. In these
areas the marginal lands are comparati-
vely high. Shallow or moderateiy deep
coarse textured soils, capable of holding
only limited or insufficient amount of
moisture (60 to 90 mm) in profile for
crop plants, is another condition
where land is considered marginal and
crops frequently fail if rainfall is not
well distributed. Table 1 shows that mar-
ginal lands are comparatively lesser in
Jalore, Jodhpur and Nagaur districts,
perhaps because rainfall is little higher
in these tracts and soil conditions
somewhat better. Marginal lands of
second category are more here.
Significance of Agro-Forestry programme
Agr.>-forestry in a simple and app-
ropriate way can be called as forestry
practised alongwith agriculture in this
tract that gives supplimentary returns in
the years of crop success and cO,mplimen-
tary one in the years of crop failures. The
points discussed so far indicate that agro-
forestry has great relevance in this
climatic region, where arable farn:ting
even on good agricultural lands is a
gamble because of vagaries of the climate
or the erratic nature of rainfall.
40
a) Agro Furestry on good cultivable land
Frequent drought and failure of
crops is characteristic of this region. It
involves high risk in raising soil manage-
ment standards or increasing the inputs
even in the form of fertilizers, manures
etc. in arable farming even on good
agricultural lands. This is because of
uncertainty and often erratic nature of
rainfall. Crop yields in the region are low
and there is large fluctuation in yield
from year to year. Bajra, which is princi-
pal kharif cereal of the region yields 70
to 500 kg/ha only. Yields of kharif pulses,
mung, mflt/z, guar are also low varying
from 55 kgJha in year of rainfall scarcity
to 500 kgJha in year of good rainfall.
There is thus, a large fluctuation of crop
yields from year to year, wbich cuts down
the production dra~tically. Therefore,
agro-forestry can better be practised even
on such agriculturally suitable lands to
ensure some biological productivity as
well as to have economic viability in the
years of failure of rains. There are many
tree species that can withstand droughts.
Suitable species can easily be planted on
these lands systematically so as not to
create hindrance in agricultural operations
and yet have forest productions. Forest
trees, which are hardy than crop plants,
would grow easily and happily on such
soils and lands which are suitable for
delicate agricultural crop plants (from I
to IV). Some of these forest species may
in addition have beneficial effects on soils
around; in improving the organic matter
status etc. (Singh and Lal, 1969; Aggrawal
et al., 1976) which in turn benefits the
agricultural crops besides creating conge-
 nial microclimate and keeping high the
soil moisture regime (Gupta and Saxena,
1978). Therefore, crop oriented agro-
forestry can be practised on such agricul-
turally suitable lands where cropping is
primary enterprise while forestry is
secondary.
b) Agro-Forestry on marginal lands
As discussed earlier, large areas of
marginal nature are also being brought
under cultivation, whose appropriate use
should be pasture and forestry develop-
ment (from V to VII). This is happening
primarily because of socio-economic
pressures. Besides inflicting damage to
the lands by disturbance through agri-
cultural practices, the crop yields are too
poor on these lands (poorer than earlier)
and they too fluctuate at wide range from
year to year. Though these lands are put
to unscientific and inappropriate use,
there is no provision in present legisla-
tion to put an end to such practices and
to dictate the proper use of privately
owned so called agricultural lands. There-
fore, here again agro-forestry comes
handy to practice which is most apt in
present eond itions. In this case it should
not only be good to have suppli-
mental forest produce to agricultural
crops or to have biological forest produc-
tion in the year of crop failure but it
should also be in the interest of manag-
ing the land resources, which partly
will be preserved and protected by
forest plantation from further deter-
ioration. Agro - forestry should there-
fore, be forest oriented on such
marginal lands where forest production
is primary and agricultural crop produc-
tion supplimental to forest production.
41
This will alllount to less disturbance and
least exploitation of land resource. This
will be better compromise between the
socio-economic conditions and the scien-
tific land use based on capability of such
ll1arginal lands. All beneficial effects of
forest s~ecies on soil as referred to earlier
will also be achieved on these lands as
forest plantation would be better
than on agricultural lands discussed
earlier.
Thus, to stop the over-exploitation
of lands, to have a little adjustment for
rational land use as judged from land use
capability surveys and to have compro-
mise with prevailing socia-economic
conditions in the regions, agro-forestry
programme can be planned as discussed
above. This will go a long way to help
manage and preserve the precious soil
and land resource of the region.
Conclusion
Increasing population and socio-
economic conditions are bringing press-
ure on land resources for agriculture and
there is over-exploitation of lands in the
region. Land use capability surveys con-
ducted by CAZRI, which are meant to
show the rational and planned use of
lands, have revealed that large marginal
lands which- are not suitable for exploita-
tion for agriculture are being brought
under agriculture. Added to this is the
vagaries of climate \',hich does not permit
substantial improvement in arable lands
with high inputs. because of often fail-
ure of rains and drought conditions with
low to negligible yields. Under such
conditions, it is strongly recommended
to have agro-forestry on good agricultur-
aHy fit lands with agriculture as primary
 and forestry as secondary enterprise, the
latter ensuring at least some returns in
the year of crop failures. On the marg-
inallands being cultivated agalll agro-
forestry is recommended only with the
difference that here forestry should form
the primary entreprise while agriculture
the supplimental. This way agro-forestry
has a'large scope to develop and go a
long way to Improve the socio-economic
condItion of the people of this region
with planned and rational land use, which
will preserve the land resources too.

UEFEREN<:;ES
Aggrawal, R.K., Gupta. J.P., Saxena,
S.K. and Muthana, K,O. 1976. Studies
on soil physicoch.:mical properties
and ecological changes under twelve
years old five desert species of West-
ern Rajasthan. Indian Forester 102:
863-872.
Gupta, J.P. and Saxena, S.K. 1978. Stud-
ies on the monitoring of the dynamics
of moisture in the soil and the perfor-
mance of ground flora under desertic
communities of trees. Indian J. Ecol.
5: 30-36.
JARJ, 1971. Soil SUrl'ey Manual. Nati-
onal Bureau of Soil Survey and Land
Use Planning, IARI, New Delhi.

Klingebiel and Montgomery 1961. Land

capability classification. USDA Hand
book 210.
Singh, K.S. and Lal, P. 1969. Effect of
Khejri (Prosopis specigera Linn.) and
Babool (Acacia arabica) trees on soil
fertility and profile characteristics.
Ann. Arid Zone 8: 33-36.

42
 Management of sandy soils for higher productivity
J. P. Gupta
In India a large part of western
Rajasthan is covered with sand dunes
and sandy soils. These soils have low
moisture retention and storage character-
stics and allow heavy leaching losses of
nutrients and, therefore, are infertile and
unproductive. Further, these soils are
single grained, structureless and poor in
organic matter and therefore, are more
prone to wind erosion. These factors
coupled with high evaporative demand of
the atmosphere in arid areas make plant
production difficult. These soils, therefore,
need proper treatment for higher produc-
tivity.
I. Soi/management for water conservation
About 90% of the rainfall in West-
ern Rajasthan is received during mon-
soon. This is generally low, erratic and of
very high intensity. The distribution and
variability of rainfall of this region has
been studied by many workers (Pramanik,
1952; Ramdas, 1952; Pramanik and
Hariharan, 1952 and Jagannathan, 1964).
Webster and Wilson (1966) pointed
out that in most of tropics much of
the rainfall Occurs as storms of much
higher intensity than is normally experie-
nced in the temperate zone. A part of
the rainfall is absorbed by the soil and
rest of it moves down the slope. This
uncontrolled movement of water down
43
the slope causes erosion and unproduc-
tive loss of water. Therefore, rainfall
intensity has important implication for
soil mangement and conservation progra-
mme. The following management prac-
tices for soil and water conservation are
discussed in detail.
1. Contour bunding
The main objective of contour bun-
ding is (i) to intercept the overland runoff
flowing down the slope, (ii) to reduce soil
loss, and (iii) to provide opportunity for
increased infiltration of water. This
practice consists of small earthen emban-
kments constructed across the slope at
predetermined spacing for intercepting
the runoff and retaining it on greater part
of the field till it is absorbed. The speci-
fica tions of the terrace system depend
upon the rainfall, soil type, slope and
vegetation. Data presented in Table 1
shows that at Jadan in Pali district of
western Rajasthan with 2% slope of soil
and 427 mm and 782 mm of rainfall dur-
ing 1966 and 1967, respectively, there was
an increase in soil moisture storage with
contour bunding. This water in the
absence of contour bunds would have
been lost as runoff carrying along with it
the finer sediments rich in fertility. The
increase in moisture storage increased
the production of grasses in the area.
 Table 1. Soil moisture storage and forage production under different treatments
(Wasi Ullah and Mathur, 1968)
Treatment Per cent increase in Per cem increase in
soil moisture forage yield
1':166 1967 1966 1967
Contour bund 44.4 18.8 82.8 68.8
Contour trench 13.3 40.0 43.2 7e'. ';
2. Water harvesting and recycling irrigation or supplemental irrigation,
In arid zone of Western Rajasthan Mann et al. (1980) reported that a large
khadin cultivation, Nala bunding, etc, part of Western Rajasthan under rock~,
. for supplemental irrigation and ground semi rocky or slopy areas with suitable
water recharge are the age old prac- treatment can generate a high amount of
tices. In order to overcome the harmful runoff which can be used for growing low
effects of droughts and to increase the water requiring crops or as supplemental
crop production, two types of techniques irrigation for increased and sustained
for in situ water harvesting can be used production from arid lands.
depending upon the availability of land,
type of crop and the soil depth for stor- 3. Soil cultivation
ing the runoff water. Studies conducted Soil cultivation has been a practice
at CAZRI showed (Anonymous, 1975) since long for killing weeds which comp-
that with water harvesting in catchment ete with main crop for light, water and
to cultivated area ratio of 0.5, there was nutrients. Recently cultivation on slopy
one to two times more production poten- lands has been found to reduce runoff.
tial than over flat lands. With this tech- improve infiltration and the growth and
nique, higher production of such crops yield of corn (Prihar and Van Doren,
as p~arlmillet, greengram, cowpeas, 1967). However, the magnitude of
sorghum and sesamum was obtained than increase was more with high rainfall
in the flat lands. intensity and more slopy conditions of
Another most important system of soil. In a recent study in Western Rajas-
water harvesting is runoff collection in than, it has been observed (Gupta and
tanks and its. recycling for supplemental Gupta, 1981) that .sandy soil with poor
irrigati'on. In India, tanks have been organic matter status generally get comp-
used for centuries as a source of domestic acted and thus affect the growth and
water and for limited irrigation. In the yield of crops. One post-emergence
absence of proper management, these cultivation of 5 cm depth done after 20
tanks get silted and lose their capacity of days of emergence has been found to
storing water. The amount of. runoff reduce weed popUlation, lower the com-
depends upon the amount and intensity of paction level, increase root growth and
rainfall, the infiltration of soil, the slope their proliferation. All these factors
and .the vegetation. The runoff water combined together helped in raising the
thus collected can be used as life saving average production of pearlmillet from

44
9.5 to 11.8 q/ha. From this, it emerges 5. Soil ainelldments
that post-emergence cultivation of level Agricultural lands with sandy soils
to slopy lands improves recharge, reduces having poor moisture retention charact-
runoff, checks weed growth, increases eristics and low fertility levels affect crop
root growth and nutrient utilization for production. Therefore, studies were
higher crop producti9n. conducted to find out the effect of the
4. Subsurface barriers addition of pond sediments and farm
yard manure on soil properties and crop
production.
From the flat lands with sandy soils
a huge quantity of water and nutrients (i) Effect of the addition of pond sediments
arc lost due to deep percolation. These
Ponds and n~dis scattered over
soils, therefore, become, infertile and
Western Rajasthan arc the major source
unproductive. Productivity of such soils
of drinking water for animals and human
can be improved by placing a 2 mm thick
layer of asphalt at 60 cm depth in soil beings. They get dry during summer and
profile (Gupta ahd Aggrawal, 1980). their sediments can be used for raising
There was about five times reduction in the productivity of sandy soils of the
percolation and 100% increase in water region (Gupta et al., 1979). It has been
and nitrogen retention of a soil with found that the application of pond sedi-
asphalt barrier. This increased the moist- ments at the rate of 76 t/ha to loamy
ure availability throughout the growing sand soil increased the moisture retention
c~1aracteris!ics, available water capacity,
period of the crop. The increase in avail-
wind stable aggregates and decreased the
ability of water and nitrogen led to an
infiltration rate of soil. There was also
average ipcrease in production of pearl-
increase in nitrogen and organic matter
millet by 40-60% over control without
barrier, particularly under low fertility status of soil. This resulted in 40-50%
conditions. Asphalt barrier over a larger increase in grain yield of pearlmillet
area can be rapidly and conveniently pla- (81 104) and green gram (RS-4).
ced with the help of AMOBAR machine (ii) Use of farm yard manure
available in USA. However, in the
absence of a machine asphalt barrier can Sandy soils with poor organic matter
be placed after removing the loose sand status generally get com pacted and affect
with the help of a tractor or bulldozer. the. seedling emergence and crop growth.
This however, can be possible over a The results of the studies conducted in
limited area for growing nursery plants, this laboratory showed that application
vegetable and some other high value of farm yard manure in association with
crops. Asphalt barrier can also be locally urea to supply 50% nitrogen from each
placed for growing such crops as creepers source increased the moisture retention
and for tree establishment particularly characteristics of soil, decreased the
to check mortality during early period of compaction level and saturated hydraulic
growth. conductivity of soil. This resulted in

45
about 30% increase in grain and straw
production of pearlmilJet.
From this it can be suggested that
such materials as pond sediments, farm
yard manure, etc., should be applied for
increasing the productivity of sandy soils.
6. Use of mulclies
Deficiency of water and high ther-
mal regimes of soil are two most impor-
tant factors which adversely affect crop
production particularly in arid areas of
Western Rajasthan. Surface mulches,
therefore, can be used to reduce evapora-
tive loss, to prevent soil from blowing and
washing away, to keep down weeds and
ultimately to increase crop production.
The results of the studies. conducted at
this Institute have shown (Gupta, 1978,
1980) that during kharif season, the use
of organic mulches reduced the maximum
soil temperature at 10 em depth by 1 to
6°e. Polyethylene mulch, on the contrary,
raised it by 1 to 3°e. There was suppres-
sion in weed growth and an increase in
moisture status 'of soil. These factors
together increased the production of
pearl millet. Application of grass mulch
at the rate of 6 t/ha also reduced the mean
maximum soil temperature, reduced
evaporation loss, suppressed weed growth
and improved root growth and nodulation.
This resulted in about 40% increase in
production of green gram. "I:hese mulches,
therefore, can be used for favourably
manipulating soil environment for increa-
sing crop production in the sandy plains
of Western Rajasthan.
II Soil management for wind erosion
control
The following practices are sugges-
ted for wind erosion control:
46
1. Stubble mulch farming
Stubble mulch farming is regarded
as one of the most significant contribu-
tion to dry land agriculture where wind
erosion is serious (Lowdermilk, 1953).
In mid-west dust bowl of United States,
large scale mechanized stubble mulch
farming is practiced as a measure of
protection to the cultivated farm land
from wind erosion. A study was con-
ducted to find out the magnitude
of sand movement from a bare sandy
plains of Bikaner. The results (Table 2)
showed as much as 1449 t/ha soil loss
from a bare sandy plain of Bikaner As
against this there was a loss of only 22
t/ha from soil covered with peartst mtllet
stubbles showing, thereby, the impor-
tance of stubble farming in checking the
movement of sand to other areas.
Table 2. Sand movement from sandy
plain of Bikaner during 75 days period
Treatment Total soil loss
(t/ha)
Bare 1449
Peart millet stubble cover 22
2. Wind strip cropping
Strips of perennial grasses of Lasi-
UrtlS sindiclls and Ricinus communis
es.tablished at right angle to the direction
of prevailing winds reduced the impact
and threshold velocity of wind to the
minimum and thus checked the erosion
of wind and increased the production of
crops (Misra, 1964). In another study
(Gupta and Aggarwal, 1980) it has been
found that a 18-20 years old cover of such
perennial grasses as Lasiurlls sindiclls,
Cenchrus biflorlls, Panicllm tllrgidum at
Bikaner completely checked the movement
 of sand. There was a formation of crust shelterb~lt of Prosopis juliflora, Albizzia
on the surface which provided protection lebbek o.r Acacia tortilis. This, therefore
to the soil from direct action of wind. shows t_ilat plantation of shelterbelts in
3. Sand dune stabilisation the path of wind and on the margins
of agricultural lands checks wind erosion,
Sand dune stabilisation is essenti~l
reduces the effect of desiccating winds
for checking the sand movement towards
and helps in protection of crops.
the productive agricultural. lands, canals,
water courses, etc. This can best be done 5. Tillage
with vegetation. Plantalion of grasses and
Excessive tillage of agricultural land
trees was found to provide surface cover,
when it is dry exposes it to wind action
bind sand particles and to help in the for-
which leads to erosion. In a study at
mation of soil crusts which checked the
this Institute it has been found that harro-
movement of sand (Gupta and Aggarwal,
wing and planking of a loamy sand soil
1980). On the contrary, as much as 37
resulted in breaking up of clods and the
cm of the surface sand was blown away
from a bare sand dune during a period of percentage of clods greater than 5 mm
decreased from 42 to 13. This led to as
75 days. Stabilisation of sand dunes is
much as 40 t/ha soil loss from disked
therefore, of grea~ importance in maintain-
and planked soil compared to 0.5 t/ha
ing the productivity of agricultural lands
beside supplying fuel and fodder for the loss from only disked soil during a period
animals. of 6 days when average wind velocity
was 29 km/hour. This, therefore, shows
4. Use oj shellerbe/ls and plant barriers that minimum tillage should be provided
Vegetation barriers placed in the to the soils which are more vulnerable to
path of wind reduce its velocity near the erosion.
ground by exerting a drag on the wind 6. Mechanical traps
and deflecting the wind stream. The Another important method of con-
effectiveness of shelterbelts in reducing trolling wind erosion is through mechani-
wind velocity depends on many factors cal traps like furrows, ridges and terraces.
such as wind velocity itself, direction, These can be prepared across the direc-
shape, width, tree height and density, etc. tion of wind. However, their effectiveness
Shelterbelts when planted across and on is more on heavier than lighter soils.
the margins of agricultural fields effecti-
vely protect crops and control sand CONCLUSION
drifting (Ganguli and Kaul, 1969). In a In conclusion it may be stated that
study at this Institute it has been found 'With the available technology the sandy
that during 75 days period from April to soils of the arid areas should be managed
June 1979 there was as much as 2.8 t/ha in such a way as to minimise erosional
soil loss from an unprotected agricultural hazards and optimize plant production
field. On the contrary, there was no loss for meeting the growing demand of fuel,
due to wind from a land protected with a fodder and the grains. This can be made

47
 possible by adopting agroforestry system
of production in arid and semi-arid areas
of Western Rajasthan and elsewhere.
REFERENCES
Anonymous 1975. Annual Report, CAZRI,
Jodhpur.
Ganguli, J.K. and Kaul, R.N. 1969.Wind
erosion control. ICAR, New Delhi.
Techn. Bull. (Agric.) 20 : 1-53.
Gupta, J. P. 1978. Evaporation from a
sandy soil under mulches. Ann. Arid
Zone 17 (3) : 287-290.
Gupta, J.P. 1980. Effect of mulches on
moisture and thermal regimes of soil
and yield of pearlmillet. Ann. Arid
Zone 19: 132-138.
Gupta, J.P., Aggarwal, R.K. and Kaul, P.
1979. Effect of the application of
pond sediments on soil properties
and green gram in arid areas of West-
ern Rajasthan. Indian. J. Agri. Sci. 49:
875-879.
Gupta, J.P. and Aggarwal, R. K. 1980.
Use of an asphalt subsurface barrier
for improving the productivity of
desert sandy soils. J. Arid Environ-
ment 3: 215-222.
Gupta, J.P. and Aggarwal, R.K. '1980.
S~nd movement studies under diffe-
rent land use conditions of Western
Rajasthan. In Arid Zone Research and
Development. (H. S. Mann. Ed.)"
Scientific publishers, Jodhpur. India
pp. 109-114.
Gupta, J. P. and Gupta, G. N. 1981.
Effect of post emergence cultivation
on weed growth, nutrient uptake and
48
yield of pearlmillt. Ann. Arid Zone
21 (4) : 241-247.
J agannathan, P. 1964. Climatic environ-
ment and its fluduations in Rajasthan.
Proc. Symposium Problems of Indian
Arid Zone, Jodhpllr, Ministry of Edu-
tion, Govt. of India, New Delhi, pp.
361:l-379.
Lowdermilk, W. C. 1953. Conquest of
land through seven thousand years.
USDA Agron. Infor. BIIII. 99 : 1-33~
Mann, H.S., Gupta,J.P., Murthy,K.N.K.,
Mathur, c.P. and Issac, V.C. 1980.
An estimation of runoff from some
small rocky catchments of Western
Rajasthan and its utilization potential
for crops. Indian J. Soil Conservation
8( I) : 38-43.
Misra, D.K. 1964. Agronomic Investiga-
tions in Arid Zone. Proc. Symp. Prob-
lems of Indian Arid Zone, Jodhpur,
Ministry of Education, Govt. of India,
New Delhi, pp. 165-169.
Pramanik, S. K. 1952. Hydrology of
Rajasthan desert: rainfall, humidity
and evaporation Proc. of Symp. on
Rajputana Desert. Nat. Instt. Sci.
India, New Delhi. pp. 183-197.
Pramanik, S.K. and Hariharan, P.S. 1952.
: The climate of Rajasthan. Proc. of
Symp .. on Rajputana desert, Nat. Inslt.
Sci. India, New Delhi, 167-178.
Prihar, S.S. and Van Doren, D.M. Jr.
1967. Mode of response of weed free
corn to post planting cultivation.
Agron. J. 59 : 513-516.
Ramdas, L.A. 1952. Desert Hydrology:
Condensation and evaporation pheno-
mena in the Rajasthan desert. Proc.
 of symp. on Rajputana desert, Nat.
Instt. Sci. India, New Delhi, pp. 198-
210.
Wasi Ullah and Mathur,C.P. 1968. Water
conservation in range lands of Western
49
Rajasthan (Unpublished).-
Webster, C.C. and Wilson, P.N. 1966.
Agriculture in the Tropics. Longman
Green and Company Limited.
 Management of saline and alkali soils
B.L. Jain
The problem of salt-affected soils
is of global occurrence and is a matter of
concern to many countries of the world.
I n India ~aIt affected soils occupy about
seven million hectares and occur exten-
sively in the northern alluvial plains,
flanked by the Rann of Kutch and the
Rajasthan desert in the west and wb-
humid deltaic, marshy and swampy lands
of the Sunderbans subject to tidal action
in the east. The salt affected soils also
occur in the major river deltas in the
east along the coastline, in major river
basins and local depressions in the semi-
arid Deccan plateau and its periphery,
extending to the states of Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. The problem of salt affected soils
is further increasing in extent as a result
of introduction of irrigation pro-
jects coupled with faulty water manage-
ment. With the increase in population
it is all the more vital that these hitherto
unutilized saIt affected soils are brought
under cultivation. However, such soils
need suitable technology for their ameli-
oration and management. Some of the
significant factors for the management of
salt affected soils arc discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Characteristics of salt affected soils
Salt affected soils can be divided in
two main groups.
50
1. Saline soils (affected mainly by
NaS04 and NaCl)
2. Alkali soils (affected mainly with
NaCO a and NaHCO a). The two
groups have a number of common as
well as distinct characteristics
Following are the common features
of saline and alkali soils:
1. The concentration of electrolytes in
both saline and alkali is higher than
in other soil types, except in those
belonging to the family of salt-affect-
ed soils. In most cases, the salt con-
centration in the saline soils surpasses
that of alkali soils, sometimes only
slightly, but often to a great extent.
2. The electrolytes dominate the soil-
forming process and determine its
pattern. In other words, the effect of
electrolytes overshadows that of num-
erous other soil-forming factors. For
example, irrespective of the high or
• low humus content, if the electrolyte
concentration in a soil surpasses a
certain value, a saline soil develops.
Likewise, the influence of electrolytes
becomes prominent on soil aggregates,
the distribution of compounds bet-
ween soil horizons and others.
3. The fertility of the soil is adversely
affected by the high concentration of
electrolytes. As mentioned above, the
 saline and alkali soils may contain toxicity of several salts occurrin'g il) salt
considerable amounts of compounds, affected soils is roughly as follows:
actually or potentially able to supply Mg$04 Ca Cl 2 Na2S04
the plants of crops with water or 112
nutrients, but their effectiveness is- NaCI NaHCOs
hindered or prevented by the high 3 : 3
electrolyte content or' the soil hori- Different approaches should be
zons. adopted in the utilizati()n and improve-
Main characteristic properties of ment of saline and alkali soils. The first
saline and alkali soils are given in Table 1 step of reclamation should be to control

Table I : The characteristics of saline and alkali soils

Characteristics Saline soils Alkali soils

pH <8.3
Chemistry of soil Dominated by S04
and Cl anions
Effect of electrolytes on Flocculation
soil particle
Main adverse or toxic High osmotic pres-
effects on plants sure of soil solution
Geographical distribution Associated mainly
with arid and semi-
arid area
First aim of reclamation Removal of excess
electrolyte through
leaching
> 8.3 somewhere along
the profile or high
ESP 15 in horizon B
Dominated mainly by
HCO s or COs anions
or both
Dispersion
Alkalinity of soil
solution
Associated mainly with
semi - arid and semi-
humid areas
Lowering or neutrali-
zing the high pH through
chemical amelioration

In saline soils, the high osmotic
pressure of the soil solution as a result
of a high electrolyte content constitutes
the main harmful effect on plants (Physi-
ological effect). On the other hand, in
alkali soils, more frequently the poor soil
physical and water transmission properties
" impede the growth of plants (soil physi-
cal effect). High electrolyte content some-
times also exercise a toxi.c effect. Relative
the dominant adverse properties. In the
agricultural utilization of saline soils, the
high electrolyte content is the main
hurdle in the way of increasing soil ferti-
lity, and, therefore, the establishment of
drainage and leaching will be the pre-
conditions of effective amelioration.
In" alkali soils, the high pH and
also high ESP values impede the optimal
utilization of the soils. For diminishing

51
 the influence of these adverse properties
the application of chemical amedments,
such as gypsum will b~ necessary. It is
clear that the pattern of soil amelioration
must always be location-specific and
should be in accordanc~ with the local
environmental and agricultural condi-
tions. The above described approaches
are only general statements when talking
a!:)Jut the improvement and reclamation
of salt affected soils.
The development and maintenance
of successful irrigation projects involve
not only the supplying the irrigation
water to the land but also the control of
salinity and alkali. Quality of irrigation
water, irrigation practices and drainage
conditions are involved in salinity and
alkalinity control. Saline soils require
the removal of exces salts and may require
chemical amendments in addition to
adequate supply of irrigation water.
Improper irrigation and soil management
or inadequate drainage may result in
excesS soluble salts or exchangeable
sodium.
Management of saline soil-basic principles
Plant growth is a function of total
soil moisture stress which is a sum of
'total soil moisture tension and osmotic
pressure of soil solution. Through cont-
rolled leaching osmotic pressure of soil
solution should be maintained at lowest
feasible level and by irrigation soil moist-
ure tension should be maintained in
optimum range. Transport o! salt by
water, evaporation, transpiration, quan-
tity and quality of irrigation water and
upward movement of salts affect salt
balance in soil.
52
Irrigatiom
Irrigation, creating possibilities
for meeting water requirements of
farming, simultaneously induces great
changes in the soil-water-salt regime on
the whole irrigated area which in its turn
causes wide scale transformations of the
environment. Hence the need is to
undertake a constant control of the water
salt and partially heat balances through
engineering facilities to maintain 'the
controllable changes of environment in
a favourable direction.
High salinity of irrigation waters
presents the most dangerous potential
source of salinity under conditions of
poorly drained or naturally undrained
valleys in the areas of new irrigation.
Control of soil water'and salt regimes, by
means of irrigation, drainage and irriga-
t.ion technique, may be realized through
a definite pattern of water supply and
distribution to attain the designed moist-
ure level, the uniform leaching regime to
reduce the salinity and maintain a defin ite
ground water through drainage.
Irrigatioll network
Should be designed to assure max-
imum possible water tightness of the can-
als to attain three goals-the maximum
l'eduction of water losses, the minimum
water seepage from irrigation canals and
the prevention of the induced additional
pressure of ground water in the command
area.
Irrigation technique
In the zone of new irrigation,
besides reduction of irrigation water
losses uniform distribution of both the
irrigation water, to obtain deSIgnated soil
.,
moisture level, and the water for leaching
to prevent the unevenness of the salt built
up and leachings is essential.
Flooding should be favoured if
salinity is a serious problem. M'ethod
should be used in relatively level areas.
Border strips or border check method
should be used for control of water.
Basin irrigation can be used for better
control of depth of watt:r applied and
uniformity of application in orchards.
Furrow irrigation is well adapted to row
·crops and in this method salts get accum-
ulated in ridges. Irrigation of alternate
furrows and making ridges across the
direction of sunrays helps in minimizing
adverse effect of salinity in root zone.
Sprinkler irrigation although assure
the most uniform water distribution fails
to furnish the leaching rates, but also can
not provide the adequate soil moisture in
view of considerable water losses when
sprinkling it.
Leaching
Crop production is reduced when
an excessive accumulation of soluble salts
exists in the soil. Since soluble sal~s are
transported in the water phase, their
distribution and removal are controlled
through proper water management. Lea-
ching is one of the management practice
often followed to avoid salt build up in
the root zone, under steady state condi
tions. The leaching requirement LR, for
maintaining proper salt balance in the
root zone may be expressed as
LR = Ci The salt concentration of irrigation water
Cd The salt concentration of drainage water
53
Evaluation of LR requir~s the selec-
tion of appropriate value of Cd values
for a, given quality of irrigation water.
Concentration of soil saturation extract
that produces a 50% decrease in yield
has been taken as a criterion for selection
of Cd values by Bernstein (I964) and
Bouweret 01. (1969). Boumans and Vander
MolJentl964) have introduced the concept
of leaching efficiency to predict the aver-
age Cd values. Concept was later used
by Bower (1969) and is given by
Cd = Ci + (Cs-Ci) E
CS = Salt cencentration of soil solution
E = Leaching efficiency.
E appears to be related to soil texture
only and vary from 0.2 for heavy soils
and 0.6 for light soils. Based on the
studies conducted by Gupta and Pandey
(1980) leaching efficiency is found to be
affected by the initial salt distribution in
profile and number of pore volume of
water drained.
- Leaching can be accomplished by
ponding appreciable depth of water on
the soil surface by means of dikes and
ridges and thus establishing downward
movement of water. Frequent applica-
tion of excess irrigation water applied by
flooding between border strips until a
crop is being grown are used for leaching.
Effectiveness depends upon how much
water passes through the soil and how
uniformly the water is applied. Either
continuous flooding or periodic water
application may be used for leaching. If
soil transmits water slowly periodic drying
may improve infiltration rates. Depth of
water required for 'irrigation or leaching
depend on the level of salin ity of soil and
Irrigation water.
Drainage
Drainage of irrigated lands is consid-
ered a'n obligatory condition for provid-
ing a reliable basis for soil desalinisation,
preventing the secondary salinity and
controlling the soil water regime. Drain-
age can be through flow over the soil
surface or flow through the soil sub-sur-
face. Irrigated lands are drained primarily
to increase productivity and reduce sari-
nity effects.
Special practices for salinity control
Saline soil require special manage-
ment practice. Where only irrigation
water of poor quality is available or where
drainage and full scale reclamation are
not economically feasible it may be poss-
ible to carryon successfully.
Saline agriculture
Irrigation, leaching and tillage prac- salinity produce specific nutrient defici-
tices can all be directed towards salinity . - ency symp t oms. A s sa It concen t ra t'IOn
control. Salt tolerant crops can be j Increase .
selected and chemical amendments used
where necessary. Selection of tolerant
crop is very important for saline agricul-
ture. '
In general irrigation methods and
practices that provide uniformity of
application and downward movement of
water through soils favour salinity cont-
rol. Ponding or flooding of water over
the soil surface through border check and
basin method of irrigation give greater
uniformity of application than furrow or
54
corrugation helps in better crop stand
and fair growth.
Careful levelling of land makes
possible more uniform application of
water and better salinity control. Barren
spots are generally high spots and gener-
ally do not get sufficient water for crop
growth as well as for leach in g. Crusting
of soil and failure of seedling to emerge
indicate an alkali condition which can be
corrected by amendments. Irrigation
more frequently especially during germina-
tion and seedling stage will tend to sof-
ten hard crusts and help to get a better
stand.
Crop selection for saline soils
Crop salt tolerance has usually
been expressed as the yield decrease
expected for a given lever of solule salts in
the root medium as compared with
yields under non saline conditi~ns.
Salt affected plants usually appear
normal, although they are stunted and
may have darker green colour. Occasion-
ally nutritional imbalance caused by
a b ove a th res h 0 Id Ieve I b ot h t h e
growth rate and ultimate size of most
plant species progressively decrease.
Top growth is often suppressed than root
growth. Salinity also increase the leaf
stem ratio. In some cases salinty induces
imbalances or deficiencies causing decre-
ased growth and plant injury for which
osmotic effects alone can not account.
Salt tolerance depend upon many
plant (stage of growth, varieties and root
stocks), soil fertility. soil water, soil aera-
tion and environmental factors.
 Salt tolerance of a crop may be Mas~ et al. (1977) reviewed the crop
appraised according to three criteria. salt tolerance and expressed the salt
1. Ability of the crop to survive on tolerance on the basis of (I} Maximum
saline soil allowable salinity without yield reduc-
2. The yield of the crop 011 saline tion below that of the non saline treat-
soil - ment, and (2) The percent yield decearse
3. Relative yiei<;l of the crop on saline per .unit of salinity increase beyond the
soil as compared with its yield on threshold. Relative salt tolerance of
a non saline soil under similar agricultural crops is given Table 2.
condition.
Table 2 : Salt tolerance of agricultural crops
Crop Salinity at initial Yield decrease Salt tolerance
yield decline per unit increase rating
(threshold) in salinity beyond
threshold
1 2 3 4

Alfalfa 2.0 7.3 MS

Almond 1.5 19 S
Apple S
Appricot 1.6 24 .s
Avocado S
Barley forage 6.0 7.1 MT
Barley (grain) 8.0 5.0 T
Bean 1.0 19 5
Beet garden 4.0 9.0 MT
Bermuda grass 6.9 6.4 if
Broad bean l.6 9:6 MS
Broccoli 2.8 9.2 MS
Cabbage 1.8 9.7 MS
Carrot 1.0 14 'S
Clover, alsike,
ladino, red,
strawberry l.5 12 MS
Clover, berseem T 1.5 5.7 MS
Corn (forage) 1.8 7.4 lMS
Corn (grain) 1.7 12 MS
Corn, sweet 1.7 12 MS
Cotton 7.7 5.2 T
Cowpea 1.3 14 MS
Cucumber 2.5 13 MS
Date 4.0 3.6 T
Flax 1.7 12 MS

55
 Table 2 (Contd.)
1 2 3 4

Grape 1.5 9.6 MS

Grape fruit 1.8 16 S
Lemon S
Lettuce 1.3 13 MS
Millet, Foxtail MS
Okra S
Olive MT
Onion 1.2 16 S
Orange 1.7 17 S
Orchard grass 1.5 6.2 MS
Peach 1.7 21 S
Peanut 3.2 29 MS
Pepper 1.5 14 MS
Plum 1.5 18 S
Potato 1.7 12 MS
Radish 1.2 13 MS
Raspberry S
Rhodes grass MS
Rice, paddy 3.0 12 MS
Rye grass, 5.6 7.6 MT
Perennial
Safflower MT
Sesbanai 2.3 7.0 MS
Sorghum MT
Soybean 5.0 20 MT
Spinach 2.0 7.6 MS
Strawberry 1.0 33 S
Sudan grass 2.8 4.3 MT
'Sugar beet 1.0 5.9 T
Sugal' cane 1;7 5.9 MS
Sweet potato 1.5 11 MS
Timathy MS
Tomato 2.5 9.8 MS
Wheat 6.0 7.1 MT
Wheat, grass
crested 3.5 4.0 MT

56
 Management of Alkali soils: Basic princi- Chemical amendments for I:eplqcement of
exch~ngeable sodium
ples
Kind and amount of amendment
In alkali soils adsroption of exces-
required for replacement of exchangeable
sive amount of sodium is detrimental to
sodium depend upon soil characteristics,
the physical status of soil and I may be
desired rate of replacement and economic
toxic to plants. Under such conditions
consideration. Common amendments in
special amendment, leaching and manage-
use are 1. Gypsum 2. Sulphur 3. Sulph-
ment practices are required to improve
uric acid 4. Pyrites.
and maintain favourable soil condition
These amendments can be used in
for plant growth.
alkali soils containing alkali earth carbon-
Essential features for economic ates. Gypsum can also be used in soils
crop production on alkali soils are as devoid of alkali earth carbonates. Amo-
under: unt of amendment required for reclama-
1. Land-shaping and the provision tion depends on exchangeable sodium and
cation exchange capacity of the soil. Use
of an assured irrigation sourq::.
of amendment reduces ESR of soil to a
2. The application of suitable amend- given level. For replacement of 1 m.e.
ments in proper amounts, at the of exchangeable sodium from surface 15
right time and in appropriate em soil layer, 0.16 tons of sulphur or 0.85
manner. ton of gypsum in required. Gypsum
requirement can be estimated by Schoon-
3. The growing of sUitable crops in over's method. 1 m.e. of Ca adsorbed
a rotation and the choice of best- by the soil from saturated gypsum solu-
suited varieties. tion indicate G.R. yalue of 1.85 tons/ha.
In general gypsum dose at the rate of
4. The adoption of fertilization
40-60% G.R. is sufficient for effective
practices, most suited to these
reclamation.
soils, including the application
Gypsum and sulphur are the most
of micronutrients. common amendments for reclamation.
5. The adoption of special cultural Rate of reaction of gypsum in replacing
and management practices for sodium is limited only by its solubility
different crops including optimum in water, i.e., 0.25%. Presence of sodium
and chloride increases solubility. where as
plant population, depth and
sulphate and calcium decreases so:ubility.
frequency of irrigation, planting
Sulphur must be oxidized by microbial
methods, etc.
action to the sulphate form. Finer the
Perfect land shaping, levelling and particle size more rapid is the reaction.
bunding of Farm boundaries and assured Application of amendments
irrigation source of good quality water From the stand point of efficiency
is first requisite in the programme of in replacing exchangeable sodium it is
reclamation and management of soils. advantageous to leach most of the soluble

57
 salts out of the soil before applying REFERENCES
chemical amendment. As result of
Bernstein, L. 1964. Salt tolerance of
removal of ~oluble salt higher proportion
plant. U.S.D.A. Inf. Pull. 283.
of Ca supplied by the addition of amend-
ment is adsorbed by the soil exchange Boumans, W.H. and Vander Mollen,
complex. However, application of W.H. d964. c.f. Int. Symp. Salt
amendment prior to leaching or after Affected Soils.
leaching depend on the permeability Bouwer, H. 1969. Salt balance, irrigation
amendment as gypsum, sulphur, and lime efficiency and drainage design. J. Irrig.
stone are mainly applied broadcast and Drainag. Div. A.S.C.E. 95 (lR-I),
. then incorporated with the soil by means 153-170 .
of disc 0- p!ow. Thorough incorporation Bower, C.A., Ogata, G. and Tpacker,
is especially important. Except when I.M. 1969. Agroll. J. 61: 783-785.
sulphur is used soils should be leached
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute,
immediately following application of
Karnal, 1979. A Decade of Research.
amendments. Leaching dissolves and
causes the amendment to move down- Gupta, S.K. and Pandey, R.N. 1980.
ward and it also removes soluble salts Leaching efficiency criterion and its
that form as a result of cation exchange. evaluation during reclamation of saline
Soils receiving sulphur ordinarily should soils. Int. Symp. Salt affected soils,
not be leached until sufficient time for Karnal, pp. 300-306.
oxidation has been allowed. Improve- International Symposium on Salt affected
ment of physical condition of alkali soil soils, Kamal. 18-21 Feb. 1981. Sympo-
involves the rearrangement and aggrega- sium papers.
tion of soil particles as well as replace- Mass, E.V. and Hoffman, G.J. 1977. Crop
ment of exchangeable sodium. salt tolerance-current Assessment, J.
In alkali soil paddy-wheat-dhaincha Irrig. and Drainage Div. A S.C.E. Vol.
has been found to be most suitable 103 No. IR 2 Proc. Paper. Jun. 1977,
rotation in the beginning. More sensi- 115-134.
tive crops can be taken after 3-4 years of Richards, L.A. (ed.) 1954. Diagnosis and
reclamation. Use of high yielding varie- Improvement of Saline Alkali Soils,
ties wit~ ample quantity of fertilizers and U.S.D.A. Hand Book No. 60.
micronurient significantly improves the
crop performance.

58
 Influence of Prosopis cineraria and· Acacia
nilotica on soil fertility and crops yields
K.A. Shankarnarayan

In inhospitable dry climates, prop- tion of the farmers about the great utility
erlv distributed tree growth acts as a fos- of these trees as integral part of the
ter mother to agriculture. The numer- agricult~ral system. This conviction
ous benefits uf tree growth have been stems from the belief that crop growth
discussed at length in other papers pres- under P. cineraria is better in areas with-
ented in this Summer Institute, I shall out it under the same management
confine myself to the infiuence of tree conditions.
growth on soil fertility aspects. Influence of trees on soil fertility condi-
tions
Prosopis cineraria (Khl'jri) and Acacia
nilotica (Baboot) are two important legum- Sigh and Lal (1969) investigated
inous trees widely distributed in Western the profile characteristics including the
Rajasthan. Of the two, Prosopis cineraria levels of fertility under both Prosopis
has distribution of wide ecological ampli- cineraria and Acacia nilofica and compared
tude in the rainfall zone of 300 to 400 it with open field conditions. Data in
mm and its optimum density ranging Table I and 2 reveal the following.
from 150-200 per hectare can be observed 1) Under Babool and Khejri trees,
in the districts of Sikar, Churu and Nag- the sand per cent decreases and silt +
aur. Acacia nilotica on the other hand clay increases upto the depth of 120 cm
is confined to younger alluvium in the and at subsequent depths the reverse
Luni Basin where its density ranges from trends are observed. Whereas in open
l5-40 per hectare. It occurs in older there is a regular decrease in sand and
alluvium on Iy when water table is 12 to increase in silt+elay upon 90 em only
18 m high. In case of A. nilotica the sub an,d at subsequent depths no discerpible
species Acacia ni/olica, sub species tr'end was observed.
Cupressijormis due to obconical shape 2) III general the pH values of the
and less shade casting characteristics is soils under Kllejri tree are lower than
preferred by the farmers. under Babool while in the open field the
The very fact that both P. cineraria difference is of the magnitude of one unit
and A. nilo/ica occur and are encouraged upto a depth of 60 cm.
to grow in all cultivated fields and village 3) The calcium carbonate content
grazing grounds shows the tacit convic- is also sufficiently low in soil under

59
 _ on
o r:- I'l I'l 0\
...,
00 r- \0 .... .... N
N
v
o
v 00
,.., .....
00
on ...,
M - N M
1'1 ~!;;:!;;: ...,
00 ...,0'1
o o 0 o ...,00
.,.,
o o 000 o o
\0
......
r:-
\0
....
\0
r:-
o \0
00
I'l
\D
N
r-
r:- M
O'IV)'<I"
00
;;:; 0'1
'<I"
o 0 o o 00 o 000 o o
o o 0 o o 00 .,.,o o 000 o o
I'l
\0
N
o o
00
on
v
v
00
\0
0
00
\0
\0
o
VI
...,
o
o
00
1'1
......
v\O
00
...,
M
"7
o
-
0\
1'1
o
r-N\D
NO'I
VI
000
.,.,
....
\D
00
..., ""'
o
o o""'
00

on
\D
00
'" .,..
1'10'1
'L> r:-
o
00
00
M
o
ID.,.,
0'1 0"""" .,.......
00
\D\DO'I 0'1
o r-
0'1
.,.. 0'1 00
00
\D V)
o oo 00 o o 000 o o o
I

'50-0
"
._
o <Ll
'" \D
00
...;
0'1
00
...,ori
N
on

o
N
....
I'l
I'l
00
\D
......
o
00
....
I'l
N
.... r-: 000
.... ..:f on

N 1'1 N N 0'1
00 V) r- 00 \D
o o o o 0

00 r- 0'1 00 00 ...... r-
g g 00S:!
00 g o
o
o
o 0
0 g
o o 00 o o o '0 o
o
......
...,
0'"
00
I'l
v ...,r- ...,o vO 1'1
r:-
..., 1'1
v
.... 00
~
0'1 M 0\ \D N
o o o .... 0 o 0 o o
o o 0 o o o 00 o 0 o o o

8
uo;l o o o
N N N
u
o 00 00 00

....o
00C!
r-:oo 00 r-: r-:
00 \OqN
0\ o\--o::t
........
00
on
0'1'
on
00
N
00
N
00
o
"""
00
ori
00

,.Q '0 o o
...,
........ .... .... ....,
o 00 N
.... 00 o o o
fra '9~
VI
M 00
....
00
<:)
....,
I
I
<:)
o ~ ..., \0
N
~ .... VI
'7
....
....
V)
....
VI
'C
:; z 0 .... NM
<I) <Ll ._ <Ll
;c'Q.
o
Q:: i;l
e .~;:a
o N
~ i5. I - I

60
 O\'\Ooor-l.r)....,j OONOO\O",l"I') 1.t"tV')V")f"'I'iOOr--..
oot--O\I.OI.OI"'I Oo-,I.O"' .... N
M~MNNM "","(""1("""}M~V ;;~;:;:~N~
000000 0 00000 000000
' " '0\ 00 0\ N 00
0\0\0\0\0'11
-00000
000000
('llr)..-.f0\ ..... r-r)
"' ..... N O o \ N
"d"c--. I""-on""<::l" "<I"
000000
Ooot--l"'ll"'lOO
VlNO\r-"""'N ~~g;:~o~
V"lc--. 0"\00 1""-", "'('00.0"\001""-""<::1"
000000 0006 0 0

0000\0"'00
OOIJ")OO",,"lI')
M~..n-¢~~

I.OO\NI"'IO",
~c:l:?6~~~ 00 ",0\",\0 "d" ;;!;~:?6£Sf~
-O")"<iMMM -oori"<i"<iNN -o"<iMMMN

~~~;G~~
"t:tMoor---MN
<X!N 0\ oo\C)o.t')
0000000 0 0 00

"0
lOll 0
... .J::J
0'"
~
u

8u
ONO,=!"'O ·0 10 "'! '" C! "'!
d NNMMNN NNMNN

-..c:;""<::I"OOI"'!~\O 00 00 \0 CON I"'! ""<::I" 00

00 00 0000 t--00 r-:r-: 0000000000"

C'!\Or-OO~V) \O","!~OI.OM
OONM.."to\-o
.......... 0\ ':: == ~ ~ vi

-
,=!OO<'lN~1"'! C!c--.O\r-:"'~ ooNOO\oO
""<::1"-0000"'00 00 0\"0\ 0\ -0 '" "<i\Dr-:oriMq:

000
~£~
..... N '" 00
....., "7'7~
...............
O\Mo.t')
0\
......

61
 Klzejri whereas under Babaol it is highest
at the fourth sampling depth.
4) In general the organic carbon
content decreases with depth but here
again the organic carbon content is
slightly higher at sampling depth six
under both Khejri and Baboal compared
with open field profile.
The total nitrogen. avaiJable P205
and K 2 0 also decrease with increase in
depth. The above constituents are high-
est in Khejri profile than in Babool or
open field profile. However. with reg-
ards to available P 2 0 5 its content in sixty
sampling depth in profile 2 of Babool
shows a sixteen fold increase compared
with open field profile.
In all the profiles in general, the
sesquoxides are higher in the third layer
in relation to other layers but the varia-
tion is not marked.
The CaO per cent increases up to
fourth, third and second sampling depth
in profiles benea'th Khejri Babaol and open
field.
Likewise the P 20 5 content also
decreases with increase in depth but at
lower depths it remains more less const-
ant. However, it is highest in profile
under Khejri followed by Babaat, and
open 'field.
The K 20 content ,also shows a
general decrease with sampling depth of
the profile. A remarkable feature ill this
element is its increase in profile of open
field compared with either Khejri or
Baboal.
From the foregoing results, it appe-
ars that leaching is comparatively greater
under Khejri and Babaat trees which
62
results in the transference of silt+ clay
to lower depths in these profiles, Whereas
in open field silt + clay movement is
restricted upto 90.0 em depth. This may
be attributed to the phenomena of stem-
flow from trees whereby whatever
meagre rainfall occur is ably intercepted
by the crown of the trees and channel-
ised to the soil through ste"m boles which
act as conduit. Thus the important role
of trees in generating hydrologic cyc'le
becomes established. However" there is
no quantified data on this phenomenon.
Lower pH values of soils observed
under Khejri may by attributed to the
presence of higher content of organic
matter, soluble calcium and comparati-
vely lower content of t;:aC0 3 , On decom-
position, organic matter may produce
organic acids and soluble calcium may
replace sodium from the exchange comp-
lex.
The greater accumulation of organic
matter under Khejri is apparently due to
the more vigorous growth ,of vegetation
observed under it which in turn leaves
behind more organic matter in the form
of root slubbles and dead leaves. The
latter is also apparently contributed in
greater measure from Khejri which has
higher leaf stem ratio compared with
Babool. The increased organic matter
obviously seems to be responsible for
higher content of total nitrogen, avail-
able P205 and K 20.
The differential movement of CaO
in the profile which is manifestly higher
in Khejri may be explained due to grea~
ter. leaching and solubilizing effect of
organic acids produced in greater quan-
tities compared with Babaot and open
fields. Similar trend is observed with
CaC0 3 and these together contribute to
the varying quantities of CaO at different
depths.
Soil fertility studies under fourteen
year old tree commities of P. cineraria,
P. julifiora and bare site, indicate (Tables
3 and 4) that there is an overall improve-
ment in the soil fertility, i.e., organic
matter, total nitrog~n, total P205 and
available macro and micro nutrients
in soils under P. cineraria community
compared with P. julif/ora at bare ~ite.
The data (Table 4Jon DTPA extract-
able micro-nutrients for 0-15 cm and
15-30 em depth show that available Zn,
Mn, Cu and Fe content vary from 0-8 to
2.28 ppm, 6.9 to 11.7 ppm, 0.26 to 1.25
ppm and 2.4 to 4.8 ppm, respectively.
Available Mn and Cu contents were
highest in both the soil depth under P.
cineraia while Fe content was highest in
0-15 cm soil depth and Zn in 15-30 em
soil depth. Aggarwal et al. (1975) conclu-
ded that in general the growth of tree
plantations and P. cineraria in particular
improved the available micronutrient
status of the soil.
This view IS further supported
by studies conducted by Aggarwal
et al. (1975) on soil physicochemical
changes under twelve year old tree plant-
ations in western Rajasthan, which show
that organic matter, total nitrogen and
P20 5 was highest in Prosopis cineraria at
0-15 cm depth compared with other tree
species and bare site. This is also reflec-
63
ted in the, highest number of her,baceous
plant species /m2, mean plant density /m2
and mean above ground phytomass
(Table 5).
CONCLUSIONS
From the foregoing it is
observed that improvement of crop or
plant growth beneath these trees may be
due to combined action of a number of
factors. The favourable influences of
the trees are clearly discernible in pearl-
millet fields in sandy plains where Prosopis
trees are found in abundance. However,
quantified data on the yields of pearl-
millet under this tree are lacking and
there is need for obtaining systematic
data in this regard. Soil moisture being
a serious limitation, its subtle improve-
ment below this tree may be considered
as a direct caus"e for vigorous crop growth
and yield -increase. The stem flow
enrichment of soil moisture and the non-
exploitation of surface moisture by this
tree which inherently has a phenomenally
deep root system, encourage luxuriant
growth of vegetation which obviously
contribute towards organic matter build
up and fertility improvement below the
trees over time which are amply borne
out by soil analysis data. However, syst-
ematic researches are also required to
quantify the hydrological cycle generated
through stem-flow. Although the import-
ant role of trees in general and Prosopis
cineraria in particular in agroforestry
system is thus well recognised, there is
need for quantified data on the input!
out put from this system for generating
an overall balance sheet.
 0

II)
~
on a ~
0 "<t
.,,; N .,,;
0

~
-. on on 0
..... a
0 on
r- ("1 on
,-..
<7
on ~
a <"> ~
'" 0 ......
\0 <">
N <"i <"i
0
?ft. 0 0 0 <.I

.,.,
0 0 r- oo 0
N
on on r- r- <7 '8 \0 "! on
Il< ,...., '8u N
V
00 00
("1 N :::I
on u
...... 0 0
0 0 0 0 ,-.. u
'-'
a0.
e....
on
.....
.0
a
~
.,.
0
0 0 0
0
on
\0
("1

'"
II)
.;: 0
B
0"1 0 :; <7 u
on ......
~ r-:
.....
0
'on""
I a
u
\0 N
N
0
0 0 0
0
N
0 <II
C

... ::a'"
0
,-..
..... 00
,- '-'
'"
.S!
u on
..... E on 0 0"1
Z
~
on
..... 8
2> u
-.
'-'
N
v
0
0 0 0
M
'"
0
0
N
0
-
-;
C
0:1
"is.
~ 2> ~ r..: 0.... ..0

0
on '8
'""
Q} 0 00 00
.......
I
OJ
C .... u
...... ""!
....
N
N 0
0
N
'"0 C on
"0
q::; ....
Q} ......
2> ......
u
'8
0 0 0
00 0
"<t \0 .....
0

...
OJ ~
0 -. 0"1 ...... ,...., ;a
0:1
.£J ..... au N M N ....
'"0 .- .n ...., 0 0 0
Q} 0
<7 .- on on
?ft.
......
'"0
8
00
N ....
'"
0:1
C
:::I ~
on
...... ~ N
V)
..... N

.~
<II
~ ,..... :!? on
r- oo r-
on ..... ..... ·0 ..... '8
·c:::I 0 ..... 8
V)

ci 0 0
<II
0
0"1 M
0 ..... 0
r-
a 0
I
~
.=
<II
~ "<t \0 .....
8 C ,-.
0:1
0
U .c
II)

C 'co
0 ...... .....
II) '"" 8
I It"> 0

b
OJ
u
0 ..Iooi
'-'
on u
...... ...... .,,; 0.... .,,;
... -. c C Il<
on ..... ""t:
OJ
'"0.
0
<7 a "<t
cO 00 ""!
.;:
Q} OJ
.;: ..... '8 0......
r-
r..:
:; ....:::I
s: N
:::I
on ~ 00 0 ~ N
c c
._g ::t0.
<II
0
.... ....0
<II
.;:
2u
on
.....
0
a
~
C!
00
N
cO
'""!
00
u
·s u
0:1
::a
0
..... '8
.n
..... ~
..... .....
N
0"\
\0
0"1

..
N
'"0
0:1 C Z
.c
u
0:1 0:1
0
....
on
.....
I
'8
._,
U
0
I()
0
I()
.....
0
u 0 N N N
~ 0:1
8
·s(.)

OJ
II)
:0
.c .~ ~ .~
u
.c ...<::s ...<::s .c;; ~ ...
·0
I:I'l
·c:::I
a
E
.5:
<>
.-...,
...... ~
:::
;>
<t:
'"<1J
.y
~

~ .::~
._;;; <>
~
II)
.<;::
<II

.... 0
.!:l .!:l .~ "<t
<1J
0.
.!:l
~
.~
~ !::
"0
u
.,~ .,<:> ...
I:>. <II <II ~

'..." '..<:>" 0c::

..
«!)
~ <:l
:0 II)
~ <:)
II.>
:c0:1 ....II.>
<II
~

....0:1 E-< rt rt
0:1
~ .... E-< c... c... u

64
 't:I
c ::'
::l
6
..._
Q; --
;;.
0
.... ~
OJ) 6
~
~
<I.l r- '" 00 -0\'"'"
0) 0 ....
0
;;.
'"
'" on
l'I 0\
0\ m
N ..... r- ....
-
0 ~ 00 l'I ("1
.e
"'" '"
.D 0 N
0:1 6 N l'I N 0\
0
C
0:1 >.
.c
<I.l
0.
::E

'"
~
c N
....'c: ..0
00 IC '<t
E
C
<I.l
.... 00 on
..,. on
..0
m N
"'" .,j-'" ....I.C-:
0\ ......
~
is. 1
.c
<I.l
Il.. '<t

c .;;;
~ C <Il
<I.l
CI.l
't:I -;;;
::E ::l
N
...;
00 00 0 I.C N
r- oo
'"0:1'"
Q
Q
..,..,j-
...... r-
v
..0 0\ ci '<t
..0 <'") r- ('<) ,...:
Ei
..r; "" "" 00
""
...
2
..c:
0.
"'0
Q
:::s
0
'"'
OJ)
'"
-;;;
<!.l .....0 ·0
;;.
0 c ex: '<I;
'" "'! '"
'<!" 00 C!
00

'8 e M ci .....
..0
0:1
't:I
Q
0:1
Z
Q
ci
-
·uCI.l'"
CI.l
CI.l
Il..
M ~

0:1
'" <I.l 0.
<I.l
·0
.J ::E '" -;;;:I'" \0 00
0. 0) '1: 0\
'" r- N
._'"
Q
Q 00 00 on ci ci N
N

0 -<
...
OJ
.£l
6
:::
c::
?)
·Vi <:! ;:
-
Q
CI.l
.;:: ~
"0 '"<I.l ..:c ...
<;:s
.§
....c ·u<I.l <;:s OJ
-<:> <u ::::
~ -<:> .S :::
0. :::: ~
'" ~ <.I
~
'" ._'" "'<::>" ~ ~::<::><u +l '"-;
is: '"ttl <u
.';:l
.~
....OJ <:!
-;:;
"<.I :£2"I;'" ...'<::>" ~ <.I IIIrn 0
on F-< E
.,
:c ~ R.. ~ ~ U
ci
~ en z N ".; .,j- on

65
 REFERENCES Singh, KS. and La 1, P. 1969. Effect of
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and Babool
Aggarwal, R.K., Gupta, J.P., Saxena, (Acacia arabica) trees on soil fertility
S.K. and Muthana, K.D. 1975. Studies and profile characteristics. Ann. Arid
on soil physico-chemical and ecological
Zone 8 (I): 33·36.
changes under twelve year old five
desert species of West Rajasthan.
Indian Forester 102 (12): 863-872.

66
 Role of microorganisms in irnproving the
fertility of aridisols
A.V. Rao

Among the diverse environmental to high temperatures attained. Meiklejohn

constraints of the desert ecosystem, low
precipitation, high. temperature coupled
with intense solar radiation and low soil
organic matter particularly restrict the
growth of microorganisms which are res-
ponsible for various soil transformation
that help plant productivity. Microorga-
nisms especially in numbers vary more
widely in the desert soils than in any
other climatic zones (Meiklejohn, 1957 ;
Elwan and Mahmoud, 1960). The varia-
tion in the microbial population in
desertic soils (Table I) is attributed to
differences in organic matter content and/
or some climatic factors, viz, temperature
and rainfall. The population of microor-
ganisms in aridisols are generally low as
compared to any other tropical soil
because of the extremely low and irregular
rainfall and scanty vegetation. The
microbial population in desert sands of
the Sahara are very low (Killian and
Feher, 1939). In these soils percentage of
actinomycetes is generally higher as these
are resistant to desiccation and high
temperature and help in decomposition
of resistant portion of organic matter
such as lignins, chitins, etc., which are
abundant in these soils while other portion
of organic matter is easily degraded due
(1957) observed 90,%of the total microor-
ganisms in desertic soils of Kenya as
actinomycetes.
Stabilization and soil microorganislIls
Generally the sand dunes are stabili-
zed through the silvi-pastoral manage-
ment resulting in the improvement of soil
organic matter. The popUlation of fungi,
actinomycetes and bacteria were consist-
ently higher in stabilized than in unstabi-
lized dunes. The difference in the
popUlation was sometimes as high as 200
folds and might be due to favourable
conditions exerted in the soil ecosystem.
It was found that in Sahara desert also,
the greater numbers of bacteria were in-
creased by introducing vegetation. The
soil temperature of unstabilized dunes is
always 3 to 5°C higher than in the
stabilized dunes which may also further
account for the low popUlations in
un stabilised dunes. The populations of
fungi and bacteria were decreased with
depth but the actinomycete popUlation
was highest at 30 em depth and then
deClined thereafter.
Churu dunes contained higher
population of microorganisms as compa-
red to Ramgarh and Barmer dunes. These

67
 Table I. Distribution of various microorganisms in arid soils.

Population of microorganisms
Site Bacteria Actino- Fungi Azoto- Nitrifying
(x104/glll) mycetes (x 103/gm) bacter bacteria
(x I04/gm) (xI03/gm) (x I02jgm)
Barmer 7.47 0.93 3.5 0.28 l.l
Bikaner 34.67 23.0 1.53 3.5 1.9
Dcgai 326.7 122.7 33.0 110.0 5.4
Gowrisar 49.0 10.33 7.0 0.7 2.3
Jetpura 200.0 31.00 4.3 17.0 5.4
Jodhpur 121.3 48.33 6.8 3.9 2.0
Masitwala 47.33 . 29.33 5.3 16.0 2.2
Moulasar 89.3 25.33 8.0 8.0 1.3
Ramgarh 2.23 004 0.15 0011 0.02

differences may be due to degree of that there are relatively large annual
stabilization as well as variation in the in puts of nitrogen (10-) 00 kg/ha/year)
annual rainfall and maximum temperature. by lichen crusts and algae and by preci-
The fungi were the least abundant group pitation (12 kg/hal. Using changes in
of microorganisms in these dunes. total nitrogen concentrations in soil from
Cameron (1966) also reported the lowest Great Basin desert areas, Bjerregaerd
number of fungi in Arizona desertic soils (1971) found in equivalent of 2 to 3 .kg
of USA. The fungi mostly belong to N/hajyear is fixed by free living microor-
genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. ganisms.
Biological nitrogen fixation Lequme-Rhizobium symbiosis
With the spiralling oil prices, the Guor (Cyamopsis tertragonoloba L.
use of petroleum based inputs like nitro- Taub.) is an important kharif (rainy
genous fertilizers in agriculture needs a season) legume adapted to arid and semi-
critjcal appraisal. A more durable arid climates and occupies an area of
alternative would be to utilize the biolo- about 2.9 million hectares in India. It is
gically fi~ed nitrogen to meet the partial a drought hardy crop and can grow in
crop requirements. The nitrogen cycle in soils of low fertility. Guar has been
the desert ec'osystem is generally believed reported to fix 50 to 150 kg N/ha (Mal,
to exercise a limitation on the rate of 1968) but not under arid climate. Guor
primary production since very low soil in general is a sparsely nodulating crop
organic matter levels associated with' low in desertic soils because of the presence
nitrogen cycle activity are usually found of few rhizobia in the desertic soil while
in deserts. The IBB studies of nitrogen some soils were found to be devoid of
dynami~s in the Great Basin desert of the guor rhizobia (Cow-pea cross inocul-
Utah, Nevada and Idaho have indicated ation group).

68
 Guar vanetles CFS-277, DP-Safed,
HFG-182 and B-19-1-55) had shown
positive response to inoculation by the
rhizobial strains isolated under this
climate. Significant increase in nodule
number, nodule dry weight was observed
in response to inoculation. Further ino-
culation had resulted in enhanced N 2-ase
activity (N 2-fixing ability) of the crop.
The rate of N 2-fixation varied from 9.02
to 16.18 fJ-g of N 2 /5 plants/hr in uninocu-
lated plants and from 40.45 to 106.48 p g
N 2 /5 plant~/hr in plants inoculatcd with
dIfferent strains. The rhizobial strain JG-
5 was found to be more compatible and
with all the varieties and more efficient
as compared to olher strains.
Non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation
Abdel Malek et af. (1971) and
Sasson (1972) reported low numbers of
Azotohacter in different desertic soils of
the world. But the presence of Azotoba-
acter and Clostidilllll could not be detect-
ed in the soils of the Sahara desert
(Pochan et al., 1957). Then distribution
of the N 2-fixing bacteria varies as these
bacteria are sensitive to changes in
moisture. In Indian desertic soils the
population of Azotobacter varied from 10
to 1,00,000 gm-l. A positive correlation
with a correlation coefficient of 0.86 was
observed between the population of
Azotobacter and the organic matter content
of the soils. Very low popUlation was
observed in Ramgarh unstabilized
dunes (10 cells/gm). In contrast, Degai
and Jetpura soils contained higher
population.
All the desertic soils have exerted
stimulatory effect on the N 2-ase activity
of A. c/zroocOCCIII1l but the stimulation was
69
found to vary from one soil to another.
The variation was not dependant on any
one of the individual factors such as org-
anic matter, antagonism by the microor-
ganispls and the competitiveness of the
introduced strain with the native strain
but the interaction seems to be mainly
responsible.
The ability of algae to withstand
adverse habitats of extreme moisture,
temperature and salt conditions as well
as their capacity to fix catbon and nitro.
gen make them prominent dwellers in
desert soils. Many algae species are found
in desertic soils (Cameron, 1961). The
greatest number belong to the blue green
and green groups. BGA involved either
free living, or in lichen symbiosis are the
species of the genera Noztoc, ScytonemG,
Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Microco/ells,
Nodularia and Schizofhrix. Some of the
lichens involved are P!ectonemaorganum,
CollemG occopliencs, L. tenorex,
Derll1atocGlpon lachnewn and Peltigera
refescens. The BGA crusts and/or BGA
lichen crusts can fix significant amount of
N (3 to 4 g of N/hr/ha of crust following
rainfall) in to desert ecosystem t Wallace et
al.,1978). These crusts serve to stabilise
the soil surface to reduce erosion and to
increase water retention and infiltration.
It wa~ observed that nodulated non-leg-
ume genera such as Artemisia, Oplllltia,
TI ibulllS, Zygop!Jyl/lIm, Chrysothal11l/s,
Krameria and CercocarpliS also show
evidence of N-fixation.
Microbial sollibilization of phosphorus
Though the desertic soils contain a
high amount of phosphorus (560-900 kg/
hal as tricalcium phosphate, the level of
available P is only about 10·t5 kg/ha.
 Soils of different regions of Western
Rajasthan showed a wide variation in
the population of P-solubilizers (37.3
to 13x 15 5 gm- 1 ). The P-solubilization
varied from one organism to another and
the maximum release of 65% of added
tricalcium phosphate was observed with
Aspergillus niger. It became evident
from some of the experiments conducted
that P-uptake by different crops can be
increased by inoculating the soil with the
efficient P-solubilizing microorganisms.
REFERENCES
Abdel Malek, Y, Monib, M., EI Hadidy,
T. and Ragab, M. 1971. A-R.E.J.
Desert Inst. 21: 61-72.
Cameron, R.E. 1961. Diss. Abstr., 22: 716,
Univ. Microfilms, Ann. Arbor, Michi-
gan.
Cameron, RE. 1966. J. Arizona A cad.
Sci. 4: 3-27.
70
Elwan, S.H. and Mahmoud, S.A.Z. 1960.
Ariclzives Mikrobiology 36: 360-64.
Killian, Ch and Feher, D. 1939. Encyclo-
pedia bio/ague Lechevalier ed. Paris,
21: 127-34.
Mal, M. 1968. Indian Farm. 18: 37-38.
Meiklejohn, J. 1957. J. Soil Sci. 8: 240-
47.
Pochan, J., de Barjar, H. and Lajudi~, J.
] 957. Ann. Ills!. Pasteur, ppris, 92:
833-36.
Sasson, A. 1972. Ann. Arid Zane 11:
67-86.
Wallace. A., Romney, E.M. and Hunter,
RB. 1978. In: Nitrogen in desert
ecosystems (West, N.E. and Skujins,
lJ., eds.) US/IBP synthesis series,
volume 9.
 Agro-forestry-a multiple land use
production systelll
K. A. bankar Narayan
'The major problems confronting
the arid regions are
(a) Environ/al constraints: Low and
erratic precipitation, frequent, drought
intense radiation, occurrence of frost,
high wind speed and resulting erosion;
poor soil condition of water for human
and livestock and irrigation; sparse vege-
tative cover, soil salinity and or_ brackish
water.
(b) Biotic: Pressure of human and
animal popUlation on marginal and sub.
marginal lands; low plant productivity
due to environmental biotic pressure;
damages due to insects and rodent pest.
(c) Socio-economic : Inadequate ex-
posure!ddoption to modern farming
techniques and merits of conservation of
natural resources; lack of alternate voca-
tion other than cropping and animal
husbandry; fragmentation of holdings,
nomadism, etc.
To such problem areas, King (1979)
has ascribed the term "Fragile ecosystem'
because their equilibrium appears to be
easily upset and because they become
ecologically degraded if certain forms of
land use, particularly sedentary agricul-
ture are practised on them. It has been
estimated that 4900 million hectares or
65% of the land in the tropical world may
71
be classified as "fragile ecosystem" areas.
The number of people who depend upon
these areas for their food and livelihood
is 630 million or 35% of the total popula-
tion of the developing countries (King,
1979).
Traditionally the population living
in these areas have coped with these ext-
reme environment by practising forms of
land use that were extensive, by being
mobile, and by being part of a social
system that was based on economic inter
dependence. Today the rapid increase of
population and the introduction of
inappropriate technologies have resu lted
in the removal of protective trees and
shrubs for fuel and shelter and the
cultivation of soil that are ill-suited to
to arable agriculture. Moreover, many
of the intensive farming practices that
have been attempted although increasing
yields in the short run, have made the
soils vulnerable to erosion and have inde-
ed led to desertification.
In this context the International
Council for Res.earch in Agroforestry
(ICRAF) has forseen new dimension to
taungya and agriculture and therefore
proclaims the new concept agroforestry
as a"Sustainable land management system
which increases the ov~rall yied of the
land, combines the production of crops
 and forest plants/or animals simultaneou-
sly or sequentially on the same unit of land
applies management practices that are
compatible with the cultural practices of
the local population" (King and Chandler,
1978). A great deal of hope lies in an
integrated approach and a complex net
work of of interactions between two rival
enterpirses agriculture and forestry.
Beneficial Impact of Agroforetsry
That forest trees and agricultural
crops can be grown together to their
mutual benefit and without deterioration
of site can be gleaned from several
sources.
Firstly the evidence gained from the
practice of taungya or agri-silviculture
reported by Blanford (1958) which was
begun way back in Burma in 1856, is a
classical instance in point. Many of the
forest plantations which have been esta-
blished in the tropical world including
India owe their origin to this system.
King (1968) and Von Resmer (1966,1970)
have reported on the various trees and
annual agricultural crops that can be
grown together. What is more there is
not only no adverse effect of agricultural
crops on trees and vice-versa. there are
reports of higher yields from both types
of crops under certain conditions.
Evidence from tra4itional farming
systems employing tree culture is also
available in the tropics. Wilken (1977) has
reported that some societies simulate
fOl:est conditions in their far~ in order
to obtain the beneficial effects of forest
structures. The farmers In Central
America imitate the structure and species
diversity of tropical forests by planting a
variety of crops with different growth
72
habits. Plots of about 0.1 ha contain two
dozen different species of different form
and together correspond to the layered
stratification of mixed forest, coconut or
papaya with a shrub layer of coffee or
cacao, tall and low annuals such as maize
and beans and finally a spreading ground
cover plant such as squash.
In India one study on the shelter belt
plantation has shown that yields per 'unit
of land for ground nut, redgram and
bajra (pearl millet) under sheltered
conditions were higher by 75, 48 and 63
per cent, respectively compared with
controlled situation (Rao, 1980)
In another investigation on the
economics of silvipastoral use of land
resources vis-a-vis seasonal crops, it has
been reported that the net return per
hectare of land, enterprise and family
labour employed for annual crops ranged
between Rs. 70 and Rs. 150 with and
average of Rs. 108/-. After pricing the
family labour employed in cultivation
at Rs. 5 per manday, the net annual return
per hectare to land and enterprise ranged
from Rs. 55 to Rs. 15 and the average
works out to Rs. 28.
On the other b and the net annual
.returns to land per hectare and enterprises
worked for silvipastoral system (after
discounting 11 % to arrive at net value)
revealed that it varied from species very
widely ranging from Rs. 1850 to Rs. 27,
530 and Rs. 360 to Rs. 3270 for net pre-
sent value of annual returns and annuities,
respectively. Thus the expected net return
per hectare of land and enterprise sivipa-
storal system are considerably higher than
those from the annua~ crops in arid
region (Gupta, 1980).
 The main point that I wish to state
here is that in a fragile ecosystem such as
arid regions, agriculture alone would not
be a stable enterprise and has therefore
to nece~sarily seek the prop of fore-stry
into the farming system in order to impart
stability and generate assured i!lcome.
Current interest, investment and
research effort in agrororestry are based
on the expectation that the net financial
returns will be higher per unit of land
than from either forestry or agriculture
alone. Tustin et al. (1979) dealing with
forest farming as a multiple land-use
production system in Newzealand obser-
ved that properly applied agroforestry
need not displace or seriously disrupt
agriculture but can complement it by
minimizing wastage of capital works
coming only gradual changes in pastoral
based production. The authors further
observed that cash flow problems were
unlikely to be encountered where trees
occupied less then 10% of the farm
area.
In an excellent review article on the
future of Tropical Agroforestry system
Adeyoju (1980) emphasized that agro-
forestry is not a biological mix pn se;
rather it is a series of management
technique intended to temporize the
"natural machine" with the latest socio-
economic and technological concepts of
resource Use. In this age when develop-
ment planners have got used to quantify-
ing the progress with socio-economic and
political indices, the forestry contribution
to the human welfare has been critically
enlarged through taungya, agri-silvicul-
ture and agroforestry.
73
In this context Adeyoju (1980) high-
lighted three important aspects. Firstly
apart from devising a ~omparatively
cheap means of regenerating the forest,
the foresters have demonstrated through
agroforestry that they are able to initiate
an enlightened mUltiple land managent
technique. It has aiso proved to be an
effective strategy for curtailing the unrest
of thousands of so-called land less
farmers.
Secondly the practies of agroforestry
has been marked by increase in the quan-
tity and variety of food stuffs, fodder and
the economic impact is therefore, tremen-
dous. There is a strong evidence to
suggest that due advantage of soil fertility
is being taken at the early stages of
forest crop rotation with minimal econo-
mic impairment to pot,ential productivity.
Thirdly agroforestry system has
created a welcome social revoluton in
rural areas. In some countries, there exists
forest settlements with modern amenities
so much so that the provision of forest
employment within the forest settlement
has been surpassed by establishment of
infrastructure facilities. Thus the poten-
tialities of agroforestry compel a multiple
land use management which eschew the
false dichotomy of agriculture and fore-
try which at the same time conserves the
ecosystem and provides both wood and
food particularly in a fragile ecosystem.
Need for research
In view of the potential importance
of agroforestry for developing countries
of tropics, there is urgent need for further
research to continuously refine and im-
prove the system. The shade toJeranc~
 of various agricultural species must be
tested. Forest species which protect the
soils but do reduce energy levels on the
understorey lnust be identified. Optimum
espacements for both trees and crops
need to be determined. Thinning regimes
designed to optimise yield of both tree
and agriculture crops require to be evol-
ved. Optimum species combinations
need to be investigated from the view
point of allelopthy and complimentarity
of species. Above all new breeding pro-
grammes designed to obtain in both
forest tree species and crops those charac-
teristics and attributes that are necessary
for successful and efficient intercropping.
REFERENCES
Adeyoju, S,K. 1980. The Future of tropi-
cal Agroforestry systems. Common. W.
For. Rev. 59 (2): 155-161.
Blanford, H.R. 1958. Highlights of one
hundred years of forestry in Burma.
Emp. For. Rev. 37 (91): 33-42
Gupta, Tirath 1980. Economics of sand
dune stabilisation in India. Paper pre-
sented in the FAOIDANIDA Training
. Course on Sand dUlle Stabilisation,
Shelterbelt and Afforestation in the Dry
zone, held during March 3-30 1980 at
Centr~l Arid Zone Research In,stitute,
Jodhpur.
King, K.F.S. 1968. Arid-silviculture. The
Taungya system, Bulletin No.1 Dep.
For. University of [badon, 109 pp.
74
King, K.F.S. 1978'~ Agro-forestry-Poper
presented in 50th Tropical Agriculture
Day, Royal Tropical Institute, Amster-
dam, 10 pp.
King, KF.S. 1979. Agro-forestry and
utilisation of fragile ecosystem. Forest
Ecology and Management 2: 161-168.
King, K.F.S. and Chandler, H.T. 1978.
Tile Wasted lands. TCRAF, Nairobi,
36 pp.
Rao, M. Sitaram 1980. Influence of shel-
terbelts on Annual crops. Paper
presented at the Second Forestry Con-
ference, F.R.!., Debra Dun (Mimeo.).
Tustin, J.R., Knowles, R.L. and Klomp,
B.K. 1979. Forest Farming-a multiple
landuse producti?D system in Newzea-
land. Forest Ecology and Management
2: 169-189.
Von Hesmer, H. 1966. Der Kombinierte
Land lind Forst wirstwintschaftliche
Anbalt II Tropisc/les Afrika.' Ernst
Klett Verlag, Stuttgart, 150 pp.
Von Heamer, H. 1970. Der Komhinierte
Land und Forst-wirtschaJlliche Anhau
Jl Tropisches und Subtropisches Asien,
Ernst Klett, Verlag, Stuttgart, 219 pp.
Wilken, G.C. 1977. Integrating Forest
and small Scale Farm System in
Middle America. Agro-Ecosystems 3:
291-302.
 Shifting cultivationlTaun~ya cultivation - The
need for integrated and systematic approach
K. D. Mutbana

Shifting cultivation/Taungya culti- shrubs. if resprouted, are cleared and

vation systems suggest (a) using land for burnt in the process of prepairing the site
more than one purpose for better returns: for the subsequent year. After harvesting
(b) interaction among various uses to the second crop, the cultivator moves to
avoid any adverse effects on the trees! the adjoining piece of forest. He repeats
field crops: (c) total output greater than the same process for two years on the
anyone single use. The establishment new bit of land and enjoys the yield.
of forest plantation within the crop land Rarely more than two successive crops
is an important measure which amelio- are harvested from rhe same area due to
rates the microclimate and increases soil and fertility loss, which declines the
productivity of the agricultural lands. crop yield. This way he keeps moving
The scope varies greatly according to the from plot to plot and after a couple of
ecological. socio-economic conditions, years (8 to JO years) returns back to the
present status of land, water, forest and original plot, by which period the land
range resources, immed iate needs of remains fallow and covered with dense
communities and development potential scrub growth. He goes through the cycle
of the area concerned. of clearing. burning and cultivating and
finally abandoning the plots when he
Shifting cultivation (Jhum) realises that cultivation on such lands is
Shifting cultivation or Jhum culti- not profitable.
vation is generally practised by the people This method of shifting cultivation
living in or near the hi lIy forest areas. is destructive to both forest and soil. It
A portion of the forest on the hill slopes accelerates soil erosion, causes'denuda-
is cut. allowed to dry after removal of tion and increases the flood hazard.
timber and fuelwood and burnt in About half of the aboriginal people in
summer season. High unwanted trees India are engaged in this practice. This
are killed by girdling. Such areas remain system is creating greater problems for
barren and exposed in the months of the nation and requires careful handling.
April, May and June. With the onset of' Imposing any legislation to check the
monsoon rains, the seeds of cereals are method may provoke resistance from
SOwn by the tribals and hill dwellers. tribal people. who have been practising
After harvest of crops, the weeds and this system for centuries.

75
 In Dangs, Dharmpur and Vyarat
areas, the adivasis have been practising
shifting cultivation for several years,
causing serious loss of soil and its fertility.
The Forest Department has now taken over
all these areas and is providing technical
and financial assistance to the inhabitants.
In these areas teak and bamboo stumps
and seedlings are being planted and
worked out on a 15 years rotation basis.
The cultivators are given subsistence
allowance and alternative employment
of the plantation in the first three years.
Bamboos and fuelwood, derived from
tending and thinning, are offered to the
land holders. Even the sale proceeds of
the major forest products are also distri-
buted among the land hOlders after
deducting the amount provided earlier
for subsistence.
Almost two-thirds of the forest
lands under shifting cultivation is on
steep slopes where chances of erosion
hazards are severe. It has been estimated
'that the land under such practices is still
increasing in India, causing severe imba-
lance in the ecology of the region. More
than 250 million people in the tropics live
in and around the forest areas and
mainly depend on shifting cultivation.
accelerati,ng land slide, soil erosion, silting
up of reservoirs, accumulation of silt on
riverbeds, resulting in freq uent and flash
floods.
Any type of vegetative growth
binds soil and conserves from peing
blown away or washed down. It is,
therefore, essential to always keep the
catchment areas well stocked with vegeta-
·tion. It may be mentioned here, that
even our ancestors were fully aware of
76
preserving vegetation in the catchment!!.
They used to protect such vulnerable
areas from biotic interferences by wisely
dedicating such forests to soine village
Deity. They never permitted cutting
down of trees/branches or ~ven allowed
cattle grazing within such forest areas. It
would be thrilling to see some such virgin
forests even to this date in some southern
states well stocked with trees and shrubs.
I n certain parts of Rajasthan also one
finds such forests preserved in certain
villages, dedicated to the Deities of the
areas, which are known as 'Orans' and
'Birs'. The areas are still preserviQg the
trees but not the ground cover as grazing
is permitted there.
Forestry approach
The areas where shifting cultivation
is practised, the soil has no recuperative
power and this can only be i!llproved by
planting forest species. In large scale
plantation, the selection of species is an
important factor and preference may be
given on the following basis:
(i) The species should he useful for
the Jllum cultivators.
Oi) The plants should be locally
available and adopted to local
environment.
(iii) The plants need not be palatable
to the livestock but fast growing.
Further spacing of forest plants be
given due considerations mainly based on
the objectives of the plantation, viz., to
cover the area as quickly as possible and
the effect of the tree species on the field
crops. Though crop cultivation is
normally done for two years, the plants

sO introduced should not grow so tall as
to interfere with the crops. A spacing of
3 11' in lines and 4 m from line to line has
been found to be ideal. Forest Depart-
ment cannot take up the tree plantation
work in the Jhum areas due to the vast-
ness of the area and scattered distribu-
tion. Hence the Jhllm cultivators should
be inSISted to take up the plantation job
together with their crops. If both
raising of the plantation and the sowing
of agricultural crops are done simultane-
ously, it would be advantageous to take
care of both weeding and protection of
the crops. This would also ensure success
of the plantation with least expenditure.
Moreover, if the plantation job is under-
taken by the Forest Department, it would
imolve large organisational set up and
funds. Go\ernmcnt agency should supply
seedlings and seeds of tree species and
may also pay subsidy to the .lllllm cu ltiva-
tors through the village organ;sation. This
sy~tem is being practised in the N.E. Hill
r<:gions of the country (Angami, 1980).
TOllngya cultivation : This system
ha~ b~en in practice in Burma since 1862,
in Bengal since 1911, in Southern States
and Kerala since 1921 and in UP since
1923. In this system, the forest area is
clear felled and after extraction of all
marketable produce such as timber and
fue1wood, the remaining materials are
allowed to dI:Y. After all the materials are
dried, say in April, they are burnt, so that
the area is completely bared. When once
the area is ready, the Forest Department
carry out aligning the staking as per the
espacement for their forest species. Imme-
diately after the onset of monsoons, the
area is planted with tree species and then
leased to forest dwellers and other culti-
77
f
vators to raise paddy, other cereals and
pulses. The lessee is permitted to raise
his field crops within the tree species
with clear cut understanding that he
should weed round the plants and keep
them free from suppression to check
competition from the agricultural crops,
protect the area from fire incidence and
also from wild life damage. By this
meth~d the forest plantation is raised
without any expense on weeding and
maintenance and also overcome the
labour difficulties. On the other hand,
this method provides food for the cultiva-
tors. Normally two successive crops are
raised by the cultivators from the same
site and later they shift to the next clear
felled areas. The soils in such areas no
doubt get depleted as the cultivators do
not use fertilizers for their crops but they
extract the maximum from the available
fertility of the soil. To avoid conflicts
and disputes, the Forest Department
allots the areas by draws.
The present day Taungya system is
an integrated land use pattern having a
combination of forestry, agriculture, soil
conservation and watershed management.
It aims at the intensive utilisation of the
resources available. The allotment of
land for free cultivation has been restri-
cted to the forest dwellers/tribes and the
remaining areas are being auctioned am-
ong the prospective tallngyadars cultiva-
tors and the highest bidder gets the right
of cultivation. Though this system of
leasing land has been providing additi-
onal. income to the Forest Department,
the Department gradually stopped this
practice and started giving the land to the
Cooperative Societies on nominal lease
rates for about two successive years.
 Normally the taungyadars are allowed to Normally, two years are permitted
raise one crop of paddy followed by ano- for the crop cultvation and if the tallngy-
ther crop of pulses in the north and tapi- adar desires to utilise the same area for
oca in Kerala State. Of late, ginger the third year, he is permitted provided
he applies manure to the forest crops at
cultivation has replaced the other crops
in the south but the Forest Department his own cost. This usually the tallflgyad-
has realised that ginger crop has harmful ars avoid as they prefer to shift to the
newly clear felled areas.
effects on teak plants as they induce some
sort of fungi in teak plantations but not
There are lot of criticism about
under eucalyptus plantations. the system of falillgya cultivation even
In Kerala, the taungyadars on an though it is foo~ producing, revenue
average collect- 30 quintals of paddy per earn ing and profitable to the Governm-
hectare, i.e., a net profit of Rs. 1000/- per ent. The objection to this system mainly
ha. From tapioca, he produces an aver- is that the faungyadars neglect the forest
age crop of 138 q/ha and realises a net crops. In some caSes it has been found
profit of about Rs 2000/ha, whereas from that the agricultural crops act as carders
ginger crop he produces an average of of pathogens. Howe'ier, studies carried
120 q/ha and realises a net profit of about out in Kerala revealed hardly any differ-
Rs. 3,500/ha fKutty, 1980). ence in the growth of forest plants in
Cultivation practices taungya system when compared to the
conventional system and it also proved
Once the Forest Department compl- that there is neither too much soil
ete their planting programme, the lallngy- depletion nor injury to the forest
adars are allow~d to sow their field crops crops in tallngya system.
leaving 30 cm all around the forest
plants. Generally p3ddy and pulses are This system somehow has not been
sown and wh;;:rever tapioca is planted, successful in Maharashtra, Gujarat and
only one stump is permitted to plant in Karnataka States due to interference of
quincunx method. The un burnt debris the politicians, who encouraged the taull-
'are collected and placed across the .local gyadars to ignore the forest crops and in
slopes on contours to prevent soil ero- many cases helped them in transferring
sion. The taungyadar is expected to weed the reserved forest land for permanent
round the forest plan ts to protect the agriculture. Maharashtra State Forest
area from livestock and wildlife and also Department has now formulated a new
from fire incidences. No crop of the approach to utilise the interspaces between
laungyadars should overtop th.e forest the trees by introducing fibre crops like
plants and no prunning or cutting of the sum hemp, jute and mesta also known as
bran'ches of the forest plants are allowed Kenaf (HlbislIs sabduriffa and H. canabis-
when the taungyadars are permitted to ence) and some oil seed bearing crops
raise their crops in the second year from like sunflower, castor, etc. Mesta has
the same area. gained prominence as it is a non-browsed

78
plant and in easily raised by broadcast-
ing and without much soil working. It
produces excellent fibre, used for rope
and paper making. The oil extracted
from the seeds of mesta is used for soap
manufacturing and burning. The state
has also encouraged introduction of
medicinal plants, along. with those oil
bearing and fibre plants (Sowani, 1980).
If the process of deforestation and
degradation of forest areas are to be
reversed and productivity improved, it is
essential to consider:
(i) Banning of deforestation or allotm-
ent of forest lands either for agric-
ultural purpose or for settlement
of landless people.
(ii) Increasing the resources of the
existing forest by increased inputs
and intensive land use managem-
ent practices.
(iii) Adopting massive afforestation
programmes on both Govern-
ment and community owned lands,
thus providing employment to the
large number of people in the
rural areas.
(iv) Introducing legislation to check
the onslaught of the forest wealth
and for proper maintenance of
the ecosystem ...
(v) Evolving an effective organisation
and enforcement manned by
adequately trained personnel with
multidisciplinary approach.
REFERENCES
Kutty, M.G. 1980. Taungya cultivation
in Kerala. Paper presented for 2nd
Forestry Conference.
Sowani, M.Y. 1980. Cash crops and
Taungya cultivation. Paper presented
for 2nd Forestry Conference.
Angami, T. 1980. Jhum cultivation and
rehabilitation of degraded forest.
Paper presented for 2nd Forestry Con-
ference.
79
 Land use pattern and overexploitation in
Indian arid zone
Amal Kumar Sen

INTRODUCTION arid zone is being initially studied on the

Assessment of use and misuse of basis of secondary data available with the
land is the prerequisite to plan the utili- department of Economics and Statistics
zation of resources. Land utilization of Government of Rajasthan. On the basis
survey and mapping is the obvious require- of such data choropleth maps are often
ment to make such estimates. The ultimate prepared and areas under different cate-
purpose of land utilization survey and gories of land use and sometimes their
map is to arrive at systems of land use and changes are shown in graphical forms.
management best suitable to the kinds or The extent and pattern of landuse classes
resources and capabilities of the land cannot be depicted in these maps, but
composing it. these maps are often helpful to visualise
Land use in arid zone of Rajasthan the different type of present land use, their
comparative analysis and thus provide
In the following paragraphs, an
good indications to formulate the mapping
attempt has been made to analyse and
units to be drawn for landuse surveys and
pinpoint the problems of present land
their consequent mapping.
utilization practices in the 11 (eleven)
districts of western Rajasthan which are The present land use and its relation
classified to constitute the arid zone to agricultural aspects including crop
comprising an area of about 208, 430 sq yields and cropping can be best studied or
kms: With this an additional area of . geographically analysed by classifying the
16,680 sq kms of the Sirohi district may area into agro-ecological regions. The
also be added as one third of this district arid zone of Rajasthan has earlier been
in the northwest also comes under arid classified into two macro and four micro
environment. Geographically the area agroecological regions (Sen, 1972a, b).
extends from 24°35 N to 3D" t~ lO'N and This is shown in Table I. The land use
69°30'E to 76°00'E. characteristics of these regions are shown
Land use classificatian through seco- in Tables 2 and 3 in general and 2a, 2b,
ndary data 3a, 3b, 4, 4a, 4b in details.
. The land use in different areas of the

80
 Table 1. Agro-ecological regions
Micro region Districts Area (sq. km & %)
Macro region
included

a) Kharif monocro- Barmer, Jodhpur, 133,722

1. Arid
pping Churu, Jaisalmer (64.20%)
& Bikaner
b) Irrigated khari! Ganganagar 20.764
& rabi cropping (10%)
a) Khari! monocro- Jhunjhunu, Sikar, 31.244
2. Transitional
pping Nagaur (15.00%)
between arid
b) II rigated khari! Pali and Jalore 82.780
and semi-arid
and rabl cropping (10.80%)

Table 2. Landuse in agro-ecological Regions of rajasthan desert

Agro-ecological Forest Net irri- Net Un-irri- Tree Groves Fallow Culturable Not
region gated gated & orchards land waste availa-
ble for
culti.

Arid-khari!mono 0.26 0.27 26.32 0.005 21.12 33.76 18.24

croppping
Arid-Irrigated 0.13 2M1 27.90 0.13 20.94 21.67 4.40
khari! and rabi
cropping
Transitional belt
(Between arid &
semi arid)
khari! mono- 1.09 2.72 65.22 0.02 15.55 6.66 8.72
cropping
Irrigated Khari! 2.85 6.84 39.89 0.05 28.65 7.58 14.10
& rabi cropping

1. Arid region surplus. 78% of the tapped water is utilised

The arid region coincide~ with the
area receiving mostly less than 350 mm of
annual rainfall. The sandy and hot desert
conditions prevail mostly throughout the
region. Rainfall decreases towards the
west and the region is mostly dominated
by the cultivation of bajra crops which
covers more than 90 per cent of the total
cultivated lands. The agro ecological
conditions of the micro regions are des-
cribed next. In this zone 1127.75 cm or
47.73 per cent of the total exploitable
potential is tapped bearing 52.22% as
for irrigation and 22% for livestock and
domestic purposes.
a) Kharif monocropping : The region
includes 64.22 per cent of the total area
of the western Rajasthan.
Density of cultivated lands: The
density of cultivated lands varies from less
than 30 per cent to total rural area in
laisalmer district; Sheo tehsil of Barmer
district (adjacent to Jaisalmer); Bikaner
district (except Lunkaransar tehsil) now
served by lift canal and Rajasthan canal
irrigation 31.8% and Nokha tehsil 72.8%

81
 to 80 per cent and above in Jodhpur and Arid irrigated kllarif and rahi cropp-
Churu districts in this micro agro- ing: This includes the district of Ganga-
ecological zone. nagar in the north. The entire N.W.
Landuse alld intensity of cropping: portion is served by Ganga canal system.
The landuse details as worked out from Except a small part in the south the rest
the secondary data (revenue data) are are being irrigated by the Rajasthan canal
shown in Tables 2a and 2b. system. The area is however well within
Table 2a. Landuse and density of cultivated lands (% to total geographical area)- arid, kllGri!
monocropping area
District Density Intensity Forest Landuse
of culti- of crop- Settle -
Not Fallow Singte Double
vation ping -ment avai- land cro- cropp-
non agri lable pped . ing
cultural
lands for cu It
Bikaner 16.23 100.00 0.36 3.27 1.28 77.82 16.23
Barmer 43.45 100.00 0.31 2.41 12.24 40S4 43.35 0.10
Churu 63.36 100.10 0.05 5.51 1.17 28.86 63.30 0.08
Jodhpur 43.35 100:50 004 3.37 12.00 41.18 43.18 0.15
Jaisalmer 3.40 100.00 0.48 1.21 44.60 50.25 3.49
Table 2b. Kllar;! arid monocropping region prduction-crop yields in kgfha (arid)
Districts
Crops Jodhpur Barmer Jaisalmer Bikaner Churu
Wheat 1225 1090 1491 976 964
Bajra 210 211 58 66 158
JOlVar 153 206 383 1756 233
Maize 687 708 500
Barley 902 975 1500 639 586
Gram 524 526 405 516 931
Cropping pattern alld cropping yields: the desertic tract receiving rainfall less
Bajra, jowar, wheat, barley, maize and than 150 mm in the west to 350 mm in the
gtam are the most important agricultural east. Climl'ltically it is a true desert.
pro}lucts of the region. The main product Cropping pattern and landuse : 76.36
is however, bajra, 99.50, 99.00, 98.00, per cent of the total area is cultivated, the
96.50 and 96.50 per cent of the total intensity of cropping being 107.7. Land
cropped area are put under bajra in utilization of the district indicates (in
Bikaner, Churu, Barmer, Iaisalmer and per cent to total area) forest 0.14, settle-
Jodhpur districts, respectively. The total ments and non agricultural lands 3.97,
cropped area under wheat and badey are land not available for cultivation 0.27,
very insignificant (only 8.20 per cent of fallow land (290.2 short fallow), cultivated
the total cropped area in Jodhpur). The land 76.36 (single cropped 54.46 and
yield. of the main crops produced in double cropped 21.80), irrigated (net),
this sub zone is shown in Table 2b. un irrigated (net) lands comprises 24.61

82
and 27.90 per cent of the total rural'area.
Only 0.58% of the total area constitutes
waste lands.
Crops and crop yields: Rice covers
198 sq km (irrigated), jowar (kharif), 21
sq. km, bojra 1055 sq km, wheat 2625
sq km (irrigated); barley (irriga~ed) 113 sq
km. The yield of the crops are rice 2000
kg/ha, jowor 500 kg/ha, barley 800 kg/ha,
balra 1000 kg/ha, wheat 1400 kg/ha,
sugarcane (76 sq km - 40000 kg/ha), gram
(5215 sq km-1000 kg/ha), cotton (Ameri-
can- 1975 sq km Deshi - 463 sq km-IOOO
km/ha. Jowor (3700 sq km 1000 kg/ha.)
2. a) Transitional district between
arid and semi arid: This agro-ecological
zone lies between 350 mm to 500 mm
rainfall belt and comprises about 25 per
cent of the total area of W. Rajasthan.
This arid tract practically constitutes the
steppe desert (Raheja and Sen, 1964).
Easte'rn part belongs entirely to rocky
desert. This region has a good agricultural
potentiality but the cultivation of the
sand dunes and the marginal lands of the
true arid lands has already become a
menace of soil erosion and fresh sand
deposition in this terrain. In a number of
areas the condition has further deteriora-
ted and requires special attention (Sen and
Mann, 1977).
Khorif monocropping: This sub-agro-
ecological group includes Jhunjhunu, Sikar
and Nagaur districts in the north. Cropp-
ing pattern and land use, crop yields are
shown in Table 3. Density of cultivation,
land use and intensity of cropping are
presented in Table 3a.

Table 3a. Landus~-Transitional between arid and semi arid khari! monocropping

District Density Intensity Forest Settlement Not Fallow Single Double

of cuIti- of crop- non agri- availa land crop- crop-
vation ping cultural ble for ped ped
(%Iotal lands cult
area)
Sikar 68.38 103.8 1.03 2.83 14.83 12.85 66.32 2.06
Jhunjhunu 75.05 103.7 2.86 1.51 14.83 5.72 71.68 3.37
Nagaur 60.71 100.6 4.19 8.1I 26.32 60.49 0.22

Table 3b. Transitional between arid and semi arid khari! monocropping. Production in kg/hll

Crops Districts
Sikar Jhunjhunu Nagaur
Wheat 1115 1005 1012
Bajra 356 328 230
Jowar 287 266 155
Maize 553 . 560 715
Barley I09S 1005 995
Gram 303 297 416

83
 Table 4. Cropping pattern in agro ecological region
Agro-Aecologi- Crops Area in Production Yield in %of area to %of production
cal regions ha in M. tonnes kgjha total cropp- to total produc-
ed area of tion of region
regiolJ under (different crops)
different
crops
Arid kharif Whenl 37.:105 44264 1183 1.54 9.09
monocropping Barley 2710 2296 847 0.11 0.47
Gram 56466 19215 340 2.34 3.94
Bajra 2306677 415715 180 95.13 85.47
Jowar 21253 4947 232 0.87 l.Ol
Maize 173 119 687 0.01 0.02
Irrigated khari/ Wheat 175952 192094 1091 21.72 36.58
rabi cropping Barley 32533 28578 878 4.01 5,44
Gram 441385 25554 578 54.50 48.68
Bajra 153126 45996 300 18.91 8.76
Jowar 5573 1724 309 0.68 0.32
Maize 1168 1070 916 0.14 0.20
Transitional belt Wheat 42002 43784 1042 3.22 10.34
and semi arid Barley 44217 46682 1055 3.38 1],00
kharifmonocro- Gram 87197 26425 308 6.67 6.35
pping Bajra 1053998 293760 278 80.63 69.24
Jowor 78587 \2336 156 6.02 2.90
Maize 1125 251 667 00.8 0.17
Irrigated kllari! Wheat 76734 103095 1343 9.91 - 28.57
and rabi Cropp- Barley 25914 6470 510 3.34 6.96
ing Gram 12679 194717 530 1.63 1.79
Bajra 555520 194717 350 71.74 53.69
Jowar 73770 15651 212 9.52 4.33
Maize 29636 15570 532 3.82 4.37

2 b.) Irrigated kharif alld raM cropp-
ing: This mIcro unit includes Pali and
.lalore districts. The topoclimatology is
more .or less similar with the exception
that the eastern part receives more irri-
gation and drainage lines are more inte-
grated and developed. The soils are same,
actually more than 43 per cent of the
districts come under semi-arid zone 3 to
9 per cent of the total area is irrigated,
7% by tank and 2% by well and tube
wells. Red desertic and sierozem soils
here are deep. 64 per cent and 75 per cent
of the estimated ground water is exploited
in Jalore and Pali districts, respectivelv.
Per cent of gross irrigated area by sources
accounts; food crops 85%, cotton 5 to 8%
and others 10%. Landuse, density of culti-
vated lands and intensity of cropping is
given in Table 4a and crop yields in Table
4b.

84
 Table 4a. Landuse and density of cultivation. (% to total area) transitional between arid and
semi-arid/irrigated kharif and rabi

-District Density of Intensity of Forest

cultivation cropping Settlement
Landuse
Not Fallow Single Double
available land cropp- cropp-
as non for ing iog
agriculture cultiva-
land tion

42.39 104.8 4.90 4.09 19.71 28.07 40.84 1.56

Pali
Jalore 57.98 107.6 0.37 3.12 13.92 24.91 56.06 1.98

Table 4b. Transitional Lctween arid and semi-arid/irrigated khorifand robi cropping production
(kgjha.)

Crops Districts
Pali Jalorc

Wheat 1551 1170

Bajra 337 355
Jowar 234 52
Maize 532 536
Barley 975 909
Gram 502 532

A further more detailed analysis are Land use map of W. Rajasthan based 011
obtained when the data are cartographed the interpretatioll landsat imageries
districtwise only on a large scale map. Based primarily on the interpretation
The maps prepared for Bikaner_ of 5 landsat imagery (I: I ,000,000)
Jodhpur, Nagaur Iaisalmer Ganganager supplied by lSRO a tentative land use
and Churu on J: 250, 000 sub indicatle map of Rajasthan has been prepared on
that there are no significant changes in 1: 1,000,000. This is cartographed on the
areas in land use practices. In Jodhpur basis of total variation of the images aided
and Nagaur districts cultivated lands by the study "convergence of evidence".
alongwith short and long fallows accounts Ground truth of the areas, already surve-
more than 75% whereas in Bikaner the yed by Basic Resources Studies Division
un.it accounts below 50%. (48.15%)- of Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
ex~ept only in Nokha tehsil (77.11%)
are also considered. No relationship bet-
which is adjacent to Nagaur, waste lands ween the images and its corresponding
in Bikaner exceeds other units. Sandy ground features are established to map the
wastes predominant in B.ikaner (50.05/~). oran and the abadi areas. These, however,
cannot be mapped on I :1,000,000 scale.
Extent of landuse units-landuse mappinf( The map however has been found very
Extent of land use unit of different useful Lo make the initial landuse classi-
categories can be shown by remote fication for surveying further details and
sensing techniq ues (large scale map or to pinpoint the problem areas. It is
topographical sheet 8nalysis; convergence, possible to·find out and map only the areas
aerial photo analysis and interpretation having more than 100 km 2 . The mapping
of land set imageries). units established are:
85
 Table S. Present land use of W. Rajasthan (Based on landsat imagery)

Area in sq km

Double cropping 4268.88 (1.90)

Monocropping 50776.74 (18.62)
(60-80%)
(40-80%) 49874.92 (19.17)
(30-50%) 31562.71 (11.56)
(20-30%) 24095.47 (8.83)
(10-20%) 29404.55 (I0.56)
Below 10% 8798.63 (3.91)
Sandy waste (duny complex 26440.05 (11.76)
and grazing land)
Saline 1808.41 (0.81l
Gravelly and rocky waste 11786.85 (5.1>8)
Stoney, sandwaste and cultivated 9459.40 (3.56)
Hills 6637.19 (3.29)

OVER-EXPLOITA TION Haryana) and southern Ghaggar canal

Some of the drawbacks of present revealed some interesting features.
land utilisation practices are given below. The southern part of the region was
These are leading to lowering of produc- waterlogged flanked by sandy hummocks
tivity, malnutrition, poverty and deserti- and sand dunes as mapped by survey of
fication hazards, etc. India during 1912-14. The reclamation of
(1) Uncontrolled and overgrazing in the water logged areas and the marginal
the waste and fallow lands. lands by irrigation later converted them
(2) Cultivation on the marginal lands into cultivated lands with high intensity of
and sand dunes. 80 to 100 per cent. But the cultivation of
(3) Extensive irrigated land and the marginal lands and sand dunes have
sand dunes that have caused water caused the shifting and deposition of
logging, increased salinity pro- sand further south near Jasana, Ramsara.
blems, rise of water table, seepage Ratanpura, Rajkawra, etc., which were
problems. etc. dun~ free during 1912-14, have now be-
(4) Indiscriminate lopping leading to come the sites of the high dune intensity
the shunting growth of trees. as revealed from the serial photographs
removal of top soils. and S.O.I. toposheets surveyed during
Uneconomic lallduse practices and overex- 1960-61.
ploitation of water resources ill Rajasthall Recent survey (Sept. 1978) has shown
Canal Project area further increase of sands throughout the
Investigations on land use carried area which is due to the indiscriminate
out in between 74°45' to 75°0'E and 29°30' cutting of the shrubs and trees. This
N to 29°15'N just to the south of the old has led to the deterioration of good agri-
Ghaggar river bed (in Hissar district of cultural lands and has increased the

86
desertification intensity. The undated areas
which were water logged as early as in
1912 have become saline and this parti-
cular problem is gradually increasing
towards the south in recent years.
The study thus sharply bring into
focus the biotic interferences of the margi-
nallands which should be scientifically
managed along with judicious exploitation
of water resources.
(3) The seepage problem along the
canal irrigated areas hav(~ caused
water logged areas in Suratgarh,
Tibi, Hanumangarh, Anupgarh
areas. This has increased the
salinity hazards.
(4) The overgrazing cultivation of the
sand dunes and the marginal lands
in Bhadra, Nohar and Suratgarh
tehsils has led to the shifting
of sands in the adjacent Chum
district. The district has recently
shown considerable increase of
desert sand, sand drifts and the
existing stabilised dunes are in-
creased vertically and new sand
dunes are developing round
Churu, Taranagar tehsils.
(5) The intensive and uneconomic
irrigation has caused water logg-
87
ing problems and 'an area of
about 20 sq kms has b~en sub-
merged near Suratgarh area.
(6) The water table has been consi-
derably increased and has reached
within 2' to 3' round Suratgarh,
Norpal and Rangmaha1 areas.
This has threatened the prehisto-
ric excavation situal Rangmahal,
Kalibengh, Hanumangarh and
dry beds of Saraswati or Ghaggar
etc.
REFERENCES
Raheja, P.e. and Sen, A.K. 1964. "Resou-
rces in Perspective." Recent Develop-
ment Rajasthan, SOIH'eflir volume,
CAZRI/ GOVT. of India, pp. 1-28.
Sen, A.K. 1972a. Agroclimatic regions of
Rajasthan. Ann. Arid Zone 11 (1 & 2):
31-40.
Sen, A K. I 972b. Agricultural Atlas of
India, ICAR New Delhi.
Sen. A.K. 1978. Land use classification
system in !ndian Arid Zone. CAZRI
Monograph No.9.
Sen A.K. an~ Mann, H.S.1977. A geogr~­
phical appraisal of expansion and
deterioration of Indian desert. Ann.
Arid Zone 16 (3): 281-289.
 Site quality assessment for afforestation
Suresh Kumar

Preinvestment surveys- a prerequi- quality' is the productive capacity of the

site for taking up forestry programmes, site (Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg, 1974)
include appraisal of site quality for Assessment of site quality involves an
estimating the productive capacity of the analysis of the relationship between
land. This appraisal helps in selection productivity and environment. Hocker
of site, suitable species and identificlltion (1979) has summarised this in the follo-
of factors that limit optimum producti- wing equation :
vity of land. A comparison of the Site Quality= (Climate) + (Soil) +
benefits from different uses of same land (Physiography) + (Biota)
and clues to its proper management can
+ (Ciimate) (Soil) +
also be had from this kind of exercise. (Climate) (Physiography)
Basic concepts site quality + (Climateh (Biota) +
(Soil) (Physiography) +
At the outset, basic terms, i.e., 'land'
(Soil) (Biota) + (Physio-
and 'site', and their scope needs to be
graphy) (Biota) + (Cli-
well understood. The 'land' is defined
mate) (Physiography)
,geographically as a specific area of the
(Biota) + (Soil) (Physio-
earth's surface, its characteristics embrace
grapay (Biota) +(Climate)
all reasonably stable and predictably
(Soil) (Physiography)
cyclic attributes of the biosphere verti-
(Biota).
cally above and below this area including
those of the atmosphere, the soil, the geo- Attempts have been made to evolve
logy, the hydrology, the plant and animal suita~le techniques for assessing the site
population and the results of the past quality of forest lands. These can be
and present human activity to. the extent categarized into conventional and modern
that these attributes exert a Significant techniq ues.
influence on present and future use of the Conventional methods
land by man (smyth, 1974). The conventional methods have
A tract of 'land' may have many further been grouped into 'direct' or
'sites'. For all practical purposes, the indirect'
definition of 'land' satisfies the needs of Direct methods
'site', except that the latter is presumably Direct methods consist of measur-
sinall in' its geographical extent. 'Site ing or assessing the desired, economic

88

product, e.g., timber available from t~e
land. Attempt is made to asscss the sIte
quality in .terms of basal areas, timber
VOlume, height of the tree, weight of all
organs of the tree or certain of its pro-
duct (e.g., resin, t~nnins, bark, gum),
timber quality and forest growth itself.
Site indices are expressed in terms of
dominant height or total volume. A
sample plot is laid in the forest land and
all the trees in this plot are counted.
Age, dominant height and DBH (diameter
at breast height) are recorded. Timber
volume and total weight of all the parts
of tree are sometimes recorded. These
data are used for preparing a site index.
Estimation of growing stock in conven-
tional forestry practice, for example, is
nothing but a reflection' of the existing
quality of site.
Thus the direct methods give an
idea of existing productive capacity of
the site. The desired economic product,
on the basis of which site quality is predi-
cted, is only an expression of various
environmental factors that constitute a
site. No attempt is made to identify the
causative factors that infiuence the exis-
ting productive capacity. Factors limiting
to achieving potemial productive capacity
are not distinguished. These darw-backs
are taken care of in indirect methods
being described below.
Indirect Muthods
The indirect methods are based on
the premise that productive capacity is a
reflex of different environmental factors
prevailing at the site. Environmental
factors are, therefore, correlated to the
productive capacity in the form of site
indices. While preparing these site
89
indices, ,it is presumed that a/site index
curve of an area having a particular
species composition, stand density and
age can have a predictive value for other
area only if it has simBar spec,ies compo-
sition, stand density and age. Different
environmen tal factors considered for site
indices preparation are climate, soil and
lastly vegetation, which are described
below.
Climate
Classification of forests within
countries or continents is largely based on
climatic factors. Site indices based on
individual climatic factors have been
prepared for quite sometime but of late,
these have been combined to give a
mUltiple climatic index of greater rele-
vance of forest growth. Of the many
formulae, Peterson-Week CVP index is
the most advanced index:
1= Tv x~
Ta 1
Where, I = Index
Tv = mean monthly temperature
( in °C) of the warmest
month.
Ta difference (in 0c) between
mean monthly temperatures
of the warmest and the
coolest month.
P mean annual precipitation
(in mm).
,G Length of the growing season
E (Milankovitch's factor)
_Rp x 100
Rs
Where,
Rp =solar radiation at the pole
Rs =solar radiation at a particular
site (both in 103 g cal. cm-- 2
min.-I)
 'J' ranges from zero in polar and
desert regions to around 20,000 at the
equator. Forest growth is impossible
when I is 25. Forest growth increases
steadily when value of I is over 25 and
upto 30,000 and declines for values above
30,000. This index has been applied in
Canada, France, Italy and Sweden
(Rennie, 1963).
Soil
Soil criteria employed for evalua-
ting productivity in agriculture are only
partly successful in forest site assessment.
This is due to the fact that agricultural
soils can be determined within narrow
range of properties which in case of
forest soils show great variatians. Never-
theless, attempts have been made to
correlate site quality with individual soil
properties such as texture, depth, humus
content, pH, available N, P&K. In India
for example, quality class of soil has been
correlated with the soil nitrogen by Seth
and Bhatnagar (1960). Correlation of
more than one soil factor in the form of
multiple regression equation to the site
quality is more objective. Trimble and
elevatiOn)
I = S(75 = 88.5-0.286 ( 100
soil group I or 2) .
, ( so Iurn d ep th
113.6 + 8.32 (soli group 3 or 4)
II = S17)• = 87.1-0.257 (elevatiOn).
100 (latItude -40)
- 8.75 (soil group I or 2) + 9.02 (soil group 3 or 4)
+ 4.19 (sine ofazi~uth)
Where,
Soil group I = Shallow to bed rock soil
Soil group 2 - deep.well drained soil
Soil group 3 Moderately well drained
Soil group 4 = Somewhat poody drained
90
Weitzman (1956) computed one such
equation for Ouercus rubra stands.
y == 1.9702 - 0.0618 Xl +0.0012 x2-
0.0020 xa - 0.1509 x4
Where
Y = Site index (Jog)
xl = aspect (sine of the azimuth
from southeast + I)
x2 = percentage distance from
ridge.
va = percentage siope
I
X4 = (Total soil depth in feet)
Site quality has also been correlated
with the depth of horizon, the mineral
composition of each horizon, the litho-
logy or parent rock, the drainage and
texture (Hocker, 1979). But recently,
the trend is to develop equation with
limited need for soil information. Post
and Curtis (1970) compared two site
indices of some site: one which required
detailed soil information and second
required limited soil information. It was
found that the standard error of estimate
in former i.e., ± 6.6 was only slightly
reduced i.e. ± 6.2 in case of latter.
.
( latltude-40 )-
 Replace required soil group accor~
ding to the soil at the site. Substitute a
'Zero' for soil group 2 and 4, which are
placed in one equation, likewise, substi~
ture a one (1) for soil group (I) and (3)
in soil group factor. Same equations can
be used for calculating site quality when
soil group 1 and 3 are substituted by soil
group 2 and 4, respectively.
Since soil criteria are used in isola-
latian, that is without correlating the
other factors, McClurkin (1953) attemp-
ted to combine climatic and soil criteria
for predicting site quality of long leaf pine
(Pinus palustris) in guly coastal plains
and developed the following relationship
(Cited from Hocker, 1979).
Log site index = 1.8697 + O. 002636
(Rainfall January to
June) (depth (0 least
permeable soil hori-
zon)- 0.006734 (depth
to the least permeable
horizon).
With all these studies, however, it
is yet not possible to know exactly the
form of relationship that exists between
a site factor and tree growth. Secondly,
these relations are worked on temporary
plots whose growth period may have
different 'histories'. Moreover, genetic
races of a tree species are pooled and
variation in estimate due to different
races of species is not taken into
account.
Vegetation
Korstian in 1917 firstly advocated
the Use of native plants as indicators
of site quality. Later Cajander (1926)
proposed that potential quality of
91
any sit.e f9r forest growth may be judged
better by the predominant undergrowth
on the area than by that of tree vegetation
itself. Accordingly, Cajander identified
indicators of site quality in Finland.
These were called lesser vegetation. Use
of lesser vegetation in interpreting site
quality has been made by various workers
(Stanley, 1938). Ground vegetation types
have been established as reliable indicators
of the rate of height growth of Ponderosa
Pine in Washingaon and Idaho (Dauben-
mire, 1961).
But its particular importance is in
the interpretation of the forestry poten-
tial of deforested land by recognising
indicators from among natural vegetation.
lndicator plants only point towards
probable cause of the existing site quality.
These causes are not measured. Vegeta-
tion in combination with soil and
climatic factors should be the most sound
approach.
Therefore, World Forestry Congr-
ess in 1959 took in itiative and decided to
compare methods of site quality assessm-
ent of same forest site on northern foot
hills of Alps in Switzerland. (Mueller-
Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). The
metheds compared were: (i) Braun- Blan-
quet's purely phyto-sociological method
(ii) Aichinger method which is phyto-
sociological with emphasis on dynamics.
(iji) Schmid's method v.hich combines
phytosociology with the past history (iv)
Ebreswalder's method of analysis of
vegetation as well as soil. It was found
that Ebreswalder's method gives most
useful information in moderate time.
In this method, vegetation is sampled in
releves and indicator plants are identified
 from amongst the vegetational categories. ing when superimposed on growing stock
Extensive studies on soils from same gave clue to the site quality. The photo
vegetation sites are carried out and parameters of these groupings were then
coupled with information from indicator standardised and delineations were finally
plants to decide t he site potential. made on the aerial photos and trans-
Modern methods ferred to base map to finally show the
All these methods involve sampling extent and location of the- site.
on ground and spatial boundaries drawn Methods of classifying forest types
for any particular site are rather arbi- on satellite imageries have been developed
trary. Aerial photos which provide
and new techniques are being evaluated
unobstructed view of the large area there- allover the world. Remotely sensed data
fore, can be employed for accurate has been successfully used -in making
boundary delineation. Site quality of forest type maps, estimating growing
Bhabher sal forest has been successfully stock and calculating yield per unit area
assessed by aerial photo.intcrpretation (Anonymous, 1977). Semi detniled soil
supported by ground work by Shedha maps at 1;50,000 prepared through' sate-
and Kumar 11980). On the basis of physio- llite data can be superimposed on forest
gnomy and composition, the forest was type maps to provide a useful correlation
stratified into 4 height classes. This data, of these factors in determining the site
along with the data obtained in ground quality.
check at 54 grid sampling points 0.1 ha
each) was used in estimation of the grow- Epilogue
ing stock or timber. Thus, site quality Prior knowledge of productive
in terms of growing stock was measured capacity of a site helps in selection of site,
by direct method. Following Cajander's suitable species and in distinguishing the
approach (1905) it was desired to classify factors limiting to achieve the optimum
ground flora into plant groupings which productivity of a land. Assessment of site
are indicators of site quality. Further quality is done by different techniques:
the mapping of these groupings on aerial modern or conventional including direct
photos would help in correctly identifying and indirect methods. Both, direct and
the location and extent of a site. The indirect methods when applied indepen-
conventional methods give little idea of. dently.give partially accurate estimate of
the ecological correlation existing at a the site quality. Direct methods yield
site. Because in these only presence of a quantitative in formation on economic
plant is taken into account. Williams product obtainable from the forest while
and Lambert (1957) proposed that not intricate relationship between environ-
only presence, but also absence of a plant mental factors (singly or in combination)
from a site is indicative of some environ- and the productive capacity is best under-
mental condition. Their technique of stood through indirect. methods. A judi-
Association analysis was therefore, cious combination of different methods
followed in deriving these groupings. from both, direct and indirect approaches
Inqicator value of components o(group- will yield appropriate and desired infor-

92
 . These conventional methods
m.1ttOn. .
'"
are t I n_·,. consuming and give poor
. Idea of
the exact geographical boundanes of t~e
. The use of modern tools, aenal
sIte. - . '11
rl'otographs and satelltte data WI
overcome these drawbacks. Soil surveys
and modern analytical techniques of
veg.?tation classification and ordination in
combiration with remote sensing techno-
lcgy are the possible future lines of
re5earch for site quality assessment. .
REFERENCES
Anonymous 1977. R(;SOlirce sensing Jrom
space: Prospects for Developing Coun-
tries. National Academy of Sciences.
Washington, DC. pp. 201.
Cajander, A.K: 1926. The theory of forest
types. Acta Forest Fellnica 21: 1-108.
Daubenmire, R. 1961. Vegetative indica-
tors of rate of forest 'growth in
Ponderosa Pine. For Sci. 7,: 24-34.
Hocker (Jr.), H.W. 1979. Introduction to
Forest Biology. John Wiley a,d Sons
Inc., New York pp. 467.
Korstian, C.F. 1917. The indicator signi-
ficance of native vegetation in the
determination of forest sites. Plant
World 20: 267-287.
Mueller - Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H.
1974. Aims and Methods oj Vegetation
ecology. John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York. pp. 547
Post, B. W. and Curtis, R. O. 1970. Esti-
mation of northern hardwood site
index from soils and topography in
the Green Mountains of Vermont.
Vermont Agri. Expt. Sla. Bull. Burli-
ngton, Vt. pp. 664.
93
Rennie, P. J. 1963. Methods of assessing
site capacity. Commollwealth Forestry
Review 42 (4): 306-317.
Seth, S'. K, and Bhatnagar, H. P. 1960.
Interrelations between mineral consti-
tuents of foliage, soil properties, site
quality and regeneration status in
some Shorea robusta forests. Indian
Forester 86 : 590-601.
Shedha. M. D. and Kumar, S J980.
Forest site quality assessment by aeri-
al photointerpretation- case study of
Sal forests (Abs.). pp. 89. Seminer on
Applicatioll oj Aerial Photo-interpreta-
tion alld Remote Sensing techniques Jor
Natural Resollrces Surveys and Enviro-
nmental Planning. Proc. of. pp. 97.
Smyth, A. J. 1974. Development oj interna
tional standards oj land classification.
P. 12-22. Technical Bu11eliI130. Ministry
of Agrieulture, Fisheries and Food.
Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
london.
Stanley, O.B. 1938. Indicator significance
of lesser vegetation in the Yale Forest
near Keene, New Hampshire. Ecology
19 : 188-207.
Trimble, G.R. Jr. and Weitzman, S. 1956.
Site index study of upland Oaks in the
northern Appalachians. For. Sci. 2:
162-173.
Williams, W.T. and Lambert, J.M. 1959.
Multivariate methods in plant ecology:
I. Association analysis in plant commu-
n·ties. J. Ecol. 47 : 83-101.
 Tree and shrub species for agroforestry systerns
in arid and seIni arid regions
H. S. Maun

In the tropics, uncertain supplies Trees of Multipurpose Value

and increasing costs of feed, fertilizer and The FAO (1977) Panel of experts
food coupled with projected population on forest gene resources. recognised the
increases are giving the leguminous trees, importance of exploring and conserving
whose foliage is browsed by animals, a the resources of species that can meet
status they never enjoyed previously. one or more of these non-timber uses,
Trees and shrubs playa dual role particularly for arid zones. These are
in the forage supply, serving ,both as enumerated below:
shade for grass and as forage themselves.
Name of species Uses
In dry tropics in particular, shrubs and
trees are pracious, for without them stock Acacia albida Fd Fu FF
raising would probably be impossible as A. alleura Fd Fu Sh SS
A. sa ligna Fu Sh SS
pasture grasses die when upper soil layers
A. ligulata Fu Sh SS
lose their moisture but tree roots exploit
A. ni/olica Fd Fu FF
,deep underground moisture and they
A. sa/icina Fu Sh SS
continue to flourish.
A. senegal FuFF
In agroforestry system, properly A. tortilis Fu FF
distributed tree growth in the farm acts Azadirachta indica Fu Sh FF
as a foster mother to agriculture. In dry Calligonum polygonoides SS
inhospitable climates, tree growth con- Eucalyptus camaldulensis Fu Sh
serves sqil moisture, improves soil fertil- E. gomphocephala Fu Sh SS
ity, increases atmospheric humidity and E. brockwaeyi Fu Sh SS
protects field crops against scorching and E. microthece Fu Sh SS
desiccating winds, thereby stepping up E. ferelicornis Fu Sh
agricultural yields. Besides, tree culture Gleditsia sp. Fd Fu Sh SS
is necessary to ensure readily available Leucaena leucocephala Fd Fu FF SS
and adequate supplies of cheap fuel: Fur- (For semi arid)
ther, choice of fruit and/or timber yield- Prosopis cineraria Fd Fu Sh SS
ing trees would not only enrich the diet Prosopis spp . Fd Fu Sh SS
. of rural population but also serve the Tamarix aplzylla Fu Sh SS
needs of rural-based small industries. Zizyphus sp. Fd Fu SS

94
 Fd = Fodder; Fu = Fuel wood; and supervISIOn on a variety ,of often
Sh = Shelterbelts; SS = Soil stabi- difficult sites. Apart from these charac-
jisation; FF = Farm forestry teristics 'he observes that a fuel wood spe-
cies would ideally yield other products
The importance of fuel wood pro-
and benefits, including prevention of land
biems was recognised by the US National
erosion, enrichment of soil (especially
Academy of Sciences. The Fuel Wood
Panel (Burley, 1980) constitued for this nitrog~n fixing species can be used),
purpose compiled the major potential provision of shade. wind break shelter,
food for human and animal, fruits or
species for fuel wood plantation in the
seeds, chemical extractives, poles and
main climatic regions. The species of
relevance to arid and semi arid regions light saw timber. He, however. cautions
not to introduce species that are such
are mentioned below:
aggressive pioneer that they spread as
Semi-arid regions weeds or compete with agricultural crops
or harbour agricultural pests.
Azad,rachta ifldica EII/blica offieianalis
Prosopis jllliflora Tamaix sp. The indigenous trees and shrubs in
Albizzia lebbek Acacia nilotica subsp. arid zone of Rajasthan. which have been
indica identified as providing valuable forage on
Acacia albida Acacia seneoal the basis of palatability ratings, are as
Temarindus indica Acacia tortilis follows: Prosopis cilleraia, Zizyphus
n!tlll/nu/aria, Acacia nilotica sub spp.
Arid and Mediterranean areas
indica, AnogeisslIs pendula. Acacia senegai,
Acacia a/bida C%phospeumllm mopane Albizzia lebbek, Azadirachta indica, Sa/va-
dora oleoides, Tecomella undulata, Grewia
A. senegal Prosopis tamaruqo lenox, May tenus emarginalus. The infor-
A.raddiana Zizyphus sp.
mation on palatability, digestiblity and
A. tortilia Parkillsonia acu/eala nutritive value of some of the important
A. ni/otics lnga dulcis
trees will be discussed elsewhere.
Tamarix sp. Prosopis alba
Lopping Practices
Prosopis chilensis Cassia siamea There is no regUlated lopping of
P. cineraria Eucalyptus camaldulensis trees in Ajmer-Merwara to supply cattle
Balanites aegyptica E. microtheca fodder, but it had been suggested that
AcaCia aneura E. gymphocephala
lopping should be regulhted on a cycle of
Azadirachta indica
four years with restrictions on lopping of
Burley (1980) reported on the branches of more than 0.75 inch (1.9 em)
selection of species for fuel plantations diameter. Acacia species (particularly A.
The chief requirement of a species are arabica), important for fodder, are
that it should survive, grow fast and both lopped and browsed and their pods
produce large volumes of fuel wood when are also collected for fodder (Common-
planted and managed with minimal skill wealth Agricultural Bureau, 1947). The

9S
 Uttar Pradesh consists of ensuring perio-
lopping of trees by villagers in Maharash-
dic closure after lopping in order to pro-
tra for domestic purpose is controlled by
vide necessary respite for trees to recover
the privilege and permit rules. Under
from lopping damage. Although trees
privilege rules, tree removal is allowed to
certain classes of }Jcople in specified lopped during cold weather recover at the
areas and under permit rules remova I is end of a single growing season, a rest
allowed on payment of a small fee, as in of three growing seasons secures complete
the case of Hardwickia binata. Through- immunity to any setback to the growth of
out the State, goat browsing, and to some trees. The results at Saharan pur indicate
extent sheep grazing, are forbidden in a possible reduction of rest period from
three 10 two growing seasons and also
Reserve Forests and hence lopping is
that the upper one-third of the crown or
resorted to indiscriminately outside the
the whole of the trees should be', protec-
forests for feeding animals. ,
ted from grazing.
Lopping for fodder trees in Madhya
Pradesh is forbidden within reserve forest Tn western Rajasthan Prosopis
limits. Lopping of Hardwickia for fodd- splcigera is commonly present in cultiv-
er. howevet, is possible in 'C' class forests. ated fields and grazing lands and is
severely lopped, in the months of Decem-
In erstwt.ile Madras State also lopp-
ber-January each year' for its leaf fooder.
ing of trees in reserve forests was prohibi-
In many instances the lopping have been
ted, the only exception being in Guntur
very indescriminate and one can behold
district where removal of leaves of Hard- unsightly grotesque gall formations in
wickia in times of fodder scarcity was the trunks and base of cut branches.
permissible. Outside forests and in was-
The first ever study on the lopping
telands, however, lopping in dry season
intensities of Prosopis cineraria was made
was common and ruined thousands of
by Bhimaya et al. (1964) at Beriganga
trees.
and Jodhpur. Results showed that inten-
All over the western Himalayas in sity of lopping does not adversely affect
the Punjab, oak which provide valuable
the growth of Prosopis cineraria trees.
fodder, were customarily being lopped on Recurrent lopping of trees definitely
'~ definite rotation of two to three years.
r.educes the leaf fooder yield irrespective
Unfortunately, pressure of increasin ocr of the intensity of lopping, perhaps due
population and gradual exhaustion of to successive reduction in the overall
fodder sour.:es through misuse and over- surface of new shoots, thereby suggesting
grazing have intensified the demand on a definite need for an intervening rest
this species, resulting in wanton des- period for sustained forage yield. They
truction of this valuable fodder source concluded that there is a need for evolv-
(Garrie, 1937). . ing a system of rotational lopping, giving
The management of miscellaneous the trees first the right period of rest
forests for a sustained supply' of leaf which may be necessary for a sustained
fodder in Saharan pur Forest Division of leaf fodder yield.
 Quick growing fodder trees: row distance of 3 m is ,recommended.
In Madras State Sesbania grandiflora Tbe green forage from the cactus conta-
has long been used as cut fodder to dairy ined 6.80% crude protein. It appears
cattle and also as support for betel vines. suitable for growing in hot desert and
Sesbania grandiflora is a fast - growing drought-prone areas.
tree and can be grown convenietly in the 9ther trees and shrubs useful as forage
bunds of paddy fields and pasture lands. Fiftylhree species mediun or tall
Sesbania microcarpa is also equally fast trees, 16 species of small trees, 20 species
growing species. of shrubs of small trees and 2 species of
AlLhough essentially a species of vines are listed in India as being good to
humid tropics, studies at .IGFRT, Jhansi, cut or lop as fodder (Commonwealth
have shown that Lellcoena leucocephala Agricultural Bureau, 1947). Ninety one
can be grown as a fast growing fodder species produce fruits, eaten by livestock.
tree in semi a rid regions. A few of tJ1e more important species are
as follows:
Exotic fodder trees and shrubs:
Acacia arabica, A. catechu, A.
At the CAZRI, a number of exotic
lellcophloea, Albizzia amara, A.lebbek, A.
trees have been found promising either
odoratissima, A. procera. Bambllsa arund-
for their leaves or pods. Some of the
il/acaea, Bau/zinia malabarica, B. purpurea
more important spe.::ies are: Acacia aneura
B. variegatfJ. Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea,
(the mulga), A. salicina, Acacia torti/is,
Ficlls bengalensis, F. relgiosa, F. rell/sa,
4cacia albida, Colophospermum mopane,
Hardwickia bina/a, Mangifera indica,
Dichrosfachys glomerata, Brachychit on
Moringa tincloria, M. oleifera, Pterccar-
populneum, Pittosporum philliraeoides.
pus marsupium, P. sanlalinus, Quercus
The exotic salt bushes of fooder value
spp. and Zizyphusjujllba.
are Atriplex nummularia and A. halimus.
All these need mUltiplication for field- Future needs:
scale trials in grazing lands/wastelands. 1. Optimum espacements for both
Spinelw; cactii as fodder trees and crops need to be ascertained.
2. Thinning regimes, designed to
Spineless cactii offer considerable
promise as fodder in arid region. Among optimise yield of both the tree and
agricultural crops, must be established,
the spineless cactii collections at the
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, 3. Optimum species combination
Jodhpur, Opuntia ficus indica showed require to be investigated.
good performance. Green fodder yield 4. At present. except for work on
to the extent of 7.34 tlha was obtained Prosopis cineraria, there is hardly any
in the establishment year wheras a 3 year information on lopping schedules, inten-
old plant produced as much as 30 t/ha . sity of lopping and rest period required
green forage. Establishment technique for recuperation for important fodder
for its largescale plantations has been trees and shrubs. These have to be given
evaluated and plant to plant and row to priority in a research programme.

97
 5. Evolution of a system of rota- Commonwealth Agdcultural Bureau
tional lopping needs investigation for 1947. The use and misuse of shrubs
different fodder trees. and trees as fodders. Joint Publication
6. The effect of leguminous fodder 10: 110-123.
trees and shrubs on soil -fertility and FAO 1977. Report a/the Fourth Session
grass growth requires intensive research. of the FAD Panel of experts on Forest
Gene Resources. -Canberra, Australia.
REFERENCES
FAO, Rome. 75 p.
Bhimaya, C.P., R.N. Kaul and B.N.
Gorrie, R.N. 1937. Tree lopping on
Ganguli 1964. Studies on lopping
permanent basis. Indian Forester 63
intensities of Prosopis spicigera. Indian
(1): 29-31.
Forester 90 (1).
Burley, J. 1980. Selection of species
for fuel wood plantation. Commomv.
For. Rev. 59 (2): 133-147.

98
 Soil-water-plant relationship In
.
agro-forestry system
AN. Lahiri

Land use comb;ning both tree are also other factors, such as, foliage cha-
and crop. is in vogue for a long racteristics, their wetting properties. ab-
time in India. III the arid and semi arid sorption by dead plant parts, evaporation
regions of Rajasthan trees like Proso- from leaf and stem surface etc which
pis cineraria and Acacia /ellcopho/ea are influence the stem flow and consequently
commonly found in cultivated fields and the soil moisture beneath a tree. The
ar~ hardly ever removed by farmers. example of moisture retention by vegeta-
However, specific data on the merits tion, provided in table I, indicates that
and/or shortcomings of such agro-fores- under the given situation, the retention
try system are rather meagre. The princi- of rainfall by vegetation as such increased
pal consideration in the effective integra- with the increase in the amount of daily
tion of agriculture and forestry on the precipitation, but the percentage of rain-
same area rests essentially on the soil- fall retained showed a progressive decline.
water-plant relationship oCthe system as a Although Mohr and Van Baren
whole, which ultimately modulate the (1954) assumed that under Indonesian
productivity. ·situation, rainfall exceeding of about 4
An attempt is made here to consider mm may contribute - to soil moisture.
this issue with special reference to the under Jodhpur condition, a rainfall incid-
problems of arid and semi arid regions. ence of 5.8 mm (over three days in March)
Rain interception by the tree component did not bring about any measurable
1t is understandable that the pres- change in soil moisture below the Proso-
ence of trees in the cropped field will pis cineraria tree (Bhatt and Lahiri, 1964).
have some influence on the soil moisture This rain, however, enriched the mois-
below the trees. Long term studies under- ture of the surface soils between the trees
taken elsewhere (Baver, 1956; Rutter, and away from the trees. It was found
1958) have shown that about 10 to 55 that the rainfall intercepted was directly
per cent of the rainfall may reach the absorbed by the foliage of the P. cineraria
soil, depending on the degree of vegeta- trees and this led to a significant increase
tion cover and the type of soil. The in the relative turgidity of leaves immedi-
proportion is obviously influenced as ateiy after the shower and it was follo-
mUch by the frequency and duration of wed by a progressive decline with time
the component showers as by the differ- during the subsequent dry period (table
ence in the structure of the cover. There 2).

99
 Table 1. Quantity of raiMall retained by vegetation in Surinam (Dutch Guiana)
(After Mohr and van Baren, 1954)

Rainlall per day Rainfall retained by Percentage of rainfall

(mm vegetation (mm) retained

1.0 0.8 80
25 1.2 48
5.0 1.6 32
7.5 2.0 26
10.'0 2.5 25
]5.0 3.2 21
20.0 4.2 21.0
30.0 6.0 20.0
40.0 7.8 19.5

Table 2. Changes in relative turgidity of the leaves of P. cineraria after shower

(After Bhatt and Lahiri 1964)
1963 30.3 1.4 2.4 3.4 4.4 5.4 6.4
(n)* A(5) B(6) C(5) 0(5) E(6) F(6) G(6)
R.turg. % 80.53 92.26 87.32 83.68 82.68 7809 79.60
±2.3 :±.0.78 ± 1.31 :±. 0.86 ±3.9 ±3.4 ±2.4
B-A B-C B-D B-E B-F B-G
Diff. of means 11.73 4.94 8.58 9.58 14. J 7 12.66
t 4.88 3.18 7.15 2.15** 4.13 5.06
.. ) Number of observations.") Significant at 5% level, in all other cases atl % level.
It seems, however, that under pro- ted (Gupta and Saxena, 1978) that the
longed shower when the process of abso- soil moisture regime below the desertic
rption etc. of the above-ground portion trees Prosopis cineraria and Tecomella
ceases, soil moisture below the treejvege- undulata generally remain higher than
tation ge ts enriched to different exte,nts. ce;tain other species, e.g., P. juliflora,
Studies undertaken by Gupta et al (1975) Albizzia lebbek and Acacia senegal.
under arid condition indicated that the soil Among other factors, such disparities of
moisture in the 90 cm profile of the Euca- soil moisture would obviously influence
lyptus forest increased fr0111 about 4 cm the growth of the ground cover. It is
to 7.5 em after a 38.1 mm shower during possible that as a consequence, 'Shankar
September 1969, but the order of i~crease et af (1976) obtained a yield of 2.3 tjha
was much less in the fallow land, grass of dry herbage from under P. cineraria
land and in the Acacia forest. against 1.66, 1.32, 0.85 and 0.78 tjha
from under T. undilla to, A. lebbek, P .
.In this regard, it has been repor- juliflora and A. senegal.

100
 Campetition for soil moisture between trees
and crops:
A question arises as regard the
competition for soil moisture between
crop and tree in the agro forestry system,
particularly during the rainfed Kharif
season in low rainfall areas.
In this regard, we have to conceive
two different situations i. e. (a) in a new
plantation where the rootsystem of
the tree is limited and secondly (b) when
cropping is done in between the establis-
hed xeric trees. We have, however, a
meagre data on either of the situations.
III llel~ plantation: An exercise
undertaken with a hypothetical situation
where the pearlmillet crop (spacing of
about 45 cm between rows and 15 cm
within row) is grown between young
Tecomella undu/ala seedlings (spacing of
4 m x 4 m) indicated 011 the basis of
available data (Lahiri and Kharbanda
1966, Lahiri 1975) that the tree seedlings
consumes onl)' about 0.2 mm of watet
through traspiration (say about 30 gm/
day/plant) from a hectare of land (consis-
ting of 625 tree seedlings) during 90 days
of cropping period. The consumptive
Use of moisture of the pearlmillet crop is,
however, around 150 mm. This differ-
ence arises as the tree seedlings may have
approximately a leaf area of 75,000 cm2/
ha (120 cm 2 per plant) against about
74074000 ·cm 2/ha (500 cm 2 per plant at
earing density of about 1,48, 148 plants!
ha) of the pearlmillet crop. This rough
estimate does not suggest the possibility
of serious competition for moisture b~t­
Ween the crop and the tree seedlings in
the initial stage. But, the water use, as
such, may alter under different situations
101
and a competition for soil moisture may
arise at a subsequent stage when the root
and shoot (as well as the leaf area) of the
tree seedling increases.
Under established trees: It has been
found that the established desertic trees
of this area normally transpire at a very
high rate all round the year, although
certain species like Salvadora oleoides
generally maintain a relatively low rate
of transpiration. During winter, the
effective period of water loss may be
shortened or in some case the rate may
be reduced, due to low temperature at
dawn and dusk and due to shorter day
length. However, the rates at peak
periods in all seasons were comparable.
The available data indicate that establis-
hed desert trees hardly ever economise in
their water use. This, among others, is
'an effective mechanism for lowering- the
leaf temperature during hot periods. It
has been roughly estimated that 50 trees
of Prosopis cineraria in a hectare of land
may use as much as 222 mm water ·annu-
ally in an area which receives an average
annual rainfall of 366 mm (Lahiri and
Kumar, 1967). Roots of this tree have
been excavated to a depth of 8 to 10
metres, but thick roots with secondary
growth were found to go further down
ward, penetrating the Kankar layer. It
has been further observed that shallow
'rooted ground cover of Dactyloctenium
sindicum, Cenchrus seligerlls, Eleusine
compressa, Crata/aria burhia, Aristida
funiclIlata, CenchrLls biflorus, Cyperu;
rotundus, Gisekia pltanacoeaides, Brachiaria
·ramasa etc., which grew only during the
wet period (i.e. July-September) .as the
ground cover in P. cineraria community,
consumed about 162.9 mm of water for
 their growth, which was about the same
(163.8 mm) as the precipitation received
(luring the growing period It was,
therefore, conclude1 that established
trees with deep roots rarely compete for
moisture with the shallow rooted ground
cover.
It is thus possible that many desert
trees of this area behave like phreatophy-
tes or "well plant" of Meinzer (1927)
which habitually obtain their water
supply from zone of saturation either
directly or through capillary fringe and
thus perennial and secure supply of
ground water makes them independent
of the moisture regime of the upper
strata of soil.
However, in special situations where
the roots of certain trees are unable to
penetrate the Kankar layer and grow
laterally below the surface soil, there is a
possibility of competition for moisture
between the tree and the crop. For
instanc.:, Muthana and Arora (1979)
observed that a ten year old Acacia torlilis
may grow under such situation as far as
20 metres away from the trunk, whereas
the tap root may only grow just over
one metre. However, . in sand dunes
Table 3. Grain and dry matter yield from moong and guar grown in the interspace of
Holoptelia integr ifoli.1 plantati?n unde~ three situations. (After Paroda and
. Muthana, 1979).
Species Un lopped
(kgjha)
1. Moong
(a) seed 5.8
(b) I>ry matter 28.0 .
2. Guar
(a) Seed 29.1
(b) .Dry matter 29.1
102
with deep soils the tap root of this tree
may go deeper than 20 metres.
Interaction becween plant components
Careful considerations are necessary
regarding the interactions between the
species. Prosopis juliflora which grows
fast virtually in all habitats, including
dunes of this desert, contain germination
and growth inhibitors in its leaf litter.
These inhibitors have been found to
restrict establishment and growth of
ground cover (Lahiri and Gaur, 1969).
Lamer and Evenari (1961) also found
that inh ibitors contained in the leaves,
along with the physical effects of leaf
litter, may control the vegetation under
Eucalyptus rostraia.
Shading effects of trees may also
limit the growth of 'ground cover of
vegetation. Muthana and Arora (1979)
indicated that forage yield from introdu-
ced ground cover of grasses in Acacia
tortilis plantation declined within two
years after felling of trees due to the shad-
ing effect of the canopy of newly sprou-
ted shoots.
The significance of shading on the
crop performance in agro-forestry system
will also be apparent from table 3, where
Lopped Control
(kg/ha) (kgjha)
35.4 174.0
183.0 811.0
81.2 93.0
70.0 256
the seed and dry matter yields of moong
lP/lOseolus radiatus) and guar (Cyamopsis
teTragonoloba) have been compared
under three situations at Jodhpur viz. (a)
crops grown between unlopped 8 year
old H%ptelia integrifolia trees spaced
at 5 m x 5 m, (b) crops grown between
the lopped trees, and (c) crops grown in
the open (control).
It seems that the seed and dry
matter yield of these legumes were mini-
mum under the unlopped situation and
the yield improved under lopped trees.
However, the production was maximum
where the tree component was absent.
Nonetheless, it may be appreciated that
in this agro-forestry system some returns
from legumes could be obtained when
the tree resource was also exploited by
lopping. The returns from legumes
could not have been achieved if the land
between the trees was left fallow or
uncultivated.
The complexion of the situation,
however, may vary widely. It has genera-
lly been observed that the pearlmillet
crop beneath the P. cineraria trees grows
better than away from it.
Impact of trees on the soil fertility :
The build up of soil fertility under
different trees may also vary widely, just
as the soil moisture regime. Experiment
by Aggarwal and Lahiri (1977) indicated
that the build-up of organic carbon and
nitrogen of the loamy sand soils of
Jodhpur, over a period 14 years, was
different under different tree species,
although the build-up process was rather
slow under the arid environment. It is
interesting to note again that the process
was largely restricted in the upper layer
of the soil. The build-up of soil fertility
was maximum below the P. cineraria
trees and minimum under P. julijiora.
This phenomenon is closely linked
with the ,activities of the soil microor-
ganisms. Table 4 indicates that the wet
season population of the microorganisms
which contributes of the build-up of soil
fertility was .highest beneath the P.
cineraria tree as compared with certain
other adapted tree species.
In this regard, studies undertaken
by Singh and Lal (1969) on the differences
of soil fertility below P. cineraria and
Acacia arabica indicated that the organic

Table 4. Population of soil microorganisms under different trees. (After Venkates-

warlu and Aggarwal, 1980) with some of their additional data on T.undulata

Sp. ' Number/gm dry soil

Bacteria Fungi Actinomycetes Nitrosomonus Nitrobacter
(x 105) (x 103) (x !O5) (x 10 2) (MPN) (x 10 2 ) (MPN)

P. cineraria 32 29 16 11 3.3
A.lebbek 22 18 11 13 3.3
T. undulata 25 20 12 II 3.3
P. julijiora 20 16 10 7 3.3

103
 carbon, total nitrogen, available P2 0 S
and K 20 were higher in soil below the
former tree as compared to the latter. It
was also reported that the calcium carbon-
ate content and the pH were lower under
P. cineraria as compared to the other
tree.
It seems thus obvious that in agro-
forestry programme, adequate attention
is necessary on the soil-plant interaction.
Special agro-forestry systems
Shifting cuitivtltio"1:- The term
'shifting cultivation' is applied to agricul-
tural'syslems that involve clearing forest
or brush lands, burning the residues, and
then growing a crop for a few years,
after which the land is allowed to· revert
back to natural vegetation. This type
of farming occurs mostly in tropical rain
forests. Weathered soils of the humid
tropics lack sufficien t storage and supply-
ing capacity of nutrients and thus the
nutrients are to be stored in plant mate-
rial. Shifting cultivation has, therefore,
evolved in the tropics and is still carried
on to-day by over 200 million people
(just under 5.7 per cent of the world
population) on over 30 million sq. kilo-
meters or over 1/4th of the land surface
. of the earth (Fink, 1963).
. With· high temperature and heavy
rains in the tropics, the s<?il formation is
quicker. The resulting soils are frequently
deep but may be often poorer in fertility
as compared to temperate soil due to the
leaching of nitrates and ba~es. The
luxuriant vegetation of the tropics provi-
des a deceptive picture of soil fertility and A reduction from 10-12 rows of
one often fails to appreciate that the trees of initial shelter belt plantation. in
plant growth is maintained on a rapid USA to 1-3 rows, practiced in recent
104
circulation of Qutrients between the
leaves and top soil. Thus, in the tropics
when the forest is cleared for crop cultiva-
tion, the delicate balance of soil nutrients
is disturbed, and crop yield declines with
the passage of time. Therefore, long
fallow is generally adopted for the restora-
tion of fertility.
In such agro-forestry system the
nutrient balance, rather than the soil-
water balance, is crucial for the maint-
enance of crop productivity.
Shelter belts: In a broader sense
the use of shelter belts of trees, shrubs
etc for the protection of crops from
erosive winds is also a special form of
farm-forestry. Extensive literature on
this subject (George J960, Van der Linde
1962, Van Eimern 1964, Marshall 1967,
annotated bibliography published by the
Commonwealth Forestry Bureau 1972,
Bhimaya 1976) indicate that apart from
the study of the principal effect of the
barrier on wind velocity, researches have
also been undertaken on the choice of
trees, effects of air and soil temperature,
humidity, evaporation, soil moisture etc.
There are both positive (Konstantinov
and Struzer 1969) and negative (McMar-
tin et ai, 1974, Frank et al (19741 reports
_on the effects of shelter belts on crop
production. In this regard studies
undertaken at the CAZRI showed a
definite advantage of shelter belts in soil
conservation, but its favourable effects
on the yield of Kharif crops could not
be established due to rainfall variations
in different years.
years (Cannell and Weeks 1979), has
reduced the competition for moisture and
nutrients between. the trees. But, the
link'> between the desirable density and
species of trees, their: canopy cover and
growth and the moisture and nutrient
requirements for raising of effective shel-
ter belts do not seem to have been clearly
defined, particularly for dry reg:ons.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It must be admitted that our know-
ledge in the broad area of agro-forestry
i~ rather limited and thus the scope of
researches in this field is fairly wide. It
is obvious that the principal thrust is
necessary to evaluate the most desirable
combination of the crop and tree which
provides a stable production and an
economically viable cropping system. It
may be reasoned that the introduction of
useful trees which yield timber. fuel
wood, fodder or other products of
economic importance in the cropping
system may substantially mitigate the
economic instability of drought-prone
areas, which often arise due to the crop
failure. However, a pragmatic evaluation
of the durable benefits of this integrated
system may be possible if an attempt is
made for the understanding of the role
of soil-water-plant-environment complex
governing the phenomenon of producti-
vity.
REFERENCES
Aggarwal. R K. and Lahiri. A.N. 1977.
Influence of vegetation on the status
of organic carbon and nitrogen of the
desert soils. Sci. & Cult. 43 : 535.
Baver, L.D. 1956. Soil Physics. 3rd edi-
tion, New York. J. Wiley & Sons. 489.
105
Bhatt, P.N. and Lahiri, A.N. }964. Some
eVIdence of foliar absorption of water
in a xeric tree, Prosopis spicigera.
Naturell'iss.14 : 341-342.
Bhimaya. c.P. 1976. Shelter belts-func-
tions and uses. In Conservation in arid
and semi arid zones. Rome: FAD.
Cannell, G.H. and Weeks. L.V. 1979.
Erosion and its control in semi-arid
regions. In Agriculture in Semi-Arid
Environments (Ecological Studies 34),
(Hall, A.E., Cannell, G.H. and H.W.
Lawton, Eds.). Springer- Verlag. Berlin.
Heidelgerg. pp. 238-256.
Commonwealth Forestry Bureau. 1967.
n. Shelter belts and windbreaks.
AI/notated biIJ!iography No 1. Forest.
Abstr. 28-33.
Fink, A 1963. "Tropische Boden. Einfith.
rung in die bodenkUl1dlichen Ground/a-
gen tropischer lind slIbtropischen Land-
wirtschaft" (Tropical Soils. Introduc-
tion into the soil-scientific funda-
mentals of tropical and sub-tropical
agriculture), Hamburg, Berlin.
Frank, A.B., Harris, D.D. and Willis,
W.O. 1977. Growth and yields of
spring wheat as influenced by shelter
and soil water. Agron. J. 69 : 903-906.
George, E. 1960. The effect of shefter
belts on crop yield. 5th World Forestry
Proceedings, pp. 1648-1656.
Gupta, J.P. and Saxena, S.K. 1978. Stud-
ies on the monitoring of the dynamics
of moisture in the soil and the per·
formance of ground flora under
desertic communities of trees. Indian
J. Ecol. 5: 30-36.
Gupta. J.P. Ullah, Wasi and Issac, V.C.
1975. Note on some soil moisture
 changes under permanent vegetative
cover. Indian Forester 101 : 523-526.
Konstaintinov, A.R. and Struzer, L.R.
1969. Shelter belts and crop yields.
Washington, D.C.; U.S. Office Tech.
Servo TT 68-50370.
Lahiri, A.N. 1975. Water use by desertic
vegetation and its hydrological impli-
cations. Ann. AridZolle 14: 135-148.
Lahiri, A.N. and Gaur, Y.D. 1969. Ger-
mination studies on arid zone plants
V. The nature and role of germina-
tion inhibitors present in leaves of
Prosopis jultfiora. Proc. Natn. Illst.
Sci. India 35 (8): 60-71.
Lahiri, A.N. and Kharbanda, B.C. 1966.
Studies on plant water relationships
II. Influence of soil moisture on the
transpiration of Tecomella lIndulata
seedlings. Proc. Natn. Inst. Sci. India
32 (B): 34-46.
Lahiri, A.N. and Kumar, V. 1967. The
annual water turnover from a xeric
tree, Prosopis cineraria. Sci. & Cull.
33: 77-78.
Lamer, H.R. and Evenari, M. 1961. The
nature of germination inhibitors pre-
sent in leaves of Eucalyptlls rostrata.
Physiologia PI. 14 : 221.
Marshall J.K. t9S7. The effect of shelter
on the productivity of grasslands and
field ~rops. Commonwealth Bur. of
Pastures and Field Crops 20 : 1-14.
McMartin, W., Frank. A.B. and Heintz,
R. H. 1974. Economics of shelter belt
influence on wheat yields in North
Dakota. J. Soil. Water Conserv.29 :
87-91.
Meinzer, O.E. 1927. Plants as indicators
of ground water. u.s. Oeol. Sto')ley
Water Supply Paper No. 557.
106
Mohr, E.C.J. an<;l van Baron, F.A. 1954.
Tropical Soils. The Hague Uitgeverji
W. van Hoeve; New York. Intersci-
ence. 498 p.
Muthana, K.D. and Arora, G.D. 1979.
Acacia tortilis (Forsk) - A promising
fast growing tree for Indian arid
zones. Technical Bulletin No.5, Cen-
tra
Arid Zone Res. Institute, Jodhpur
pp. 1-19.
Paroda, R.S. and Muthana, K.D. 1979.
Agro forestry practices in arid desert.
Paper presented at Seminar on "Agro-
Forestry" held at ill/phaf (Manipur),
May 1979.
Rutter, A.J.1958. The effects of afforesta-
tion on rainfall and rU'1off. JI. R. Inst.
publ. Hi/h. London, pp. 119-138.
Shankar, Vinod, .Dadhich, N.K. and
Saxena, S.K. 1976. Effect of Kheiri
.tree (Prosopis cineraria Macbride) on
the productivity of range grasses grow-
ing in its vicinity. Forage Research 2:
91-96.
Singh, K.S. and Lal, P. 1969. Effect of
Khejri (Prosopis cineruria Linn.) and
Babool (Acacia arabica) trees on soil
fertility and profile characteristics.
Ann. Arid Zone 8: 33·36.
Van der Linde, J. 1962. Trees outside the
forest. In Forest Inj1uences pp. 141-208.
Rome: FAO Forestry forest Prod.
Studies No. 15.
Van. Flimern, J. 1964. Windbreaks and
shelter belts. WMO Tech. Note No.
59, World Meteorol. Org., Geneva,
Switzerland.
Venkateswar-lu, B, and Aggarwal, R.K.
1980. Influence of different manage-
ment practices on microorganisms of
a desertic soil. Indian J. Micr()biology
20: 149-151.
 Agro-forestry systems for drylands of arid and
semi-arid regions of India
RP. Singh

Dry regions all over the world face
more serious problems with regard to
firewo\ld than their :::ounterparts in humid
and sub-humid regions. Although soils
and other climatic parameters like sun-
light and temperature favour good vege-
tative growth, aridity puts a limit on plant
life. The biomass productivity of the arid
and semi-arid ecosystems is, therefore,
much less than in any other ecosystem.
About 450 million people inhabit the low
rainfall areas of developing countries. A
large portion of earth's biomass (0.6
billion hectares) is considered to be semi-
arid to arid because it receives less than
500 mm of annual precipitation. It is for
these regions that an integrated farming
system-agroforestry, is required to pro-
vide enough food, fodder and firewood.
Unfortunately, no research efforts, worth
the name, have so far been made in India
to evolve such a system for these regions.
Agro-forestry necessarily implies that
silvicultural and agricultural uses of the
same land are interdependent. It visualises
two combinations, viz., temporal combi-
nation, and spatial combination. Simulta-
Selecting suitable species of trees and crops
neity (e.g., cropping or pasturing under
. for an agro-forestry system
tree shelter), overlapping use (e.g. affore-
station towards the end of agricultural
activity as in the taungya system) and National Academy of Sciences, USA
sequence of the respective utilization
scheme (e.g. crop rotation) are different
versions of temporal combination. In
spatial combination, agro-forestry implies
the possibility of an adequate blending of
uses, e.g., permanent grazing in the forest
or cultivation of field crops under trees
planted to produce timber but also
distribution of crops in clusters or groups.
Agro-forestry, therefore, in its proper
sense means that woody plants, agricul-
tural crops and/or cattle are obviously
ecologically interdependent.
Growing of field crops like pearl-
millet, legumes and oilseed crops in a
field predominated by khejri (Prosopis
cineraria) and bordi (Zizyphus sps.) is an
ex.ample of traditional agro-forestry
followed by the farmers of Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana and Gujarat, since ages
past. By reasonable combination of tree
plantation with agricultural crops and,
where possible with cattle farming,
impairment of the ecosystem can be
avoided, yields increased and crops diver-
sified.
The Panel on firewood Crops of the

107
 (1980) looked for the following points in 5. Azadirachta indica
selecting suitable species for firewood: 6. Cajanus cajaT:!
Multiple purpose plants that have 7. Cassia siamea
uses in addition to providing fuel; 8. Emblica officinalis
9. Eucalyptus cama/du/ensis
Plants that adapt well to different
10. Parkinsonia ael/leata
sites, that establish easily. and that
11. Prosopis cineraria
require little care;
12. Prosopis julij/ora
Plants for problem environments 13. Tomarix aphylla
such as steep hill slopes, low-nutrient 14. Zizyphus mauritiana
or toxic soils, arid zones, and tropical
highlands; and Dryland crops that are amicably.
Plants not consumed by goats and suited to the varying environment of arid"
wildlife. and semi·arid regions of India are listed J

Special consideration was given to in Table 2

such characteristics as : Table 2. Dryland crops suited to arid and
Nitrogen 'fixing ability sami-arid regions of India.
Rapid growth A. Cereal crops
Ability to coppice 1. Pennisetum t)'phoides
Ability to produce wood of high 2. Sorghum bic%r
calorific value that burns without 3. Zea mays
sparks or toxic smoke; and 4. Eleucine coraeana
Ability to grow successfully in a B. Annual grain legumes
wide range of environments, including 1. Vigna radiata
different altitudes, soil types, rainfall 2. Vigna mllngo
regimes, amounts of sunlight, and 3. Vigna unguiculata
terrain. 4. Vigna ilconitifolia
The Panel has identified 35 species 5. Cajanus cajan
as suitable for different habitats of arid 6. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
and semi-arid regions of the world. Of 7: Cieer arietinum
, these, 16 species, listed in Table I, are
cons~dered 'suitable for the arid and' semi-
-C. Oil seed erops
arid regions of India (Author'S own J. Arachis hypogaea
choice). ' 2. Glycine max
Table I. Species of firewood crops. suited
3. Sesamum indicum
4. Helianthus anl1t1S
to varying environments of arid
5. Carthamus tinctorills
and semi-arid regions pf India.
6. Ricinus communis
1. Acacia nilotiea
2. Acacia senegal D. Fodder crops
3. Acacia tortilis 1. Pennisetllm typhoides
4. A/bizzia lebbek 2. Sorghum bicolor

108
 3. Zea mays xylon which belongs to family Chelloporlia-
4. Vigna unguiculata ceae, rest of the trees and crop species
5. Vigna acollitifolia belong to the family Leguminosae and as
6. Cyamopsis tetragonoloba such are ideally suited to the nitrogen.
Adaptability and compatibility of the deficient soils of arid and semi-arid
species ;regions.

Adaptability of the tree and field For regions receiving 300 to 500
crop species is one aspect of the agro- rum of annual precipitation, besides the
forestry system. Equally important, and tree and crop species noted above, the
perhaps more, is the aspect of compatibi- following tree and crop species will be
lity. Both adaptability and compatibility found most suitable:
should be thoroughly studied before Firewood tree species
devising a suitable agro·forestry system
Albizzia lebbek
for a region. For example, in a Prosopis
Azadirachta indica
juliflora plantation, no field crop will
Cajanus cajan
survive, because of the extensive and
Eucalyptlls camaldulensis
intensive root system of the luliflora
Parkinsonia aellieata
species. Prosopis cineraria
Evolving suitable agro-forestry system Zizyphus mauri/jona
matching different rainfall patterns
Field crop species
Based on the study of suitable
Penllisetum typhoides
firewood and field crops. suitable agro-
Vigna radiata
forestry systems could be evolved for
Vigna aconitifolia
different agro-climatic zones of India. For
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
regions receiving less t~an 300 mm rain-
Arachis hypogaea
fall, five firewood species, viz., Acacia
Sesamum indicul1l
ni/otica. Acacia senegal. Acacia tortilis,
Ricinus communis
Haloxyloll aphyl/um and Haloxylon persi-
cum, will be found most adaptable. To go All fodder crops (to be harvested within
along with these, the crop plant species 50 to 55 days of sowing)
having low water requirements. like Vigno The best tree and crop species
aconitijolia, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba. will combinations for 300 to 500 mm rainfall
be ideally suitable. In fact, except Halo- regions will be :

109
 1. Acacia nilotica/ A. senegal + Vigna aconitijolia
2. Albizzia lebbek, + Vigna acoflitijoiia, or Cyamopsis tetragonolqba, or Vigna
or radiata, or Arachis hypogaea, or Sesamum indicum, or
Azadirachta indica Ricinus communis
3. Cajanus cajan + Arachis hypogaea, or Vigna radiata, or Vigna unguiculata
4. Eucalyptus camaldulensis + Vigna acollitifolia, or Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
5. Prosopis cineraria + Pennisetum typhoides, or Vigna radiata, or Sesamum
indicum, or Arachis hypogaea, or Ricinus communis.

The suggested agro-forestry systems experimentation over varying ecological

are only guidelines. The best system has situations.
to be evolved through extensive field

110
 Khejri (Prosop;s cineraria) and bordi (Zizyphus
nUlnlnularia) multipurpose plants of arid and
semi-arid regions of India
S.K Saxena
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria Me.Bride)
and bordi (Zizyphus nummularia (Buro.
f.) Wt. held increasingly important place
in the economy of Indian Arid Zone. Both
these species are drought hardy and well
adapted to prevailing climatic conditions
besides possessing a wide ecological
amplitude of distribution. Khejri forms
climatic climax (Satyanarayan, 1964;
Saxena, 1977) of Western Rajasthan and
dominate the alluvial fiats while bordi is
one of the main codominant on the fiat
plains of arid and semi-arid zones. Both
the species provide top-feed to the animals
and fuel and timber to local inhabitants.
khejri and bordi are encouraged in the
cultivated fields and in village grazing
lands locally called as 'Oran' or Birs.
Their usefulness has generally been accep-
ted (94%) by local farmers. Desert people
have a firm conviction that khejri tree
boost the crop growth under its canopy.
It remains lush green during summer
when all other desert trees show
sign of drought stress. The shrub of bordi
becomes leafless during summer and
express sign of drought evasion. Thus
khejri is called the 'king of the desert'
whereas bordi can be terll1~d as"Queen of
the desert". They occupy an important
III
position in the arid and semi-arid tract
and contribute to the overall economy of
the region.
Vernacular name of Zizyphus nummularia-
Bed. J/zar·Beri (Hindi), [(antan-ber
(Bundel khund); Malla, ber, birar,
Kania Jhari, Jhar - ber (Punjab and
Haryana): Ber, Bhor, Borlf, Burdi, lhar-
ber (Rajasthan); Ber, Janf{ra, Jongri:
Nandojn 'lgro (Sindi); Pali (Madhya
Pradesh); Par Pal/igidda (Karnataka).
Vernacular name of Prosopis cineraria _
Khejri, Khejra, (Rajasthan); Janti,
Chonksa (Delhi): Jhand, lind, land
(Punjab and Haryana), Banlli (Karna-
taka): Slimri (Gujarat); Kandi (Sindh).
Distribution
Kllejri: In India it occurs in the states
of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar
Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. Its
distribution from Rajasthan to Karna-
taka, however, is discontinuous.
Bordi : In India, the natural stand of this
shrubs are found in Rajasthan, Punjab
Haryana, Madhya Pradesh. Uttar
Pradesh and Gujarat. In Rajasthan
some of thc Orans or Bir are exclusi-
vely dominated by this shrub.
 Habilals and associations laisalmer districts with 75-90% relative
Though cultivr.tion has greatly dominance. On cultivated field,. with well
modified the natural vegetation but the defined Kanker pan at 100-150 cm depth,
plains of north west India covering Pun- there is always high density of this shrub
jab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat (250-500 shrubs/ba). Exposed gravelly
support the trees of Prosopis and Acacia. piains 0. e., Gajner, Nal, Kolayat of
In western Rajasthan older alluvial flat Bikaner) support a shrub density of 120-
pJains with sandy loam soils are dominat- 150 shrubs/ba.
ed by a prevalent plant community of Lopping and growth pattern
Prosopis cineraria - Zizyphus lIummu 1aria-
Capparis decidua. On an average there A well lopped khejri has amazing
are 15-20 treesfha of Prosopis whereas capacity for recovery in a period of
burdi shrubs range from 80-120 plants! nine months and assume almost the
ha bilt these shrubs are cut yearly and same crown size (Saxena, 1980). Tbe
hence do not exert any impact of their extra - ordinary recovering capacity of
presence. Alluvial plains (Saxena, 1977), this tree permits its annual lopping.
have recorded fourteen communities in A lopped tree initiates new growth in
association with Prosopis. The plant early spring (Feb.-March) and continues
communities vary with the inclusion or slowly during summer but &velops fast
exclusion of the tree or shrub species during monson. A crown is fully develo-
either single or in combination. Important ped by end of September. This coincides
trees and shrubs associating various com- with the maturity of kharif crops. Remo-
munities are Tecomella undll/ata (Rohida), val of foliage (lopping) commences in
Acacia nilotica (Babul), Salvadora oleoides October in case the fields are to be used
(JalJ, Ba/anites aegyptiaca (Hingota), for rabi crops like wheat and mustard.
Zizyp lz liS llummularia (Bordi), Cappari~ Lopping continues by end of December
decidua (Kair), Cassia aurieu/ata (Anwal), especially when the fields require to be
etc. Khejri occurs on almost all the habit- left fallow. Dried leaves "Loong" are
ats except the hills and saline depressions. separated and stored for lean period.
Its den,sity vary on each habitat, i.e., a The harvesting of hordi shrub coin-
sand dune or sandy plains it ranges from .cides with the season of its leaf fall. The
5-I0/ha, whereas on most of the alluvial cutting of this shrub, in cultivated fields,
plains, there are 30 plants/ha. Optimum commences after the harvest of Kharif
density expression of this tree (80-120 crops Plants are cut at ground level by a
plantsjha) is in Shekhawati region (Sikar- sharp implement and four to five plants
Jhunjhunu - Cburu-Nagaur districts). and are heaped together in one small bundle.
in some parts of Gangangar district. The air dried foliage "PaJa" is removed
Bordi grows on all the habitats after threshing the stored bundles. In an
except sand dunes and saline patches. It Oran or Bir gradual shedding of leaves
gen~rally d.ominates the common village
start by middle of November with marked
grazing lands of Bikaner, Barmer and moisture stress (Nanda, 1967), and the

112
•...... e continue upto May. The plant prod uces 80-140 g of pala. There ~re
iJUU.l

remains dormant till monsoon showers several factors which bring variability in
are received. fodder production. A plantation of
improved selection of Bordi develop at
Cuppicing
a cost of Rs. 1000 jha gave an yield of
Khejri tree when cut above the
595 kg/ha of'leaf fodder after three years
ground level produces numerous new
growth (Muthana, 1981).
buds which give rise to several (5-12) new
shoots. These in a year's time assume Fruit/Pod production
the shape of a bushy structure. In an An unlopped khl?jri tree with well
Dran or Blr the coppicing shoots are spread crown cover (30-50 yrs old) 'prod-
generally grazed and continued grazing uces 5 kg of air dried pods in normal
leads to cushion form habit. Under year of rainfall. Young and unlopped
severe grazing and trampling stress, the trees of 20-30 year age group yield 2-3
newly sprouted branches spread horizont- kgjtree of pod (Muthana, 1980). Similarly
ally, But this habit continuously provide 1-2 kg seeds are obtained from young
top feed to small ruminants like sheep. and old trees of khejri, respectively. Ripe
Like Klzejri the shrubs of Burdi have also fruit locally called as kllOkha are
remarkable power of regeneration through available during May-June.
its root suckers. The cut stumps start
sprouting during February-March. The Bordi shrub (Zizyphus nUI1l117ularia)
tender branches with leaves are grazed by starts bearing fruits after the second
goat. In the cultivated fields these bushes year of establishment. A well developed
sustain injury by plough during mon- five year old shrub produces about
soon and thus apparently stimulates the 3.5-4.0 kg of fruits. Yearly cut shrubs on
development of numerous buds which cultivated field generally do not bear
have faculty for vigorous growth. fruits. Old and well developed shrubs
in Oran or Bir produce 3-5 kg fruits in
Loong and pala production
low rainfall zone (150-250 mm). The
A fully grown khejr; (40 to 60 years) fruits mature after second or third week
tree produces 20-30 kg of air dried leaves of November,
"Loong" in 300-400 mm rainfall zone. A
• Utility of plants in variouS' places
khejri tree is expected to be ready for
lOpping during 8th year of its life time Bordi and khejri tree in the Oran
(300-400 mm zone). or Bir are neither cut nor lopped. The
A well developed crown of bord; plant assume life form and provide gra-
plant produces 2-3 kg of air dried leaf dual flow of top feed to the livestock
fOdder "Pala" in an year whereas bushy grazing under their canopy whereas both
growth on the flat alluvial plains provide these valuablespecies in cultivated fields
150 kgjha of Pala from 14% shrub cover are cutflopped for leaf fodder. In some
(Kaul and Ganguli, 1963). A well stocked parts the trees/shrubs growing on field
area produced 91-169 kg ha of leaf fodder boundaries are not cut with general
(Shanker, 1981). On; coppice shrub harvesting but the foliage (loong!

113
 pala) is directly fed to the animals during sheep to fulfill their 'body requirement
spring month. Lopping during February- (Underwood, 1977).
March provide some new growth to the Manganese contents in both the
cut plant for summer months. species, i.e., khejri and bordi (23.7 to 83.7
Small dried branches of both khejri ppm) are much higher than the minimum
and bordi are used in fencing the fieldsl requirement of 10-20 ppm in the feed
houses/storage yard/farm boundaries, etc. (Sharma and Ohir, 1981).
The main trunk of khejri (Mann and The level of zinc in both the species
Saxena, 1980) provide wood material ranges from 27.6-47.4 ppm in khejri and
for huts, roofs, doors windows and 30.7~47.1 ppm in bordi. Normal level of
agricultural hand tools. Wood of bordi zinc for the growth of calves has been
is also largely used in making yokes for . found as 8-9 ppm whereas in case of
bullocks, steers and young bull ration, concentrat-
Micronutrient statlls ion of 30.0 ppm showed good response.
Micro-nutrients playa vital role in Copper is distributed quite evenly
the health of animals. Deficiency of any in the foliage of khejri (22.1-27.4 ppm)
may bring about distinct/obscure symp- and bordi (16.6-37.5 ppm). The mini-
tom in the animal body. Analysis of mum copper requirement of sheep are
micronutrient contents both in khejri and close to 10 ppm of the dry diet. Past-
bordi have been given in Table 1 (Sharma ure containing as low as 4-6 ppm copper
and Ohir, 1980). do not show any deficiency symptom in
The analysis indicated that a fairly sh~ep and cattle. Thus fo Jiage growth
high concentration of iron content occur of both the species are rich in this
in loong and pala. 25-50 ppm iron content element as well. The above information
is adequate in the feed of the cattle and of trace elements, therefore, indicate
Table 1. Mean values of trace elements ill bord; and khejri foliage in different
district of W. Rajasthan (After Sharma and Dhir, 1981)
Trace elements in ppm
Fe Mn Zu Cu

B K B' K' B K B K
Barmer 249.8 323.7 35.0 30.9 40.5 47.4 23.2 21.8
Bikaner 282.7 270.8 42.3 59.0 39.7 35.1 27.4 18.7
Churu 346.8 '264.7 32.2 28.5 32.3 38.0 22.5 18.1
Jaisalmer 244.7 244.6 34.6 36.3 39.7 46.0 23.7 21.6
Jodhpur 299.6 298.2 47.5 28.7 33.0 27.6 26.3 16.6
Nagaur 324.4 338.3 53.7 33.5 47.1 42.1 22.1 37.5
Pali 330.5 33"3.6 83.7 55.0 33.3 41.7 . 22.7 24.0
Sikar 328.5 245.5 38.0 23.7 30.7 45.8 22.4 24.4
B = Bordi, K = Khejri

114
 Table 2. Mineral contents (%) in topfeed species (After Outta and Ohir; 1981)
P Na
Bordi (Pala) 0.15~ 0.116
Khejri (Loong) 0.168 0.093
Grasses (Dhaman) 0.149 0.028
that the micron-utrlent stat~s in the
foliage is more than sufficient for the
growth and development of livestock.
Mineral contents
The calcium reguirement of a bal-
anced.feed should be of the order of 0.2\
to 0.52%. Both the top feed species either
have adequate or high percentage of
calcium. Potassium dominates amongst
all the constituents and is quite satisfact-
roy for meeting the animal requirements.
The values of phosphorus and magnes-
ium seems to be lower than the minimum
required. But the magnesium and sodium
requirement may be compensated to the
livestock of this tract from the undergro-
und and surface water which contain
them in abundance (Outta and Ohir, 1981).
Influence nf Kliejri canopy on soil fertility
and crop growth
Aggarwal et al. ((976) and Singh and
Lal ,1969) studied the level of fertility
under khejri, Vilayati babool (P. juliflora)
and babool (A. nilotica). etc., and the
:soil un.der open field conditions. Their
results indicated that the soil profile
. below khejrlcontain comparatively higher
organic matter, total nitrogen, available
phosphorus, soluble calcium, low pH,
ava'ilable micronutrients and better
'mechanical composition of soil upto 120
cm depth. Studies of Gupta and Saxena
( 1978) on soil moisture status in 120 cm
soil profile, under various desert tree
115
K Ca Mg
1.17 0.92 0.029
1.31 0.68 0.033
2.27 0.37 0.045
plantations have revealed that Rohida
(Tecomella. undulata) holds maximum
moisture at the profile followed by khejri
(P. cineraria). Moisture depletion pattern
at different depth showed higher depletion
of moisture from deeper layers under
khejri. This implies that khejri docs not
compete with shallow rooted crops grow-
ing undes its canopy. Studies of Lahiri
(1980), Lahiri and Kumar ( 1967), Mann
and Lahiri (1979) showed that, khejri
being phreatophyte, moisture fluctuations
in upper soil layers do not have any influ-
eiice on its internal water balance. What
in more the foliage of this tree appears
.to absorb moisture from the at mos.
phere. Because of all the above factors,
tree canopy of khejri supports signific-
antly higher herbage popUlation per unit
area under jt~ canopy as compared to
other desert tree species (Table 3 ).
Above ground biomass of forage species
of grasses and w'eed was also significantly
higher than other species. Maximum
number of forage species was also recor-
ded under khejri tree while minimum was
under P.juliflora (Vi/ayalibabool). Studies
of Shanker et al. (1976) reported the
gradual and significant differences in planf
height, tussock diameter and herbage yield
of dhaman (C. ciliaris) as the distance
f.rom khejri ttee trunk increased.
General observations indicate that
a good herbage develop under a fully
developed bordi shrub especially in oran
 Table 3. Plant density, number of species and above ground biomass (After Aggar-
wal et al., 1980) .-
Tree species Mean no. of Mean plant Mean above ground
species/m2 density/m 2 biomass gm/m2
Annual Perennial Annual Perennial
Prosopis cineraria 11.4 3.5 476.8 136.4 402.9
Tecomella undulata 10.6 3.4 379.6 96.4 273.5
Albizzia lebbek 8.9 1.4 344.8 55.6 229.2
Acacia senegal 8.6 1.8 313.2 48.8 285.7
Prosopis juliflora 5.9 1.5 136.0 21.6 251.9
SEm ± 0.78 0.38 30.72 14.52 38,0
C.D. at 5% 2.22 1.08 87.48 41.16 99.66 at 10%
level
or Birs whereas the prostrate form in Khajoor babool in their filed. A naturally
cultivated field hardly allow any weed to grown seedling is protected, pruned and
develop within its vicinity. allowed to develop into a fine tree.
Khajoor babool is a tall tree with acute
Agroforestry in Rajasthan
angle branching patte~n which result
Agroforestry/Farm forestry can be into a compact conical shape. This
defined as "tbe practice of forestry in all type of crown pattern does not permit
its aspects on farm and village land, the bird perching and overall crown
generally more or less integrated with shade is negligible. The crown pattern
other farm operations". does not offer scope for any lopping
practice for this tree. Thus in a well
AgroforestrY/Farm forestry is an
wooded field, there is no shade effect for
old practice in Rajasthan. In different
crop growth. Further this being phrea-
zones of western Rajasthan several trees
tophyte with a deep root system does not
and shrubs are being used along with
exert any adverse effect on the shallow
crops. On the basis of this practice eight
rooted crops like wheat or barley. In
agIoforestry zones have been recognised
cas~ of Babool (A. nilotica) lopping
. Rajasthan.. Best
in western . examples ·of
practice is adopted like khejri. The feed
agro-forestry in Rajasthan are found in
is generally consumed by goats.
the districts of Pali, Nagaur, Churu,
Jhunjhunu, Sikar aud Jaipur. In district On deep older alluvial flats of
Pali (Sumerpur, Sanderao, Falna) Babool Nagaur. Churu, Jhunjhunu and Sikar
(Acacia nilotica) and Khajoor. Babool well established wood lands with 50-120
(A. cupressiformis) are the two' main plants/ha of khejri (P. cineraria) occur.
species which grow on the younger These trees are looped for foliage
alluvial flats along the Jawai and Sukri "Loong" in a systematic manner without
tribut~ries of Luni. Generally cultivators causing any severe injury to the trees in
prefer to maintain 40-60 trees/ha of the month of November-December each

116
Table 4. Average crop yield (Local varieties) of Khorif crops undef vaJious tree
densities of Khejri (After Mann ahd Saxena, 1980)

Habitat Kllejri density / ha Crop yield (Q/ha)

Bojra Moth Guar Moong Til

Flat alluvial 30 3.37 1.8 1.8 3.00

plains
Sandy undulating 60 3.77 3.60 2.77 2.50
plains
Flat buried 45 3.20 3.12 1.87
pediment
Undulating buried 25 3.37 1.80 1.80 3.00
pediment
Interdune 52 3.69 0.62 2.50
Sand dunes 15 2.0 0.62 1.55 0.55
Sandy plains 80 3.57 3.25 2.95

year. In case of robi crop sowing,
especially for wheat and mustard, lopp-
ing operations are completed by the end
of October or middle of November.
Khejri tree denSity and crop production
An estimate of kharif crop produc-
tion in rainfed fields with various khejri
tree density on different habitats in
district Nagaur was collected in socio-
logical survey (unpublished data). The
overall picture of high tree density (Table
4) of sandy or sandy undulating plains
do not reflect loss of grain yield of bajra
(Pennisetum typhoides) , moth (Vigna
aconitifolius) and guar (Cyamopsis tetra-
gonoloba). The variation in grain yield
was more due to habitat variation and
their fertility status rather than the tree
density. This is, perhaps, due to correct
management of khejri tree lopping during
winter months.
In the district of Jaipur, agro-fores-
try practices are followed on similar
pattern by lopping khejri (P. cineraria)
and Rhoonja (Acacia leucophloea) trees,
the latter is more common on buried
pediment plains. In some areas only
Rhoonja predomina tes the tract. The
foliage of this tree is not of much use
except that goat eat it to a limited extent.
In district Sikar arru (Ailanthus excelsa),
a fast growing erect tree is a principal
component in farm forestry. Their leaves
and small branches are cut during summer
months and directly fed to goat or
sheep.
Bard; (Zizyphus nummularia) shrub
is used in the rainfed farming system
only. The crops are shown after cutting
the bush from ground level. Later both
crop and bordi grow together. Informa-
tion is not available about its effect on
the crop production. In case of a drou-
ght year at least farmer is able to harvest
'pala' whereas in good rainfall year, a
double harvest, i.e., crop and pala are
ensured.
In Shekhawati region the land
cost is evaluated by the density of khejri
tree. More number of treesjha give better
evaluation of land. In drought year

117
 peQple largely depend on kh('jri yield than
the agricultural crops. A land having
eighty trees per hectare may fetch in nearly
800-1000 rupees from the Loong, Sangri,
firewood and brushwood. Thus it is a
capital for the farmer and he makes all
efforts to preserve it. All parts of ""('jr;
are utilized and thus it is supposed to be
the KaJpa tarujKalpa Vraksha of arid
and semi-arid regions.
REFERENCES
Dutta, B.K. and Dhir, R.P. 1981. Mineral
elements in relation to animal require.
ment. In Bordi (Zizyphlls IIl1mmlilaria)·
A shrub of the Indian arid zone-Its
role ill silvipasture (Eds. B.S. Mann
and S.K. Saxena). pp. 34-37.
Ganguli, B.N., Kaul, R.N. and Nambiar,
K.T.N. 1964. Preliminary studies on
a few topfeed species. Ann. Arid Zone
3: 33·37.
Gupta, M.L. 1967. Studies on variation
in nutrient content of Khejri (P.
cineraria) and observation of the
factors affecting its nutritive value.
Unpublished M. V.Sc. Thesis, Univer.
sity of Udaipur, Udaipur.
Kaul, R.N. and Ganguli, B.N. 1963.
Fodder potential of Ziz)'[Jhus in the
scrub gra~ing lands of arid zon.e.
Indian For. 89: 623-630.
Lahiri, AN. 1980. Prosopis cineraria in
relation to soil water and other
conditions of its habitat. In Khrjri (P.
cineraria) in the Indian deser_t-Its role
in Agroforestry (Eds. B.S. Mann and
S.K. Saxena). pp. 38-44.
Lahiri, A.N. and Kumar, V. 1967. Annual
water turnover from a xeric .tree (P.
cineraria). Sci. Cull. 33: 77-78.
118
Mann, H.S. arid Lahiri,. A.N. 1979. Opti.
mum use of water for agricultural
crops, horticultural and fuel trees in
the desert areas. Proc. Indian naln.
Sci. A cad. 45 (B): 1-17.
Mann, H.S. and Saxena, S.K. 1980. Role
of Khejri in Agro~Forestry. Tn Khejri
(Prosopis cineraria)in the Indian Desert.
lIS role in Agroforestry (Eds. H.S.
Mann and S. K. Saxena). pp. 64-67.
Muthana. K.D. 1980. Silvicultural
aspects of Khejri. In Khejri (P. cinera-
ria) ill the Indian Desert- lIS role in
Agroforestry (Eds. H. S. Mann and
S.K. Saxena). pp. 20-24.
Muthana, K. D. 1981. Silvicultural
aspects. In Bordi (z. !1ummularia)-A.
shrub of Indian arid zone-Its role in
si/l'ipastllre (Eds. H. S. Mann and
S.K. Saxena). rp. 15·18.
Nanda, P.C. 1967. Inter-relationship of
habitat to growth and tomposition of
Zizyplllls nummularia (Burm. f.) W.A.
Anti. Arid Zone 6( I): 66· 73.
Nath. K., Malik, N S. and Singh, D.N.
1969. Utilization of Zizyphus numml/l-
aria leaves by three breeds of sheep.
Aus!. Jour. Agric. Res. 20:.1137-1142.
Saxena, S.K. 1977. Vegetation and its
succession in the Indian ·desert. In
Desertification and ils Control. ICAR,
New Delhi. pp. 176·192.
Saxena, S.K. 1980. Taxonomy, morpho-
logy, growth and reproduction of
Khejri and its succession in north west
India. In Khejri (P. cineraria) in the
Indian desert - Its role in Agro!oreslry
(Eds. H.S Mann and S.K. Saxena).
CAZRI Monograph No.·') I, PP.4.JO.
Saxena, S. K. 1981. Morphology and
ecology. In Bord; (Zizyphus nummul-
aria). A shurb of Indian arid zone--
Its role in silvipasture (Eds. H.S. Mann
and S.K. Saxena). pp 3-9.
Salyanarayana, Y. 1.964. Habitat and
plant communities of Indian desert.
pp. 59-68. In Proc. Symp. Problems
Arid Zone. Ministry of Education,
Govt. of India, New Delhi.
119
Shanker,. Vinod 1981. Distrib4tion pat-
tern of Jharber and its leaf fodder
(PaJa) and bushwood production on
ditf<::rent habitats and landuse types.
In Bord; ,Zizyphus nummularia) - A
shrub of Indian arid zone-Its role in
silvipastllre (Eds. H.S. Mann and S.K.
Saxena). pp. 10-14.
 Appendix: A comparative account of Khejri & Bordi

Characters Khejri Bordi

Habit Tree Shrub

Ha bitat distribution All habitats except hills and All habitats except
saline patches sand dunes and saline
patches
Effect of drought Drought resistant Drought evading
Diseases Resistant to diseases Highly resistant to
diseases
Pest attack White Grubs choiciest plant Next to kherji
Tract of occurrence 200·600 mm 100-800 mm
Root system Very deep-upto 117' Deep-upto 6-8'
Erosion resistance Resist well to water erosion Highly resistance to
root system less netted to water erosion hazard.
hold the soil Root system well
netted -to hold soil
Competition to crops/ No competition No competition when
forage species it is in life form
Growth rate Slow for first few years Slow for first year only
Competition to crops- No competition Do not exert any com-
grasses petition if in life form
Wood quality Less durable Highly durable
Calorific value 7640 BTUjlb 7900 BTU/lb
Sapwood/Heart wood
ratio 66 : 34 20: 80
Population variability Negligible High variability
Coppicing Good Very Good
Time taken to provide 8th year onward 3rd year onward
forage
Foliage production 25.30 kg/plant 2-3 kg/plant 91·169 kg
Iha. from bushy lot
Foliage harvesting time Oct.-Dec. Nov.-Dec.
Fruit yield 5.0 kg/plant 3.5-4.0 kg/plant
Leaf crude protein 11.9-15.4 % 1l.5-14.25 %
contents

120
Tanin elements status High Comparatively low
Trace elements status Mostly above the minimum Fairly high in concen-
requirement tration except zinc-
which is marginally
deficient
Mineral elements Sodium and potassium above Calcium and potassium,
normal but phosphorus with dominant but phospho-
low level rus and manganese
lower

121
 Leucaena-a rnultipurpose legurninous tree for
arid and semi-arid zones
Subhasb S. Arora

Leucaena is one of those unexploi- its use is limited because of mimosine

ted leguminous crops of the tropics which
have great economic importance. It needs
very little or no attention and grows well
in areas Vtith a rainfall of 8bout 600 mm.
It is a deep rooted and drought hardy
plant.
Uses
Dry or ensilaged f0liage of iellcaena
is highly palatable and nutritious because
of its high protein content (27%-34%)
with a well balanced composition of
essential amino acids (Table I), and vita-
mins. Under continuous cropping with 4
to 5 harvests a year, high yielding strains
of leucaena can produce, under normal
conditions, 8-10 tons per acre of highly
palatable forage dry matter.
Young pods and seeds of the plant
constiWte a high protein food. Seeds are
eaten raw, cooked or roasted. But again,
Table I. Crude protein, total nitrogen and some essential amino acid content in
leucaena (NAS 1977)
content. Mimosine causes hair loss _in man
and wool shedding in sheep.
Lellcaena has medicinal properties
to control stomach disorders. It can also
be used for contraception and abortion.
Leucaena giv~s fairly high yields of
wood which can effectively. be used for
pulp, paper. poles. posts and also for
construction purposes. Its wood is thin-
barked and light coloured. The wood itself
serves as a very good fuel with high heat-
ing value and can also be turned into
charcoal having high heating capacity
(7,000 cal/kg).
Leucaena seeds contai~ high quanti-
ties (about 25 %) of mucilagenous gum
which, like guar gum, may possibly have a
good commercial potential in a number of
industries like cosmetic and food. Seeds,
,pods and bark on extraction give yellow,

Crude protein 25.9% (leaf)

Total N (as protein) 4.2%
Lysine , 313 (mg amino acid per gm of N)
Phenylalanine 294 -do-
Isoleucine 563 -do-
Leucine 469 -do-
Valine 338 -do-

122
red, brown or even dark dye for cloth
dyeing, depending upon the part used.
Leucaena foliage has high nitrogen
content (one hectare gives about 600 kg
of nitrogen) which gives organic matter
(humus) to the soil and improves soil
fertility and net water absorption capacity.
Being a legume it also fixes nitrogen in
the soil, thereby improving the soil ferti-
lity-more than 500 kg per ha per year.
Because of "its cascade of emerald
leaves and fragrant flowers" and pleasing
shape of the plant, iellcaena has gained
reputation as an ornamental plant. It is
now commonly used ilS a roadside plant
in many parts of the world. Leucaena's
small, dark red shining seeds are arranged
on a string to make a beautiful necklace.
Botany
Leucaena is the common name for
LClicaena /eucocephaJa (Lam.) de Wit
which is also popularly known as "Koo-
babul". It is mostly a self-pollinated crop
having very small (about 5 mm) flowers
which arise in large numbers from a single
conVex base forming a globe with a stalk
of about 3 cm. The thin, flat and almost
straight pods contain about 20-30 tiny,
flat and shiny brown seeds when mature.
While at the seedling stage, the plant
develops a fairly good and rapid tap root
system to reach the water table early
before any adverse conditions set in.
Nitrogen fixing nodules develop on the
lateral roots fix atmospheric nitrogen with
the help of a specific strain of nitrogen
fiXing bacteria, the Rhizobium. The deve-
lopment of nodules is essential for the
healthy plant growth because, if the
123
nodulation is not normal, the p1ants
, have
stunted growth with no reproduction.
Non-nodulating plants yield low protein
forage.
Genetics and breeding
Lelleaena is not amenable to genetical
and breeding studies because of Its highly
reduced, actinomorphic flowers which are
antogamous and arranged in dense heads
which makes the emasculation efforts
leading to hybridization difficult and
laborious. Nonetheless it warrants such
studies because of wide range of genetic
variability for desirable attributes like
growth habit, maturity, branching habit,
number of leaves and yield.
The most encouraging aspect of the
genetic improvement of Lellcaena is that
hybridization between some species in
which desirable characters are scattered
had been successful.
A new iellcaella strain named Cun-
ningham has been developed in Australia.
It is a dark green leary and vigorously
growing strain and is the result of hybri-
dization between Salvador and Peru types.
It produces 50% more dry matter than
other Australian forage varieties.
A new desirable low-mimosine
/ellcaena hybrid has been evolved through
hybridization between L. leucoceplia/a
(cultivar Cunningham) and L. pu/rerulenta
(comparatively low-mimosine species and
subsequent back-crossing. The hybrid
thus developed is a fast growing,profusely
branched, low in mimosine and sterile
because of d itference In chromosomal
complement In the parental species
 (L.puirerulenta 2n=56 and L.leucocephala
2n = 104), The backcrossing was, there-
fore, fairly difficult. The encouraging
aspect of this hybridization programme
however is that the sterility of the hybrid
does not matter much because forage is
important and lIot the seed. Sterility in
fact help leucaena not to become a weed.
Leucaena at Cazri
Considering the wide ranging utility
and encouraged by the call given by Dr.
M.S. Swaminathan in his inaugural
address to the National Symposium on
Plant and Animal Genetic Resources
(NBPGR), New Delhi, a project entitled
"Studies on genetic variabiJity for forage
yield and quality attributes, including
mimosine content, ill Koo-Babool (Leuc-
aena leucocephala (Lam.) de witt.) was
undertaken and the material was collec-
ted from different parts of the world, in-
cluding indigenous places where work on
leucaena is being carried out. The mate-
rial was raised in RBD in three replica-
, tions. Inter and intra row spacing was
kept at 2 m and data were recorded
separately for character contributing
towards forage and seed yield. For forage
the characters studied were plant height,
number of tillers per plant, number 9f
leaves per plant, number of leaflets per
leaf, green and dry weight o~ tillers and
leaves, dry weight per plant and green
weight per plant and, on the other hand
for seed yield, the characters studied
were plant height, number of til1er~ per
plant, Dumber of clusters per plant,
number of pods per cluster, number
of seeds per pod, 100 seed weight and
yield per plant.
124
It is a well known fact that leucaena
thrives well under rainfall conditions
more than 500 mm and Jodhpur has
annual normal rainfall, 320 mm. Under
Jodhpur conditions therefore the need
of frequent irrigation arises. In our
studies the irrgation was restricted to
after every 15 days in summer season and
to every 30 days in other months except
from July to October when no irrigation
was provided because of the avaiJability
of rains. Tho.ugh restricted availability of
water tended to supress the expression of
the varietal differences, the three varie-
ties out of the 20 tried, i.e., Giant K 8
Hawaii, EI Salvador, K 678 Waimanolo
and Cunningham nevertheless performed
better than the others as depicted by
their general growth, green and dry weight
and plant height and therefore they hold
considerable promise under Jodhpur con-
ditions.
Research needs
No information as yet is available
on the exact fertilizer and water require-
ments, plant density, cutting intensity,
cutting interval, regeneration capacity
and seed rate, etc., practically nothing has
been done. A lot therefore, has to be done
if leucaena is to be exploited fully under
arid and semi-arid conditions. Since
leucaena is known to thrive well under
good and fairly good rainfall conditions,
a selection programme aiming at selecting
drought resistant type would be worth·
while. The most encouraging aspect is that
the ieucaena tap root system is a deep
penetrating type suitably supported by
lateral roots and therefore such selection
programme is going to be a success. Such
 development when mimosinel'content is
selection programmes and for that
too high, which limits the utility of /euc-
matter, any selection programme for
aena as a high protein and abundantly
/r'ucaena, should invariably be coupled
with selection for low mimosine content available fodder.
I!specifically at younger stages of the

125
 Improved crop varieties in agro-forestry
M.B.L. Saxena
With the pressing demand offodder
and forage for livestocks and food, fuel
and timber for human population of arid
zone, there is no other alternative except
to adopt the integrated approach of grow-
ing agricultural crop in association with
'forest crop. named as production forestry.
I n context of such drive, there is ample
scope for utilization of the inters paces
between the tree rows for inter· cropping
with agricultural crops which do not
impair the growth and development of
trees but enable to drive extra income in
addition to the benefits of fuel and timber
from tree.
Clwracters for tree and crop varieties
Tn the agro-forestry system of arid
zone there are various components like
tree/shrub, grasses, legumes, etc So trees,
grasses and crop varieties for this system
are selected on the basis of compatibility.
The tree species should be fast growing,
deep rooted and of long duration. They
should be able to withstand competition
from the crops for light, water and nutri-
ents, should be drought hardy and frost
resistant. They should also be of econo-
mic value.
Similarly the gram varieties should
have drought tolerance, early maturity
habit, enabling the plants to complete the
126
life cycle within period of moisture a~aila­
bility, high degree of yield potential and
resistance to pests and diseases.
Tree specifs for arid - forestry in arid
regions
The agro.forestry system in the
arid areas should meet the require-
ments of fodder, fuel, timber,
etc. Therefore, planting of top feed
trce species which do not suppress the
crop is essential. An evaluation of many
exotic and indigenous tree species at
CAZRJ, Jodhpur, has revealed that
among the exotic trees, Prosopis juliflora,
Acacia forti/is, Dishrostachys nutans,
Colophospermum mopane are promising
for arid areas. Indigenous species like
Prosopis cineraria, Khejri, Acacia senegal
(KUlr.at) Albizzia lebbak (Siris), Tecomella
undulata (Rohida), Azadirachta indica
'(Neem) , Salvodora oleoides, Salrodora
.persica • (Kharajal) are good as top feed
species.
Improved crop varieties for arid regions
Since the crop growing period is
rather limited in the arid region the crop
varieties must be of shorter duration
to fit in the ramfall pattern. However.
local varieties of most of the crops of arid
zone possess excessive vegetative growth
leading to late maturity. Thus, they do
 Table 1. Compari~on of local and improved varietits of crops for yield
Grain yield (q/ha)
Crop Varieties 1977 1978 1979 Mean
(326 mm) (298 mm) (681 mm)

Bajra Local 6.9 6.1 8.6 7.2

I
BJ 104 16.7 10.5 20.Q 15.9
Guar Local 5.0 8.3 0.6 6.4
XV-S-2 11.0 1.7 6.4
D. Sa fed 7.5 12.3 2.2 7.3
Moth Jodia local 2.4 2.4
T-8l 2.8 . 2.8
T-2 3.7 3.7
Moong Local 8.9 8.9
S-8 10.3 10.3

Source: (Millet and Dryfarming schemes, CAZRI, Jodhpur).

not fit into the short crop growing season
prevalent in this region. In fact the local
varieties have the ability to stand the
atmospheric drought, but they do not
possess the yield potential. A compari-
son given in Table 1 will amply justify
the statement.
Bajra (Pearl millet, Pennisetum typhoides)
Adaptation
Bajra is the most adapted grain
crop of arid zone with a short growing
period (80 days). It is often grown in
regions with annual ra.infall of less than
600 mm. It is drought tolerant by virtue
of its well developed root system and
hairy stalk and leaves. It grows well on
infertile soils as well as on sandy soils.
Improved varieties and their characteristics
Bajra hybrid BJ 104 is recommended
for general. cultivation in the arid zone.
h is a medium tall hybrid. It is fairly.
tolerant to disease and responsive to
fertilizer application. It matures in 75-80
days and is capable of yielding 15-20 q
graills per hectare in normal rainfall years.
Among other improved varieties
which have proven their worth are:
MBH-llO, PHB 14, CJ 104 and BK 560.
The first two have awns which are help-
ful in minimising the bird damage. CJ
104 can resist smut disease and matures
slightly earlier than BJ 104. All the new
~ybrids are medium tall, with high yield
potential of 20-25 q/ha during normal
rams.
Minor millets
Bajra is the traditionally grown
staple food crop of arid areas, although
some minor millets have also been under
cultivation sporadically. Minor millets
have low cost of cultivation and can grow
satisfactorily on relativel), poor marginal
soils. They can stand conditions of drou-
ght and low moisture availability. The
keeping quality of grain in storage is also
good. Saxena (1975) analysed the yield
data of minor millets and pearl millet in

127
 Rajasthan for 21 years (1952-1972) and
observed that yield per unit area for
minor millets was more than that of bajra.
Influence of unfavourable weather was
more marked on blljra than on minor
millets. Under these circumstances use of
alternative food crops with better produc-
tion and prospect appears feasible. From
the studies of breeding programme at
CAZRJ, Jodhpur, it was established that
among the minor millets only two crops,
viz., Setaria italica (Kangani) and Palli-
cum miliacellm IChena) can be grown
successfully in arid region.
Adaptation
Setaria italica (Kangni) and Pani-
cum mfliaceuni (Chena) can grow in
poor soils of hilly areas to near desert
conditions, with annual rainfall of less
than 600 mm.
Improved varieties and their characteristics
A number of high yielding and
early maturing varieties have been
developed at CAZRI, Jodhpur. Varieties
S.No. I, Se21-1 and S-9 of Setaria ita/ica
and PM-31, PM-29 and PM-21 of Pani-
cum miliaceum have high yield potential
(10-18 q/ha) and early maturity (less
than 55 days). No varieties of bajra
mature in less than 75 days. This makes
their ~ubstitution possible with bajra
in years of late onset of monsoon or
drought.
Mung (Vigna radiata)
Adaptation
Mung is best adapted to. warm
climates. The crop is often grown under
limited rainfall condition and is the main
crop in regions with short rainy season.
It can also be grown with residual soil
128
moisture after the ,harvest of irrigated
crops. Mung is adapted to fairly deep
and fertile soils.
Itrproved varieties and their characteristics
Mung" S-8 and S-9 are semi,com_
pact and profuse bearing with medium
to bold grains. These varieties mature
in 65 to 70 days, possessing an yield
potential of 10-12 q/ha in normal rain-
fall years. However, mung S-9 is parti.
cularly recommended for late sown
conditions.
Mung T44 and PS 16 are slightly
early in maturity (60-65 days) with com.
pact plant type. These varieties are
considered more suitable for shorter
growing seasons/summer seasons Both
these varieties are ~lso suitable for
intercropping.
Moth (Vigna aconitifolius)
Adaptation
Moth is a grain legume and is best
adapted to dry warm climate of arid
zone. The crop is beller suited to lower
rainfall conditions than mung. Soil and
fertility requirements are just similar to
that of mung beans.
Improved varieties and their character/sties
Moth, Jadia and T-18 f(ir grains
an.d moth T-3 for fodder have been
identified as suitable for this regjon.
Moth Jadia is a selection from the local
cultivar grown around Bikaner. It is a
spreading type and has broad tight gr~en
leaves. It matures in 100·105 days witlt
an yield potential of 5-6 q/ha. Moth
T-t8 is an introduction from HarY!lna.
It is a semi-spreading plant type with
medium bold grain, maturing in 90-95
days and yields around 8 q/na.
 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
Adaptation
Cowpea can be grown on sandy
soils as well as on heavy soils. It can with-
stand both moderate drought and heavier
rains. It can also grow well under the
shades of tall trees but cannot survive
cold or frost. Cowpea is not a seasonal
crop.
Improved verieties and their characteristics
Cowpea FS 68 and K-11 are some
suitable high yielding varieties recom-
mended for general cultivation in this
region. FS 68 is an erect and compact
type with profuse bearing and early
maturity (65-70 days'. It has yield
potential of 6-8 q/ha. Variety K-ll is
an erect and compact type and matures
in 70-75 days. The yielding ability is
6-8 q/ha. Both the varieties are suitable
for inter-cropping.
Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba)
Adaptation
Guar is best adapted to dry warm
climate with limited rainfall. It requires
fairly deep well drained fertile soils
with a moisture holding capacity. It does
well on soil meeting the crop require-
ment of mineral nutrients.
Improved varieties and their characteristics
Guar Durgapura safed, Durgajai,
2470/12, KVS-2, FS 277, are some of the
improved varieties recommended for
general cultivation in the area. Of late,
HFG-75 bas shown promise. Durgapura
safed guar is a branched, tall and bold
grain type suitable for cultivation in arid
region. It matures in 105-110 days with
129
an yielc! potential of 10-12 q/pa. Guar
2470/12 is a selection from IARI material.
It is branched, medium tall, bold seeded
and matures in 105-110 days with yield
potential of 10-12 q/ha.
Guar KVS- is an introduction from
USA. It is a dwarf branched type, small
seeded, matures in 90-95 days and is
capable of yielding 8-10 q/ha.
Guar FS-277. introduced from Har-
yana, is tall single stemmd and is suitable
for intercropping. It is bold seeded,
maturing in 100-105 days and can yield
10-12 q/ha.
Til (Sesamum indicllm)
Adaptation
Til thrives in warm weather and can
tolerate considerable dry weather after
its esta blishment. It is adapted to regions
of moderate rainfall, and a wide range
of soils, but prefers fertile loamy soils.
Til (Sesame) is one of the important oil
seed crops grown in arid region.
Improved varieties and their characteristics
Till varieties, T-13, TC-25, and
Pratap are suitable for cultivation in arid
regions.
T-13 is medium tall, branched,and
fairly resistant to phyllody. It is white
seeded with 50% oil contents, maturing
in 85-90 days with yield potential of 5-6
q/ha. Til Pratap is medium tall, single
stemmed, white seeded, with 53% oil
content. Especially suited for medium to
heavy textured soils, it matures in 90-100
days and is capable of yielding 5-6 q/ha.
TC-25 is almost similar to Pratap but
matures slightly earlier.
 Castor (Ricinus communis)
Adaptation
Castor grows under a wide range of
climatic conditions, but it prefers drier
climate. In general, castor produces well
under irrigated conditions in arid regions.
Castor prefers a well drained soil,
preferably loamy in texture. Yields are
more dependent on soil moisture content
than other soil factors. It can tolerate
mild salinity or alkali soils.
Improved crop varieties and their characte-
ristics
Castor varieties Aruna, Bhagya and
CAUCH-I are recommended for general
cultivation in this region.
Castor Aruna is semi-dwarf with
light green leaves. Capsules do not shatler
on maturity. The crop matures in 120-150
days and is capable of yielding 15-20 q
seeds per ha in normal rainfall years.
Castor, Bhagya (R63), is dwarf and
matures earlier than Aruna. Seeds are
'medium bold and dark brown in colour;
yields around 20 qfha.
Caslor CAUCH-I is hybrid. It is
taller than Aruna, bold seeded, matures
in 150-170 days and possesses an yield
potential of 20-25 q/ha.
Raya (Brassica juncea)
Adaptation
Mustard is well adapted to areas of
cool to moderate temperatures during
growth, but can tolerate considerable heat
during fruiting and ripening period .. It is
generally grown on conserved moisture
in winters. However, it responds well to
supplemental irrigation. Where rainfall
·distribution permits double cropping,
130
mustard can follow the principal kharif
crops.
Raya is grown on wide range of soils
but performs well in moisture retentive
loamy soils. It can tolerate somewhat
saline and alkali soils.
Improved crop varieties and their characte-
ristics
Raya varieties T-59, Durgamani and
RL 18 are recommended for general culti-
vation in this region.
Raya T-59 or Varuna is me·dium
dwarf, moderately branched and bold
seeded with 43-46% oil content. It matures
in 110-120 days with yield potential of
12-15 q/ha.
Durgamani is tall, profusely bran-
ching, bold seed(!d with oit content of 40-
41% and maturity period of 130-140 days.
It yields around 12-13 q/ha. Raya RL-18
is tall, profusely branched with maturity
of 130-140 days and yield potential of
10-12 qjha.
Gram (Cincer arieliflllm)
Adaptation
Gram is adapted to cool to mode-
rate temperatures during growth, but can
tolerate considerable heat during fruiting
and. ripening. It is primarily grown on
conserved soil moisture during winter.
Gram is grown on a wide variety of
soils, but the crop does not tolerate wet
soils and soils affected by salinity.
Improved crop varieties and their characte-
ristics
Gram varieties RSIO, C2-35, G-24,
and Pusa 209 are recommended for
general cultivation in the region.
 Gram RSIO is a medium tall, semi- June~July the sown klzarij crops and the
prostate, late maturing (145-150 days) tree crown cover develop simultaneously.
variety, with medium bol<;l seeds. It The trees assume full foliage by the end
possesses an yield potential of 10-12 q/ha. of September by which time kharif crops
Gram C-23S is tolerant to stem rot are also matured. Thus, during the crop
and blight. and is yellow brown, medium growth no hindrance is faced from the
bold seeded, maturing in130-140 days and trees for light requirement.
capable of yielding 12-13 q/ha. The best -examples of agro forestry
in Rajasthan are to be found in districts
Gram G-24 is specially recommen-
of Pali, Nagaur, Sikar, Jaipur and Jhun-
ded for areas with very low rainfall and
jhunu. There Prosopis cineraria is the
light sandy soils where wilt is a problem.
main tree species in the field, 20-25 or
It is early maturing (130-135 days) with
more trees per acre being common. The
yield potential of 10-12 q/ha. Pusa 109
cultivator knows the value of Khejri tree.
has attractive, medium bold grains. It
He protects it and develops it which
performs well under rain fed condition
yields wood for fencing, fodder for cattle
and matures in J 35-165 days.
and timber for agricultural implements
The above crop varieties are suitable and also food from its fruits. Thus the
for their cultivation in arid zone. Though tree helps in improving the economy of
they have not been tested in agro-forestry the farmers of this region. The farmer
system, with their proven adaptability and makes all efforts to preserve and develop
high yield potentials, they are capable of it. Density of khejri tree in the Rajas-
doing well in agro-forestry system of arid than desert increases from west (100-200
zone. mm rainfall) to north western part (20fl-
Agro·forestry practices in western Raja-. 500 mm rainfall). The maximum density
st/lOn has been observed on alluvial plains
(300-400 mm) of Shekhavati tract in
In a well planted tree-land of P.
Ganganagar district.
cinerarira (Khejri) on alluvial soil the
trees are lopped in a systematic manner In the desert of Rajasthan, millet,
in the months of November and December mustard and irrigated wheat grow w-:Il
every year. In cases where rabi crops like under the shade of khejri. Agro-forestry
wheat or mustard are sown, the lopping with bajra or legumes as companion
is completed by the end of October or crops and Khejri as tree component is a
middle of November. These lopped trees common tradition in the arid region of
remain dormant during winter months. India.
By middle of February the trees start REFERENCES
sprouting the tender twigs which are once Saxena, M. B. L. 1975. Present status
again cut (10-30%) during May-June and future prospects of minor millets
when fodder is scarce All such practices in arid zone of Rajasthan. Paper
keep less foliage at the crown to facilitate presented at AICMIP Annual Work-
better sunlight for the kharif crops. In shop, Gwalior.

131
 Intercropping systems for stabilizing agricultural
production in arid and semi-arid zones
H.S. DnuJay
In the arid and semi-arid regions
farmers generally practise mixed cropping
or intercropping on marginal lands since
times immemorial, with the objectives of
meeting their domestic needs, to minimise
the risk of failure of crops and to lessen
the incidence of pests and diseases.
Despite the fact that mixed and intercrop-
ping practices are ancient, the difference
between the two is not always clearly
understood. Intercropping can be defined
as the growing of two (or more) crops
simultaneously on the same piece of land,
each crop occupying separate.row. Howe-
ver, any arrangement where there is'
irregular broadcasting or mixing within
a row. should be regarded as mixed
cropping. In intercropping system, the
crops are riot necessarily sown exactly
th~ same time and their harvest time may'
by quite different, but they grow simult-
aneously fo~ significant part of their life.
cycle.
Intercropping regarded generally as
a primitive practice and expected to give
way to more cropping as a natural and
inevitable consequence of agricultural
development, still remains an· extremely
widespread practice and is likely to stay
at least in the foreseable future. This
continuing importance of this practice in
132
the farming system is mainly due to iti
yield advantages compared to monocul~
ture, greater stability of yield OYer diffe~
rent seasons and its role in meeting th~
weather aberations. These advantages ar~
especially important to the poor farme~1
because they are achieved not ty the us~
of costly inputs but by simple expedien~
of growing crops together. A major reasOni
for such yield advantage~ through inter•.:
cropping is the better use of resources i
environment. For assessing the yield ~
advantage of intercroping system, three
different situations can be distinguished:
a) Where intercropping produces full·
yield of a main crop and same yield
of the second crop,
b) Where the combined intercrop yield
exceeds the higher sale crop yield,
and
c) Where the combined intercrop yield
exceeds combined sole crop yields.
The above situations and criteria
for assessing yield advantages are gover-
ned by competitive relationships of the
component species in the intercropping
system. There can be several different
competIttve situations. However, for
present purposes only three broad cate-
gories need to be recognised. In the first
cotegory, the actual yield of each species
is less than expected and this can be
termed as mutual inhibition. The second
is where the yield of each species is greater
than expected and can be teqned as mut-
ual cooperation. Tht< third and the most
commonest situtation where one species
yields Jess than expected and the other
more, can be termed as compensation.
These situations may be experienced
in intcrcropping system where component
species are mixed in certain fixed propor-
tions. However, in the present article
research findings of the experiments mainly
conducted at the CAZRI are reviewed.
Here the population of the base/main
crop is maintained nearly at its optimum
and companion crops are grown in the
interspaces.
Intercropping system with perennial forage
grasses
Cultivation of grasses is considered
to be the most appropriate land use of
the arid lands. Perennial desert grasses
therefore, have an important role to play
in stabilising the economy of the arid
areas. Of the total area under arid zone
(3.2 lakh km2) in Rajasthan, cultural
waste lands account for 16% (5 million
ha) which could have easily been put to
the cultivation of grasses. Cultivation of
forage grasses has not attracted th~
attention of the farming communities of
this region. Any system of intercropping
with forage grasses, which may yield
additional quantity of grain (cereal or
pulse) without impairing the forage
production is therefore, likely to go a lo'ng
way in ameliorating the agricultural
economy of the arid regions.
133
Researches on this aspect were ini-
tiated more than a -decade ago and
mainly annual grain legumes were consi-
dered as intercrops with forage grasses
which are considered to be useful in
building up soil fertility of the inherently
poor arid zone soils. The results obtained
are as follows:
(a) Intercropping of annual grain
legumes like mung bean, moth bean,
c1usterbean, with Cenchrus ciliaris and
Lasiurus sindicus 01) deep loam sand soils
of Jodhpur and with Cenchrus seligerlls
and Dichanthium al1J1uiatum on shallow
loamy soil of Pali were conducted during
1966-1968. Intercropping of these grain
legumes in the interspaces of C. ciliaris
planted in rows one metre apart, resulted
in 1.3 to 1.8 q/ha grain yield besides
giving 17 to 37 per cent higher forage
yield than pure stand of grass (27.9 qjha
dry forage). However, intercropping of
these legumes with L. sindicus produced
much encouraging results of 2.2 to 2.8
q/ha of grains and 21 to 33 per cent incr-
eased forage yield. Under shallow loamy
soils of Pali, mung beans and moth beans
were found compatible with only D. annu-
lalum, while Cenchrus setigerus, being
shallow rooted, did not appear to be
suitable for intercropping with grain
legumes.
(b) With the availability of short
duration and high yielding varieties of
grain legumes, this study was pursued
further from 1973 to 1979. Plan ting of
four grain legumes (mung beans S-8, moth
beans, clusterbeans FS 277, cowpeas FS
68) in the interspaces of Cenchrus ciliaris
358 at 60 em regular and 40 to 80 em
 paired rows indicated that the mean Cenchrus setigerus was free from the
green forage yield of C. ciliuris from pure incidence of yellow 'mosaic virus.
and mixed stands were not significantly (d) To test t.he experimental
different during good rainfall t750 mm) findings on field scale; mungbeans, moth.
years while in the drought years (1974) beans and clusterbeans were sown in the
intercropped legumes failed to establish interspaces of C. ciliaris, planted at one
themselves. Among the intercrops, metre inter-row spaces on fairly large
clusterbeans produced the highest yield size plots. Between 1975 and 1979
(15.6 q/ha), followed by moth beans (7.6 clusterbean gave an average grain yield
q/ha) and cowpeas and moong beans (7.2 q/ha), followed by mungbeans (6.2
yielding 3.7 to 3.8 qjha of grain. The qjha) and moth beans (2.0), without affect
gross return from different intercropping ing the productivity of the grass. How-
also followed the same trend, especially ever, intercropping system of C. ciliaris+
in 1975. From 1975 moisture use mung bean resulted in the highest returns,
data it was observed that there is no followed by C. ciliaris + clusterbeans
difference in moisture use by pure grass and C. ciliaris + mothbeans and the
and mixed grass stands. However, inter- moisture use trends of the systems were
cropping system of C. ciliaris + the same as that of yield trends. With
clusterbean and C. ciliaris + moth beans the adoption of these intercropping syst-
showed comparatively higher moisture ems there may be additional employment
use than the other systems tried, mainly potential of 5 per cent.
due to longer duration of these legumes.
ilJlercropping system imolving onlyamllla}
Both the above mentioned intercropping
crops
systems have also higher moisture use
efficiency than the other two intercropp- (a) Intercropping of annual grain
ing systems. legumes with sunflower: Mung beans,
moth beans, clusterbeans, eowpeas and
(c) Since mungbeans were found groundnut were grown as intercrops of
to be suitable for intercropping with sunflower planted in regular (60 cm) and
Cenchrus spp. studies were conducted to paired rows (40/80 em) over two years.
find out most suitable variety of mung Results indicated that intercropping of
bean for intercropping with this .grass. .mung beans, cowpea, moth beans and gro-
Intercropplng of six high yielding and well undnut did not affect the seed yield of sun-
adapted mungbean vari~ties (288-8, RS flower adversely while cluster beans, altho-
4, T44, S-8, G-65 and Jawahar-45 I in the ugh producing highest grain yield among
interspaces of C. setigerus, planted at 60 the intercrops, offered severe competi-
cm row spacing, indicated that none of tion to the base crop sunflower. However,
these varieties affected the yie~d of grass in general the total productivity of inter-
adversely and mung beans 28R-8 gave cropping system was 74% higher than the
double the yield of mung bean varieties pure cropping of sunflower. Economic
S-8, G-65 and lawahar-45.· Further, evaluation of these intereopping systems
mungbeans grown in association with showed that sunflower + cowpeas gave

134
 highest gross returns, followed by sunflo- one row pf bajra appears to be a paying
-wer + mung beans: proposition.

(b) In other trials on the effects (d) Studies on intercropping ill

of 0, 30 and 60 bg N/ha to sunflower + clusterbeans: Intercropping system involv-
cowpea and sunflower + mungbeans ing planting of one row of bajra with
intercroppping systems, it was found fertilizer application @ 15 and 30 kg
tbat the yields of sunflower grown alone Njha and without fertilizer application
or in combination with legumes tended to in the interspaces of guar, plant~d in
increase linearly with the increasing levels paired rows, resulted in significantly
of nitrogen. Legumes responded margin- higher total production over that of pure
ally to the application of nitrogen. stand of guar in normal rainfall year
Further, it was also observed that applic- (1978), the highest being from the row of
ation of 60 kg Njha to sunflower grown bajra fertilised @ 15 kg N/ha. In the
as a pure crop led to significant increase year of late onset of monsoon and drou-
in yield than 30 kg N/ha application. ght condition (1979) the yield of guar
However, in the case of intercropping was drastically reduced without any
system involving mungbeans and cowpea, compensation by the companion crop.
application of 30 kg Njha in the second thus resulting in lower overall perform-
year gave as good yield as that obtained ance.
with the application of 60 kg Njha, resul- (e) Intercropping of bujra with
ting in a saving of 30 kg N/ha.
1110th: Different intercropping systems tried
with moth during 1979 and 1980 revealed
(c) Intercropping of pear/millet
that among pure cropping systems, moth
with mung beans: In a trial on system of
in paired rows had the maximum yield.
planting mung bean with and without an
Among the intercropping systems, one
intercrop of pearl millet, carried out for
two consecutive years .(1975 and 1976), row of bajra in between the paired rows
of moth had the highest total yield.
revealed that the yield of the base crop
(mungbean) decreased markedly as a result (f) Intercropping of annual grain
of planting one row of bajra under any of and fodder legumes with castor: In an
the planting system. However, the yield experiment, four grain legumes, viz.,
of bajra was the .highest in paired rows mung beans S-9, cowpea FS 68, cluster-
of mungbean + one row of bajra. beans KVS-2, mnth beans local and three
Further, it is interesting to note that the fodder legumes (cowpea H Fe 42-1, clus-
yield of base crop was reduced by 3.6 terbeans 2470/12, moth beans local) were
q/ha and against this loss, planting of one intercropped with castor (Aruna), planted
row of bajra in inters paces resulted in an in paired rows (60/120), with an addi-
additional grain yield of about 22 q/ha tional treatment of mixture of bajra+
of bajra. From the point of view of . mung beans in 30 to 60 em paired row
total productivity and gross returns system for two consecutive years (1977
intercropping system of mllng bean + and 1978). The seed yield of castor was

135
 reduced by 44% with the intercropping
of fodder legumes and by 95% in the
presence of grain legumes due to the
early harvesting of fodder legumes than
gram legumes. Thus, castor + fodder
legumes intercropping system offers
better prospects for monetary returns
than castor+grain legumes.
136
(g) lntercropping of annual grain
legumes with sesame':· Studies on inter_
cropping of annual grain legumes. with
sesame in 1980, indicated that combi_
nations of guar (KVS-2) and mung (S-8)
with til (Pb-I) are promising in view of
their highest gross returns than other
experimented intercropping treatments.
 Silvipastoral Systeln - A Pragrnatic Approach to
Efficient Integrated Land Management
K. A. Sbankarnarayan
In India, although we have one
fourth of the world cattle population
with 236 8 million cattle and buffaloes,
108.4 million sheep and goats, 6.5 million
pigs and 3.3 million other livestock, the
productivity of these animals is lowest
in the world. This is because only part
of the cattle have access to forest grazing
lands but majority are maintained on
village grazing lands or other wastelands
which are in extremely degraded state of
vegetation and nutritive value.
For centuries the forests have pro-
vided sanctuaries for livestock and histori-
cally these forests were managed for a
form of silvipastoral system to accommo-
date millions of livestock which were
permitted to graze in situ in whatever
herbeceous under growth that occurred
in the forest.
Extending this principle, silvipasture
is the conscious practice of cultivation of
forage crops a long-with forest crops
somewhat similar to agri-forestry or
taungya system. It is a land management
system, wherein the inters paces between
two rows of trees are utilised for culti-
vation of grasses and grasss-legume
mixtures.
This system is used either for the
establishment of vegetation where there
137
was previously little or none or substitute
less useful vegetation by more useful
ones having value as fuel cum fodder or
timber or fuel tree. As remarked by Ghosh
(1980), about 13 per cent land area (43
million ha) is under potentially productive
wa~elands a substantial part of which
can be reclaimed through silvipastoral
system. In the arid and semi-arid regions
such development activity has immense
possibilities. It has been realised that the
entire socio-economic fabric of this
region rests on proper management of
degraded lands and many species of
grasses and trees are capable of growing
inspite of the inhospitable site conditions
and many of the tree species are economi-
cally important for fodder, fuel and small
timber.
Dr)' Forage Yield
Silvipastoral studies were under-
taken at CAZRT, Pali in 1970 involving
treatments comprising offour tree species
(Acacia torti/is, Azadirac/zla indica, A/hi-
zzia lebbek and Holoptelia in tegrifulia),
two weedings (Hand weeding and appli-
cation of wedicides) and four grasses
(C. ciliaris. C. setigerus, Dichanthium
annulatum and Panicllm antidotale) with
no grass as control.
 Results showed that there was no
significant differences in the dry grass
yield under different tree species but the
maximum forage yield of 36.1 and 14.4
q/ha were recorded in 1975 and 1976,
respectively. The yield d ifferenc(s under
weed control by manual labour or weed i-
cides were not very marked. The mean
dry forage yield in DichantliilllJl a;1nllla/llm
was 28.0 q/ha followed .by C. ciliaris (25.1
q/ha) and Panicllm anli£iofule.
There is a wrong notion that noth-
ing can grow under Prosopis jul;flora but
Deb Roy e/ al. (1980) reported dry forage
yield of over 155 q/ll a per an n u rn of Cell-
chrus ciliaris in association with Pr~sopis
jllltjiora.
Tree Growth
The tree growth and height were
unaffected by intercroping with grass and
maximum height (2.16 m) was recorded
in Azadirachta indica followed by Acacia
tortilis. Further the tree heights under
Cenchrus setigerlls plots were maximum
'followed by C. ciliaris.
At Jodhpur, the silvipastoral trials
of Cenchrus ciliaris intercropped with
Holoptelia integrijolia showed that the
height of trees was not at all affected by
the grass but a dry forage yield of 7 and
12 q/ha was obtained in 1972 and 1973,
respectively. Further, during 1976, these
interspaces were sown to mung which
gave a yield of 101 kg/ha of grain and
309 kg/ha of fodder without affecting tree
growth.
In another trial at the Central Arid
Zone Research Farm, Jodhpur involving
treatme!1ts of three levels of N (0, 20, 40
kg/hal and two levels of P205 (0, 20 kg/
138
hal and their combinatio.ns to a silvipas.
toral system of Prosopis cineraria, AcaCia
torti/is and Albizzia lebbek, alongwith five
grasses, namely, Chrysopogon Julvlls
(Mhow), Cenchrus ciliaris (varietie,
Molopo and 3108), Sehima nervosum and
C. setigerus (yellow anjan) it was observed
that the combination of 40 kg N/ha and
20 kg P205/ha had resulted in significantly
highest dry matter yield of 5.2 t/ha in
Chrysopogon Jlllvl/s (MhoWl compared
with 4.2 t/ha in the control.
Similarly, the forage yield in Sehima
nen'oslim increased significantly in three
treatments, namely, 20 kg P 2 0 5 /ha (2.4
t/ha), 20 kg N + 20 kg P 2 0 5 /ha (2.0 t/ha)
and 20 kg P 2 0 5 + 40 kg N/ha (2.0 t/ha)
compared with 1.2 t/ha in control. The
yield differences in the remaining three
grasses were 110t significant. The tree
growth in these cases also remained un·
affected.
Silvipastoral studies in the semi·arid
zone of Jhansi were reported by Deb Roy
and Pathdk (1972). The treatment consis-
ted of all combinations of two spacings
(4x4 m, 4x6 m), 2 fodder trees Acacia
tortilis and Lellcaena /eucocepha/a) and
three seedlings (No seeding. seeding with
Cenchrus ciliaris and C. setigerus.) They
obse(ved that C. ciliaris gave higher
forage production compared with C. se/i-
gerus in all the treatments. Highest forage
yield of 42.9 q/ha was obtained in C. cilia-
ris under Lellcaena lellcocephala at closer
spacing. In the case of Acacia tor/ilis
forage prodllction from C. ciliaris was
higher (41.9 q/ha) with wider spacing
compared with 32.2 q/ha in closer spacing.
In all these treatments Acacia tortilis
showed cent percent survival· but in Lell-
 caena leucocepha/a, the survival percentage
varied from 75.0 to 94.4% Maximum
annual height increment of 82.4 cm was
recorded in Acacia torti/is with wider
spacing.
It is, therefore, concluded that apart
from the benefits to be achieved from the
fuel or fodder trees, it is also possible to
derive an extra dry forage yield of 43
q/ha through proper silvipastoral manage-
ment.
Tmprovemenl in Soil Fertility
Apart from the extra yield of forage
grass, the presence of trees in the inte-
grated land use system, improves the
fertility and productivity of range grasses.
The soil fertility studies were conducted
(Aggarwal el al., ]976) in 12 year old,
five desert trees of Western Rajasthan.
Data indicate an overall improvement
in soil fertility with respect to organic
matter, total nitrogen and t9tal P2 05
and available macro and micro nutrients
in soils under Prosopis cineraria commu-
nity compared with bare site and P.
juliflora community.
Studies conducted by Shankar et a/.
(1976) to assess the influence of Prosopis
cineraria on the range grasses, showed
that the dry grass yield under Khejri
was 2.3 tonnes/ha as against 1.66, 1.32,
0.85 and 0.75 tonnes/ha under Tecomella
undulata, Albizzia lebbek Pro sop is juli-
flora and Acacia senegal. respectively.
Two Tier Grazing
Silvipastoral management has the
advantage to provide two tier grazing
under in situ grazing management. Thus,
during wet months the animals can look
•
139
to the ground for green grass for grazing.
But during qry season when there 'is no
blade of grass available, a very common
feature in arid region, the animals can
look up to the foliage of trees for susten-
ance. It is undeniable that the trees form
valuable top feeds in the arid region.
Choice of Species
Conceding the importance of trees
as top feed during lean periods, it is
useful to know the important top feed
species alongwith their palatability and
nutritive value for arid region. Ganguli
et al. (1964) identified 16 top feed species
in Western Rajasthan and determined
their palatability and nutritive value.
According to them the palatability ratings
for leaves of different top feed species
in the order of preference are Acacia
nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, S. oleoides.
Zizyphus nummularia, Acacia senegal,
Albizzia lebbek. Allogeissus rotundifolia.
A. pendula, Calligonum polygolliodes,
Azadirachta indica, GrelVia ten ax, Gymno-
sporia spinosa. Prosopis juliflora and
Tecomella undulata. However, as these
top feed species occur in distinct habitats
and remain green in hot weather period.
even the top feed species with poor
palatability may be over utilised by stock
to meet their requirements. Ray and
Mudgul (1962) have shown feeding greens
together with dry forages increased the
digestibility of the latter.
Nutritive Vallie
The crude protein content of the
top feed species varied from 7.4% as in
Calligonum polygonoides to as high as
29-2% in Albizzia lebbek. The ash contents
varied considerably being 6.~% in Proso- A list of trees and' shrubs for fod-
pis cineraria and 49.8% in S. oleo ides der, fuel or timber is given in appendix.
The maximum amount of calcium was
Research Needs
seen in Salvadora oleoides (11.9%) and
S. persica (S.f.%) while P. jultflora had Highly productive and photosynth-
the least (1.5%). The phosphorus cont- etically efficient strains of the grasses
ent in leaves of most of the top feed SPI!C- can be evolved endowed with some degree
of tolerance that could be grown under
ies ranged from 0.1 to 0.2%.
tree crops. Role of any combination of
Exotic fodder trees and shrubs tree cum grass crops as convertors of
At the Central Arid Zone Rese- Solar energy into herbage products for
arch Ins titute, Jodhpur, a number of
cattle consumption and other human
exotic trees and shrubs have been found
needs would largely define the extent of
promising either for their leaves or for
tree crops and area under grass cover. As
pods. Some of the most important trees Ghosh (1980) aptly remarked "evolving
are: Acacia aneura (the mulga), Acacai suitable techniqucs for the modelling of
tortilis, Acacia albida, Colop/zospermum the primary production of a wide range
mopane, Dichrostaclz~'s glumerata,
of ecosystems on the transfer of energy
Brachvchiton pnpllineum and Piltospnrum
between the component' parts of the
phillaraeoides. The exotic salt bushes of
silvipastoral complex should receive prio-
value for halomorphic soils are Atriplex
rity in order to improve the ecosystem
nummularia and Chenopodium auricomum.
perspectives in land management practi-
These, however, need rapid multiplication
ces. This will lead to a new land use
for field scale trials in grazing lands,
criteria and in turn a new production
wastelands for a silvipastoral system.
system". Researches are required for
'Improved Range Grasses . efficient in situ utilization of both browse
The improved range grasses SUlt- and pasture involve the recycling of dung
able for various habitats in arid zone are
and urine for simultaneous soil fertility
enumerated below, which can be used
build up and sustained production. After
for trials in tree grass combinations in
all a multi-tiered silvipasture system
various habitats.

Hills an9 hill slopes CTlrysopogoll fulvlls (Mhow), Sehima

nervosllm (Jhansi local)
Alluvial plains Cenchrus ciliaris, CAZRI 358 and
IGFRI 3108 and Molopo Buf'fel
" " C. seligerus, CAZRf 1 and 76
"
Sand dunce
." Lasiurus sindiclls, CAZRr 318 and 319
Panicllm turgidum (local) and P.
antidotale CAZRI, 2S)
Medium to Heavy textured soils Dichanthillm annlliatum IGFRI 5495 .
~aline soils Sporobolus marginatus (local) Eleusine
compressa (local~

140
promises to be an ideal integrated land
use system that will ensure better solar
energy capture efficiency and energy flow
through the food chain.
REFERENCES
Aggarwal, R.K , Gupta J.P. Saxena S.K.
and Muthana K.D. 1976. Studies on
the physico-chemical and ecological
changes under twelve year old five
desert tree species of Western Rajas-
than. Indian Forester, 102 (12): 863-
872.
Deb Roy, R. and Pathak, P.S. 1972.
Silvipastoral studies on the establish-
ment and growth of plantation spe-
cies in an integrated land use pattern.
Annual Report, Indian Grassland and
F(Jdder Research Institute, Jhansi, pp.
76-77.
Deb Roy, R., Pati!, B.D. and Pathak,
P.S. 1980. Development of grass-
lands in India with special reference
APPENDIX
LTST OF MOL TIPURPOSE TREES FOR ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGION
1. Tropical Dry and Mixed Thorn
Acacia catechu
A. ni/otica (var. cupressiformis)
Acacio torti/is
Ailanthus excelsa
Cordia rothi
Chloroxylon swietenia
Feronia limonia
Lannea coromandelia
Leucaena leucocephala
Prosopis cineraria
P. jllliflora .
P. glandliisa
141
to s"ilvipasture research and develop-
me.nt. 2nd Forestry Conference, Dehra
Dun, January 16-19. 1980.
Ghosh, R.C. 1980. Sylvopastoral system
the concepts old and new. Paper
presented in FAOjDANIDA Training
Course on "Sand Dune Stabilisation,
Shelterbelt and Afforestation in the
Dry Zones" held during March 3-30,
1980 at CAZRI, Jodhpur (India).
Ganguli, B.N. Kaul, R.N. and Nambiar,
K.T.N. 1964. Preliminary studies on
a few top feed species. A '111. Arid
Zone, 3 (2); 33-37.
Ray, S.N., and Mudgul, V.D. 1962.
Studies on roughage utilization by
cattle and buffaloes. Indian J. Dairy
Sci. 25 (3): 129.
Shankar, V., Dadhich, N.K. and S.K.
Saxena 1976 Effect of Kht'jri (Prosopis
cineraria) on the productivity o!
range grasses growing in its vicinity.
Forage Res. 2: 91-96.
A. planifrolls
Acacia modesta
A. ni/olica sub. sp. indica
Aegle marmelos
Albizzia amara
A. lebbek
Allogeisslis pendl/la
Hardwickia binala
Daibergia Isisseo
Inga dulcis
Sesbania grandiflora
Tecomella IIndulala
Salvadera oleoides Zizyphus rotundifolia
Schleichera trijuga
Tamarindus indica
Poinciana alala

II. Tropical Moist

Acacia nilotica spp. indica Ailanthus exce/sa
A. leucoph/oea Alhizzia lebbek
Albizzia amara Anogeissus latifolia
Bauhina variegala Alhizzia procera
B. malabarica Atrocarpus heterophyllus
Cordia dichotoma Hardwickia binata
Grewia sp. Leucaena leucocephala
Kydia ca/dna Morus alba
Madhuca latifolia Samanea saman
Moringa ?Ieifera Syzigium cumini.
Pterocarpus marsupium
Pterocarpus santalinus
Terminalia arjuna
T. be/erica

142
 Inter relationships of tr:ee overstorey and
understorey vegetation in silvi-pastoral system
Vinod Shankl.lr
The silvi-pastoral system envisages
a multi-tiered structure typical of natural
forest stands in which the tall trees
constitute the top layer and the forest
floor vegetation the lowermost layer.
These 'layers are intergraded with a series
of small tree and shrub layers. This
arrangement-natural in forest stands and
man-made in silvi-pastoral systems provi-
des heterogeniety that ensu'res better and
non-competitive utilization of environ-
mental resources as the components or
biomorphs-trees, shrubs, undershrubs,
perennial and annual grasses are of diffe-
rent heights and their roots extend to
different depths. Obviously one attempts
to introduce in silvi-pastoral systems this
kind of non-cornpeti tive utilization of
environmental resources. This requires
optimization of the biomorphs that cons-
titute the silvi-pasture. How to arrive at
0pllmlzaLon. An intimate knowledge
of tree-grass compatibility, i.e., alleloch-
emic and shading effects, etc. and analysis
of the effects of tree overstorey, i,e., tree
density and canopy cover etc. on the
forage production from the understorey
vegetation will help in arriving at the
optimization.
143
Effects of tree density
Jlzarberj Bordi (Ziziphlls nllmmularia)
shrublands provide browse (locally called
'Pala' and herbage from its understorey
vegetation in community grazinglands
called 'Oran' and cultivated fallows called
'Beeds'. A study (Kaul and Ganguli, 1963)
was carried out at Pali to identify the
ideal 'ratio of shrub cover to the grass
COver. Yield of the understorey grass
cover and of the browse (Pola) were
influenced by varying densities, i.e., full
stoked, medium stocked and poorly stoc-
ked, with 18, 14 and II per cent of the
community grazing land covered by the
shrub canopy, respectively. Existence of
linear relationship between shrub densi-
ties and leaf fodder (Pala) production can
be seen from Table 1. The relationship
between shrub density and grass yield
was broadly inverse, i,e" high shrub den-
sity associated with low grass yield. It
was concluded that the medium stocked
density with 14 per cent area of the comm
unity grazing land covered by shrub canopy
was optimum for high forage production.
Effects of variol/s tree canopies
Trees affect the herbage growth and
yield of grasses growing in their vicinity.
 Table 1. Average yield of leaf fodder (pa/a) and grass in the Ziziphus_ scrubland
(Kaul and Ganguli, 1963).

Percent density of Yield of leaf Yield of grass Combined Yield

Ziziphus nummlilaria fodder (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)
18 150 545 695
14 125 875 1,000
11 105 770 875

Certain trees, e.g., Khejri (Prosopis ciner- ramosa) and the co-dominant Digitaria
aria) is reported Shankar et al., 1976) to abscendens) grasses reached very high
have beneficial effect while others e.g., (25.6 and 100.7 cm for the two grasses,
Vilayli Ban walia (Prosopis chilensis) respectively), under Khejri and very low
affects the grass establishment and (12.9 and 37.4 cm for the two grasses,
yield adversely (Shankar & Saxena 1976). respectively). 'Thus, on the basis of
The Klujri (P. cineraria) tree promoted herbage yield, composition and the grass
the growth and yield of Dlwman (Cenchrus height it was concluded that Khejri
ciliaris). The salutary effect was, however canopy favoured growth and production
restricted to about two metre perimetre of understorey vegetation .whereas the
with the Klzejri tree in central position. reverse held true for Vilayti Banwalia.
The beneficial effect was reflected in all
the vigour characters of the Dhaman but Understorey effects on tree overs/orey
it was significantly reflected in the basal Silvi-pastoral studies involving four
cover and green and dry herbage yield. tree plantations i.e., Israeli Babool (Acacia
The beneficial effects of Khejri on Dhaman tortilis), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Siris
ar.e discussed in detail by Shankar et a1. (Albizzia lebbek) Dhao (Holoptelia integrj.
(1976). folia) and four grasses i.e., Dhaman (Cen'
The composition of the grass cover chrus c iliar is, Modo Dhaman (Cenchrus
and the herbage yield varied in 14 to 18 setigerus), Karad (Dichanthium anllu/atllm)
year old plantations of five desert trees i.e. and Blul! Panic (Panicllm anlidota/e)
Klzejr{ (Prosopis cineraria), Kumat (Acacia revealed no significant differences in
senegal), Siris (A.lbizzia lebbek), Rohida grass .yield under above plantations
(Tecome/la imdulata) and Vdayti Banwaiia at Pali (Muthana & Sbankarnarayan,
(Prosopis chilensis.) (Shankar and Saxena 1978). Dry forage yield (average of two
1976). Highest herbage yield (Table 2) was years, i.e., 1975 and 1976) in Karad was
obtained under Khejri (2.34 t/ha) and the 28 q/ha followed by Dhaman (25 q/ha)
lowest under Vilayli B.111Vo'alia (0.85 t/ha). and Blue Panic (22 qJha). Among the
The herbage yield under Kumat Siris and trees, Neem attained maximum height
Rohida was 0.78, 1.32 and 1.66 t/ha, res· (2.18 m) followed by Israeli Babool. In
pectively. Composition of the perennial general, trees attained maximum height
and annual grasses was highest under in Moda Dhaman plots followed by those
K/iejri. H~ight of the dominant (Brachiaria of Dhaman.

144
 Jntercropping with Dhaman (eef/ch-
rus ciliaris in Dhao (Holoptelia integrifolia)
plantations at Jbdhpur did not interfere
with normal tree growth (Muthana et al.,
1977). Dry forage yield from Dhaman
was 7 and 12 qJha in 1972 and 1973,
respectively. Later, in the same planta-
tion, Mung (Vigna radiata) was sown in
1976 and 100 kh/ha grain and 309 kg/ha
fodder was obtained without affecting
tree growth. In silvi-pastural studies
reported from Jhansi (Deb Roy et al.,
1980) wider spacings (6 x 6 m) of tree
plantations, i.e., Acacia tortilis, Hard1l'ic-
kia binata and Albizzia amara, favoured
high forage production from C. ciliaria.
Effect of understorey on tree establishment
Tree seedlings often find it hard to
establish themselves in pastures. It was
observed (Gillard, 1978) that in the open
woodland with an overstorey of Ellca/vo-
Ius creba and a ground ve'getation
dominated by Heteropngofl contortus on
the Kangaroo Hills in Australia, clearing
the trees greatly increased grass growth
but both trampling and defoliation by
the grazing stock, killed tree seedlings of
E. creba. More tree seedlings survived in
paddocks which had not been cleared off
mature tree.
Silvi-postural studies involving two
spacings (4 x 4 m and 6 x 6 m) of two
fodder trees (Acacia tortilis and Leucaena
leucocep/zrla) and two grasses (Cenchrlls
ciliaris add C. setigerus) were reported
from Jhansi (Deb Roy et 01., 1980). In
all the treatments 100 percent survival was
recorded in A tortilis whereas in L. leuc-
ec()phala it varied from 75 to 94 percent.
Wider spacing favoured yearly increment
in height (82.4 cm) of A. tortilis. Apart
145
from the firewood and leaf fodder yield
43 q/ha grass yield (dry) was obtained.
In silvi pastoral studies involving 2 spac-
ings (3 x 3 m and 6 x 6 m) of 3 trees
-( Acacia tortilis, Coluphosermufn mopane
and Leucoena lallcocephala) and a grass
(Cenchrus ciliaris) sown @ 5 kg/ha under
Jodhpur conditions during Kharif, 1977,
the establishment of tree seedlings was in
the following order. A. tortiUs (98. 5%),
L. leucocephala (68.1 %) and C. mopane
(26.7%). Dry forage yield from C. ciliaris
ranged between I to 1.6 t/ha in majority
of the plots.
Tree overstorey effects on 1I1lderstorey
through microclimatic changes
Rainfall interception by JO and 16
year old Acacia tqrtilis plantations with
intercropping of Cenc/zrus ciliaris ranged
between 14 to 19 percent and 23 to 33
percent, respectively and that in II year
old Holoptelia plantation from 3 to 8 per
cent (Ramakrishna and Sastri, 1977a).
Dense canopy of A. tortilis favoured
higher rainfall interception Poor germina-
tion and establishment failure of C.
ciliaris in 16 year old A. tortilis plantation
was ascribed to low total (14 to 30%) and
net (15 to 24%) radiant energy received
in August. Total radiant energy recorded
under 10 year old A. tortilis plantation
was sli~htly higher and varied from 30
to 60 per cent. It was concluded that
canopy regulation is essential for energy
penetration and promoting better pasture
growth and yield in the silvi-pastoral
system.
Meen diurnal variations in the
below canopy air temperatures recorded
during September and October showed
that during morning hours, the air tempe-
 r-:
-
o
o

146
rl!ture was lower by 0.1 to 0.7 °C than
;hose recorded in th~ open. The difference
in air temperature of inside and outside
canopY started 'narrowing down as the
day advanced and around mid day the
air temperature beneath the canopy rose
siightly higher (0.2 to 0.6°C) than that
under open condition. During the after-
noon, the air temperature beneath the
canopy remained lower by 0.6 to 2.0°C
than that in the open condition.
The mean daily maximum soil
temperature in A. tortilis plantation was
lower (10 to 16°C in 0 5 cm top soil layer
and 4 to 5°C upto 30 em depth) than
those of the open, indicating thereby
better soil thermal regime in the planta-
tion (Ramakrishna and Sastri, I 977b).
Mean daily relative humidity values
during the day period in A. tortilis
plantation were more (7%) than that in
the open. The study indicated that soil
and air thermal regimes and humidity in
the A. tortilis plantation were conducive
to pasture growth and yield improvement
but radiant energy penetration through
canopy regulation was, however, needed
to make silvi-pasture aviable proposi-
tion under arid enviroment. Canopy
manipulatian and management of grass-
shrub species have been recommended
for this purpose.
Tree overs{orey effects Oil lInderstorey
through edaphic changes
Singh and Lal (1969) investigated
profile characteristics and level of fertility
under Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and
Rabool (Acacia nilotica) canopies. Parallel
observations were made on soil under
open field condition. It was concluded
that comparatively high organic matter,
total nitrogen, available p~osphorus,
147
soluble calcium low pH and qe}ter
mechanical composition of soil upto 120
cm depth in Khejri promoted the growth
and yield of crops grown in its vicinity.
Aggrawal (1980) concluded that status of
available micro-nutrients generally impro-
vid under: plantations specially under
Khejr i. Studies of Aggrawal further
corroborated the findings of Singh and
Lal (1969) on the fertility build up under
Khejri canopy. Crop improvement effect
of tree legumes specially Khejri is genera-
lly ascribed to the input of microbial
fertilizers in the soil through nodulation
(Basak and Goyal, 1975). Comparative
study (Gupta and Saxena, 1978) on the
soil moisture status in 120 cm soil profile
. under five tree plantations indicated that
the soil moisture regime remained genera-
. ,
Ily hIgher below Khejri (Prosopis cineraria)
and Rohida (Tecomella undulata) than that
in Vilayati Babool (Prosopis juliflora),
S;ris (Albizzia lebbek) and Kumut (AcaCia
senegal). The soil moisture under Khejri
ranged from 27 to 50 mm during the
rainless period from November to June
and 115 to 140 mm from July to Septem-
ber.
Studies on soil moistur regime under
Kh,',jri (Lahiri, 1970; Lahiri and Kumar,
1967; Mann and Lahiri, 1967) revealed
that Khejri being a phreatophyte, moisture
fluctuations in the upper soil layers has
hardly any influence on its internal water
balance and that the wate~ balance of
upper soil layers is iargely regulated by
evapotranspiration of the shallow rooted,
herbaceous ground flora. It was suggested
that herbaceous plants with limited root
growtb can be grown during short rainy
season only and if grown during the dry
period (November to June) stand very
 little chance of survival because the soil
moisture content (2%) hardly exceeds
wilting point (2 to 2.5%).
EPILOGUE
Studies discussed here bring into
sharp focus the need for optimization
of tree density and the canopy cover in
silvi-pastural systems. A study (Huss, Huss, Donald, L., 1972. Goat responses
1972) suggested that canopy manipula-
tion through goat grazing is a distinct
possibility in Mexico where both grass
and goat production increased as shrub
density decreased. It was further sugges-
ted that in woodlands are shrublands,
the dual grazing system involving Gupta, J.P. and Saxena, S.K. 1978. Stu-
cattle and goat can result in higher total
livestock production and that optimiza-
tion of shrub cover will be useful in
estimating stocking rates in double
grazing systems. Critical appraisal of
the tree-grass compatibility (Shankar,
1980) is essential for making the silvi- Kaul, R.N. and Ganguli, B.N. 1963.
pastoral system a viable proposition.
REFERENCES
Aggrawal. R.K 1980. Physico-chemical
status of soil under Khejri. pp. 31-35.
Khejri (Prosopis ci; eraria) in the Indian
desert-its role in agro-forestry. (Eds.
H.,S. Mann and S.K. Saxena) Manog-
raph NO., 11, C.A.Z.R.I., Jodhpur.
Basak, M.K. and Goyal, S.K. 1975. Lahiri. A.N. and Kumar, V. 1967. The
Studies on tree legumes. I. ~odula­
tion pattern and characterisation of
the symbiont. Ann. Arid Zone 14.-
367-370.
Deb Roy, R, Patil, B.D. and Pathak.
P.S. 1980. Silvi-pastoral farming for
amelioration and increased producti-
. vity of the arid and semi-arid region.
148
pp. 345·350, Arid Zone Res. Developt.
(Ed. H.S. Mann). Scientific Publish_
ers, Jodhpur.
Gillard, P., 1978. Survival of tree seed.
lings in pastures. P., 24. CS/RO
Tropical crops and pastures divisional
report 1977-78, Australia.
to use of shrubs as forage. pp. 321-338.
Wild land shrllbs-Their biology and
IItilization. USDA Forest Service
General Tech. Rept. INT. I. Intermo-
untain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Ogden, Utah-84401, USA.
dies on the monitoring of the dyna
mics of moisture in the soil and the
performance of ground flora under
desertic communities of trees. Indian
J. Ecol., 5: 30-36.
Fodder potential of Ziziphlls in the
shrub grazinglands of arid zones.
Indian Forester 89.- 623-630.
Lahiri, A.N.. 1980. Prosopis cineraria
in relation to soil water and other
conditions of its hobitat. In "Khf?jri
(Prosopis cineraria) in the Indian
desert. Its role in agro-forestry. (Eds.
H.S. Mann and S.K. Saxena), CAZRI
Mo'nograp No. 11, pp. 38-44.
annual water turnover from a xeric
tree (Prosopis cineraria}. Sci. Cult.
33: 77-78.
Mann, H.S. and Lahiri, AN. 1979.
Optimum u.se of water for agricultural
crops, horticultural and fuel trees in
the desert areas. Proc. Indian Natn .
Sci. Acad., 45: 1-17.
Muthana, K. D. and Shankarnarayan.
K. A. 1978. Scope of silvi-pastroal
management in arid region. Souvellir
on Arid Zone Res. Silver jubilee.
C.A.Z. R.I., Jodhpur.
Muthana. K.D., Gian Chand, and Arora,
G.D. 1977. Studies on the coppicing
behaviour of desert fuel-cum-fodder
species. C.A Z.R.l. Ann. Prog. Rep.,
pp.70-71.
Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sastri. A.S.R.
A.S. 1977a. Climatological studies on
rainfall interception, diurnal variation
in the total and net radiant energy,
available under Acacia tortilis trees.
pp. 69, C.A.Z.R.I. Ann. Prog. Rep.,
C.A.Z.R.I.. Jodhpur.
Ramakrishna, Y.S. and Sastri. A.S.R.
A.S. 1977b. Microclimate under
Acacia tortiUs (1970) plantation. pp.
149
69-70. C.A.Z.R.1. Ann. Rep., ,C.A.Z.
R.I., Jodhpur.
Shankar, Vinod, 1980. Silvi-pasture
research: A review. Forage Res. 6:
107-122.
Shankar, Vinod and Saxena, S.K. 1966.
Vegetation under various tree canop-.
ies. Ann. Prog, Rep., CAZRI, Jodh-
pur.
Shankar, Vinod, Dadhich, N.K. and
Saxenn. S.K. 1976. Effect of Khejri
Tree a (Prosopis cineraria) on the
productivity of range grasses growing
in its vicinity. Forage Res., 2: 91-96.
Singh, K.S. and Lal, P. 1969. Effect of
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and Babool
( Acacia ni/olica) trees on soil fertility
and profile characteristics. Ann. Arid
Zone 8: 33-36.
 Grass-compone~t in silvi-pastoral system with
special reference to Indian Arid Zone
T. K. Bhati
Forest area in Indian Arid Zone is
less than 2% as against Indian average
of about 22.7%. As per the National
Forest ,Policy we should have at least 33%
of the total area under forest. Of late,
afforestation has been the' focal point for
reclaiming the deserts. 'Trees in combi-
nation with grasses will not only meet
the growing demand for fuel, fodder and
timber but will also have a cumulative
effect on the global atmospheric cycles of
water and energy. At local level the
presence of trees affect the micro-climate
by lowering air temperature in hot wea-
ther, raising humidity. reducing wind
velocity and providing shelter for live-
stock. It is envisaged that the afforestation
aloogwith suitable soil conservation mea-
sures will counteract the prevalent harsh
agro-c1imatic conditions, viz" high wind
velocity (20 km/hr) higb aridity index
(74-78%), h,igh PET (7 to 9 mm/day) and'
high soil erosion (5. II q/ha/yr.). Despite,
'all the advantages of afforestation as
advocated, there is a wide gap between
forest exploitation and regeneration.
Moreover under present peasent economy
farmers cannot be mobilized to take' up
afforestation in isolation. Fortunately,
Indian arid lands are bestowed with
s~veral useful and productive species of
grasses, trees, shrubs, crops and livestock.
150
Hence, what is needed most to evolve an
integrated land management system under
which all the referred natural resources
are maintained in the highly productive
state and can be of economic value even
on farmer's field.
TREES AND GRASSES-SUITABILITY IN
SILVI-PASTORAL SYSTEM:
Based on the edaphic f<lctors suitable
trees and grasses can be classified as under:
A. Sand dunes and sandy plains
Grasses: LasillrllS sindiclls, Panicum anli-
dOlale, Saccharum bengaiensis, Cench-
rus ciliaris.
Trees: Acacia torti/is, Prosopis cineraria,
Prosopis juliflora, Albizzia lebbek,
Acacia senegal, Dichros/achys glome-
rala, Cassia siamea. Tc.marix articulata,
Holoptelia integrifolia, Colophospoper-
mum mopane, Calligol1l1m pvlygolloides.
E, Sandy loam and sandy clay loam
Grasses: Dichanthium annulatum, He/ero-
pogon con/ortus.
Trees: Acacia tortilis, Prosopis ju1ifiora,
Albizzia lebbek, Zizyphus lIummularia,
Holoptelia integriJolia, Dalbergia
sissoo.
C. Sand stone and rocky sites.
Grasses: Sehima nerVOSllm, Dichanthium
anllulatllm.
Trees: Anogeisstis pendula, Acacia senegal,
Capparis decidua, Zizyphus nummularia,
Acacia tortilis, Butea monosperma.
D. Well drained sandy alluvial soils
Grasses : Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrlls seti-
gertls.
Trees : Acacia tortiUs, Dichrosfachys
glomerata Ailanthus excelsa, Azadira-
c!zla indica, Albizzia lebbek.
E. Low lyiNg salin! soils
Grasses : Sporobolus mJrginallls, Chloris
virgata.
Trees: Prosopis juliflora, Tamarix articu-
lata, Salvadora ,oleo ides, Salvadora
persica.
Above classification is based on the
edaphic factors but the selection of grass
and tree species will also depend on the
rainfall. Hence the classification on the
basis of rainfall is as given under and
the selection of a particular grass and
tree species should be made on the basis
of these two criteria.
(i) Rainfall zone 15 to 30 em
Grasses: Lasiurus sindicus.
Trees: Prosopis juliflora, Acacia tortilis,
Acacia senegal, Dichrostachys glomer-
ata, Calligonum polygonoides, Zizyphus
nummularia.
(ii) Rai,nfall zone 30 to 40 cm
Grasses : Lasiurus sindicus, Cenchrus
c;fiaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Panicum
antidotale.
Tree " Acacia tortilis, Acacia senegal,
Prosopis juliflora, P. cineraria, Teco-
mella undulata, Colophospopermum
mepane, Zizyplllls spp. Calligonum
polygonoides, Ricinus communis.
(iii) Rainfall zone abOl'e 40 em
Grasses : Cenchrus ciliaris, Cencltrus
setigerus, Panicum antidotale, Dichan-
tllium annulatum, Sellima nervopum,
Saccharum bengalensis.
Trees: Prospis cineraria, Acacia tortilis,
Acacia senegal, A. nilotica sub. sp.
indica, Tecomella undlilata, Ailanthus
exce/sa, Albizzia lebbek, Dalbergia
sissoo, Dichrostachys glomerata, Rici-
nus cammunis, Zizyplzus spp., Cassia
auriclilata.

Table 1. Dry matter yield (q/ha) of C. ciliaris under different trees

Species Spacing (metre) Dry matter yield of

Cenchrus ciliaris
1979 1980 ~ean

Acacia tortilis 5x 5 10.86 6.69 8.77

lOx 10 7.22 5.90 6.56
Co[opTlOspopermum mopane 5 x 5 7.24 622 6.73
10 x 10 9.02 8.37 8.69
Hardwickia binata 5x 5 8.61 5.96 7.28
10 x 10 9.60 10.00 9.80
Grass only 9.12 7.12 8.12

151
 FORAGE PRODUCTION UNDER
SILVI-PASTORAL SYSTEM
A. Tree-density forage yield relationship
Silvi-pastoral studies with three
trees, i.e., Acacia torti/is, ColopllOspoper-
mum mopalle, and Hardwickia binata at
two different spacings (5 x 5 m and 10 x
10 m) at Jodhpur indicated that the
grass yield (Cenchrus ciliaris) was not
affected due to tree plantation.
The maximum dry matter yield
(9.80 q/ha) was recorded under Hardwic-
kia binata when spaced at 10 x 10 m
(Table 1). Except. A. tortilis, under all
the trees species grass yield was higher
when plants were widely ~paced (Mutha-
na) et al., 1980).
Ahuja t 1980) recorded grass pro-
duction in 14 to 18 year old plantations
of four desert trees viz., Prosopis cineraria
(Khejri) , Tecomella undulata (Rohida) ,
Albizzia lebbek (Siris) and Acacia senegal
(Klimat). He observed inverse relation-
ship between tree density and grass yield.
Dry matter yields of 1. 5, 1.2 and 1.1
t/ha under Khejri plantation at the densi-
ties of 566.6, 1774.3 and 1264.8 trees per
hectare respectively was observed. The
highest grass yield (1.1 to 1.5 t/ha) was
recorde,d under Khejri and the lowest
lO.6 to 0.7 t/ha) under /(umat plantations.
The contribution of perenniais was also
maximum (78.3 %) under Khejri and
lowest under Rohida (51.1 %).
Acacia lorti/is trees planted in 1964
and pollared in 1976 to study the forage
production under coppiced trees by Muth~
ana et al. (1980) indicated that dry forage
yield in assoGiation with the coppiced
plants was 7.36, 3.25 and 1.03 qjha
at 6 x 6, 4.5 x 4.5 and 3 x 3 m spacings.
152
The grass yield was negligible under
uncoppiced plants. Kaul and Ganguli
(1963) reported yield of grass and Pala
(leaf fodder of ZizyphllS nummlliaria)
to be influenced by varying densities.
The maximum combined yield of grass
and Palo (1.0 tjha) was recorded under
14 per cent of land area covered with
Zizyphus canopy. Horti-pastoral studies
with two Zizyphus species namely, Z.
nllmmularia and Z. retundifolia at four
densities 70, 140,210 and 280 plants per
hectare and C. ciliaris was conducted by
Sharma et al. (1980). The studies revealed
maximum dry forage yield (1.2 tJha)
of C. ciliaris under Z. nllmmularia at
the density of 210 plants oha. Under Z.
retllndifolia treatments grass yield was not
significantly affected.
B. Tree-grass compatability
Silvi-pastoral studies conducted at
Pali with four grass species, viz. Cenchrlls
ciliaris, C. setigerlls, Dichanthium annula-
tum and Panicum antidotale and four tree
plantations (A. tortilis, Albizzia lebbek,
Azadirachta indica and Holoptelia integri-
folia) indicated that the growth in all
the tree species was adversely affected
maximum with Panicum antidolale and
least with Cenchrus species Table 2).
Data (Table 2) revealed that the
maximum dry matter yield (26.6 qjha) was
under A. lebbek + D. annulatllm. D. ann-
ulatum being: the agro-climatically adopted
grass gave higher dry matter yield under
all the tree species under study. However,
A. indica + +
c. ciliaris, A. lebbek C.
setigerus and H. integrifolia+ C. setigerus
tree-grass combinations were also found
to be superior over others, under the
 Table 2. Dry matter yield (q/ha) of grasses and tree height (cm) as affected
under tree-grass combinations

Grass species A. tortilis A.lebbek A. indica H. inlegrifolia

Ht. D.M. Ht. D.M Ht. D.M. Ht. D.M.
Cenchrus 341 13.6 167 19.1 352, 21.6 253 16.1
ciliaris
Cenchrus 347 15.7 186 20.6 351 14.3 229 18.1
setigerus
mchantllium 326 22.3 205 26.6 303 25.4 190 24.1
annulatum
Panicum 224 14.5 138 15.9 348 17.4 205 16.7
antidotale

agro-c1imatic conditions of Pali. Silvi- and 3108, Sehima nervosum and C. setige-
pastoral studies at Jodhpur indicated rus) with fertilizer treatments further con-
that the sowing of C. ciliaris under the firmed that the grass yields were not
cover of H. integrifolia did not interfere affected by tree plantations.
with the normal tree growth and an addi-
tional dry forage yield of 7 and 12 q/ha Grass production in 14 to 18 year
in }972 and 1973, respectively was recor- old plantations of four desert trees, i.e.
ded (Muthana et al., 1977). In another Khejri (P. cineraria), Rohida (Tecomel/a
silvi pastoral system at Jodhpur (Shankar undulata) , Siris (Albizzia lebbek) and
narayan and Saxena, 1976) with three Kumat (A. senegal) was reported by
tree species (P. cineraria, Acacia tortilis, Ahuja et al. (1978). Data (Table 3) revea-
A. lebbek) and five grasses (Chrysopogon led that over a period of four years the
/u/ves var. Mhow, C. ci/iaris var. M%po forage yield was maximum under P. cine-
Table 3. Dry forage yield (t/ha) under different tree species
Trees 1972 1973 1974 1975 Mean
A.lebbek 0.53 2.59 0.59 1.90 1.40
(0.51)* (0.88) (0.58) (1. 77) (0.93)
P cineraria 0.60 2.81 0.54 2.22 1.54
(0.58) (1.68) (0.53) (2.05) (1.22)
I. undulata 0.45 3.36 0.36 1.73 1.47
(0.43) (0.86) (0.35) (1.38) (0.75)
A. senegal 0.16 1.80 0.15 0.63 0.69
(0.16) (0.58) (0.14) (0.60) (0.37)
Mean 0.44 2.64 0041 1.62 1.28
(0,42) (1.00) (0,40) (1,45) (0.81)
( )* = Contribution from perennial forage grasses.

153
 raria 0.54 t/ha) and least (069 tjha)
under A. senegal. Of the total understorey
the perennial grasses (mostly Cenchrus
species and Eleusille compressa) contri-
buted substential1y. Forage yield of the
perennial species was significantly lower
under A. sellegal as compared to that
under rest of the three tree species, and
it was highest under P. cineraria. Workers,
viz., Shankar et al. (1976), Sharma et al.
(1980) and Saxena (J980) also reported
maximum grass growth under Khejri.
Aggrawal et al. (1976) observed that
higher forage yield under Khejri can be
attributed to increase in organic matter,
total nitrogen available phosphorus,
soluble calcium and micro-nutrients under
this tree.
FUTURE RESEARCH NEED
The research need on silvi-pastoral
system can broadly be classified in two
heads, viz., Agronomic and Utilization.
Agronomic aspect includes research work
on a) selection of suitable tree and grasses
as per soil and climatic requirement, b),
evolving optimum tree-grass-shrub pro-
portion, c) to work out economic optim-
um dose of fertilizers in such systems, d)
to study soil fertility status under such
a 'system on J<?ng term basis, e) to perfac-
tise lopping and felling cycles under such
system for higher grass and tree yield,
f) to study lay farming and other crop
rotations under tree cover. Utilization
aspect includes a) determination of proper
stocking rate of mixed population of live-
stock (sheep, cattle, goat and camel), b)
to evolve suitable grazing sysfem under
silvi-pasture, c) to study animal pro'ducti-
. vity and economics thereof.
154
CONCLUSION
I
From the foregoing discussion it is
evident that the silvi-pastoral concept is
an innovation born out of profound eco.
nomic, technical and social needs of the
day. In the paper an attempt has been
made to identify suitable trees and grasses
as per the soil and climatic requirement
for silvi-pastoral system in arid and semi-
arid areas. Further the discussion give~
a resume on the status of research on
silvi-pastoral farming and brings in lime.
light few grass-tree combinatio'ns and
their .density suitable in arid and semi-arid,
zones. Lastly in the paper those agrono.
mic and utilization aspects, which need
immediate attention of pastoral scientlsts'
and silvicullurists for future research
are stressed.
REFERENCES
Aggrawal, R.K., Gupta, J.P., Saxena,
S.K. and Muthana, K D. 1976 Studies
on soil physico-chemical and ecologi-
cal changes under twelve years old five
desert tree species of Western Rajas·
than. Indian Forester. J02 : 863-872.
Ahuja, L.D., Verma, C.M. Sharma, S.K.
and Lamba, T.R. 1978. Range manage-
ment studies on the contribution of
ground storey (grass) in afforested
-areas in arid regions. Ann. Arid Zone
17 (3) : 304-310.
Ahuja, L.D. 1980. Grass production under
Khejri. pp. 28-30. Khejri (Prosopis
cineraria) i/l the Indian Desert-its role in
agro-forestry (Eds. H.S. Mann & S.K.
Saxena). Monograph No. 11, CAZRI,
Jodhpur.
Kaul, R.N. and Ganguli B. N. 1963.
Fodder potential of Zizyphus in the
 shrub grazing lands of Arid Zones.
Indian Forester 89 : 623-630.
King, KF.S. and Chandler, M.T. 1978.
The Wasted Lands, ICRAF, Nairobi.
Muthana, K.D., Gianchand and Arora,
G.D. 1977. Studies on the coppicing
behaviour of desert fuel-cum-fodder
species. Annual Progress Report, 1977
C 4ZRI, Jodhpur.
Muthana. KD., Sharma, S.K. Raina,
Ashok K. and Meena G.L. 1980. Silvi-
pastoral studies. Annual Progress
Report, 1980. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Saxena, S.K. 1980. Herbage growth under
Khejr; Canopy. Pp. 26-27, Khejri (Pro-
sopis cineraria) in the Indian Desert-its
role in agro-/orestry. (Eds. H.S. Mann
and S.K. Saxena). Monograph No. 11,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
155
Shankarnarayan, K.A. and Saxena S.K.
1976. Performance of grasses in silvi-
pastoral system. Pp. 90-92. Annual
Progress ,Report, 1976, CAZRI, Jodh-
pur.
Shankar Vinod, Dadhich, N.K. and
Saxena S.K. 1976. EffectofKhejri tree
(Prosopis cineraria) on the productivity
of range grasses growing in its vicinity.
Forage Res. 2 : 91-96.
Sharma, S.K. Verma, C.M. and Ahuja,
L.D. 1980. Production of ground storey
(grass) component in afforested areas
in arid regions of India. Ann. Arid
Zone 19 (3) : 283-288.
Sharma, S.K. and Vashishtha, B.B. 1980.
Horti-pastoral system in arid zone,
Annual Progress Report, 1980, CAZRI,
Jodhpur,
 Role of horticulture in agro-forestry
B.B. Vashishtha
Horticulture has remained in its
infancy in the arid and semi-arid regions
of the country, inspite of its great pot-
ential in these areas. Vast lands are
lying without any cultivation although
with some improved management prac-
tices these can be used for fruit produc-
tion. Necessity of fruit production
assumes greater importance because of
low calori-elow protein diet consumed by
the desert dwellers which results into
malnutrition amongst the poor masses.
Forestry combined with horticulture can
be an ideal solution for fulfilling the
need of desert dwellers in terms of balan-
ced diet and fuel wood, timber and other
fbrest products. Situation oriented
management practices can be developed
for horti-silva combinations.
FRUIT CROPS SUITABLE FOR
AG RO-FORES TRY
1) Indigefl9us drought hardy fruits:.
Naturally growing fruit plants found in
arid and semi-arid areas have remained
economically unexplored and therefore,
need attention. Ker (Capparis deCidua),
Pilu (Salvadora oleo ides) , Gondi (Cordia
gharaj), }har ber (Zizyplllls nummlllar.ia)
are some of the valuable plants which
have hitherto remained neglected (Pareek
and Vashishtha, 1978). Ker is found on
rocky, s~mi rocky, aggraded and sandy
156
soils in the arid region (Pareek, 1978).
Green immature fruits are harvested dur-
ing May-June for pickle, dehydration and
vegetable purpose. The fruits are also
believed to provide relief in cardiac trou.
ble. There are no systematic plantation
but new areas can be brought under its
cultivation. It can be propagated thr-
ough clumps or cuttings. The cuttings
make very slow growth. Vast variation
exists in nature and single clonal selection
can help in establishing desired types.
The plantations can be taken up on
waste-lands.
Pi/II is generally found growing in
highly saline regions of desert. Its fruits
are sweet and edible. The pulp contains
glucose, fructose and sucrose. The green-
ish yellow seed is very rich in oil (40-50%)
which is not edible but is used for soap
making. There is a great scope for the
identi~cation of types having large size
fruits with high sugar, and oil contents
and with lower contents of compounds
like dibenzylthiourea, dibenzylurea and
thioglucoside glucotropalotin which make
its oil non-edible.
Gondi is a shrub or a small tree. Its
fruit is a drupe, ovoid in shape, yellow
or reddish brown in colour. It is found
growing wild in the Indian desert. It can
be used as root stock for Gonda (Cordia
myxa) on which budding of Gonda can
be <:lone. Naturally growing Gondl trees
can be top worked and converted into
Gonda (Cordia myxa) which will be more
remunerative. These can be planted on
the fence wall of the farm. It can serve
as a good wind break.
Jharber is found ~rowing almost
every where in desert. In farm forestry,
it has a vital role to play. Its dried lea-
ves (pa/a) are eaten by goats. The
thorny branch lets are used as fencing
material and tiny fruits are liked by one
and all in villages. Being xerophytic in
nature i~ can withstand extreme vagaries
of nature. The Orans of Iharber can be
seen at many places in western part of
Rajasthan. If the plant is not allowed
to cut, it assumes the shape of a tree. All
the existing trees can be top worked into
improved varieties which would start
bearing same year. Nowadays ber is being
recommended for large scale planting in
arid and semi-arid parts of Rajasthan.
2) Fruit crops jor rainjed condi-
lions: Ber (Zizyphus m'1l1ritiana) , guava
(Psidiun! guojavo), Karanda (Carissa
carafldus) , Pomegranate (Punica gran-
atum), custard apple (Annona squamosa),
etc., can be successfully grown under
rainfed condition.
The ear.ly maturing varieties may be
selected for planting so that fruit matur-
ity is over latest by 1st week of March
after which vapour pressure deficit starts
rising. Seb, Gola and M undia varieties
of ber, Jodhpur and seedless varieties of
promengranate, Lucknow-49 of guava
are suitable for growing under Jodhpur
conditions. Most of the fruit plants are
vegetatively propagated by budding (ber
157
and guava), inarching (guav<l), ,cutting
(pomegranate), etc. A new technique of
ber budding developed at this Institute
has cut down the period from more than
one year to four months for raising a
ber orchard (Pareek, 1978). The techni-
que has bren further modified for long
distance transport in which soilless ber
budlings can be transported in polypack
weighing not more than 100 g (Pareek
and Vashishtha, 1980).
3) The other category of fruit
plants which can be included in farm
forestry is that which requires irrigation
facilities. These include aonla (Emblica
officinalis) , fig; phalsa (Grell'ia sllbinequ-
alis), Date palm (Phoenix dactyliJera),
papaya (Carica papaya), lime (Citrus
allrontifalia, sweet orange (Citrus sinen-
sis) etc.
MANAGEMENT OF FRUIT CROPS
Proper management and care is a
mLlst for optimum fruit production. In
addition to the routine management
practices such as insect pest and disease
control, irrigation, manuring etc. follow-
ing techniq lies should be incorporated
wher eever necessary and feasible.
1) Water harvesting: To obtain
higher yields under low rainfall condi-
tions, utilization of runofT water should be
judiciously done. The runoff is more
from slopy lands, hills and rocky areas.
The hills and uplands in Rajasthan have
a slope of 15-25% at hill sides and 5-15%
at the foot hills (Sen, 1972). Even the
dune area has a slope up to 20%. Abich-
andani and Yadav (1974) have estimated
that about 2500 sq km .of the area under
rugged high and low hills, rocky plateaux
and pediment plains, gravelly agraded
 plains and eroded land surface exposing addition to root depth a04, soil profile,
Kankar beds in Jodhpur district can size of micro-catchment of a fruit tree
yield 10000 halm of runoff water even in can be worked out.
a drought year and 30000 halm in a nor- Pareek (1977) has worked out
mal rainfall year. plant population per hectare for diffe-
The shape and size of catchment rent fruit crops for Jodhpur conditions
depend upon topography of the region. with 360 mm rainfall, as represented in
In Israel a square basin, shaped in the Table 1.
form of a flat inverted truncated pyra- Experiment on tne use of runoff
mid at the lowest point is made for water for production of ber is in pro-
planting fruit trees. Considering the gress at CAZRI, Jodhpur, since 1974.
rainfall and catchment characteristics, in Results for past 6 years have indicated
Table 1. Catchment area per tree and plant population per hectare (Pareek, 1977)
Fruits Canopy Runoff Catchment Catchment Area Popula-
area supplement slope area per tree tion
(mm) (mm) (%) (m2) (m2) per ha
Ber 36 300 0.5 100 136 74
5.0 75 111 90
10.0 60 96 104

Pomegranate 20 800 0.5 148 168 60

5.0 III 131 76
10.0 89 109 92
Guava 56 800 0.5 415 471 21
5.0 311 367 27
10.0 249 305 33

Cordia myxa 36 200 0.5 67 103 97

(Gonda)
5.0 50 86 116
10.0 249 305 33

Aonla 56 500 0.5 259 315 32

5.0 194 250 40
10.0 156 212 47

Sour lime 36 1000 0.5 ' 333 369 27

5.0 250 286 35
10.0 200 236 42
Custard 20 300 0.5 56 76 132
apple 5.0 42 62 161
10.0 33 53 189

158
 that 54 m 2 catchment area with 5% slope
has given encouraging results. In the
initial year the yield per plant was not
significantly different owing to the fact
. that plant canopy had not grown fully
therefore, there was praCtically no com-
petition for soil moisture. The results
were more pronounced ·in 1980-81 which
was a drought year.
2. Shelterhel! plantation: The
wind velocity during summer is around
20 km/hour in Jodhpur region, therefore,
making it difficult to go for successful
fruit production. Shelterbelt plantation
minimises the adverse effect of scorching
wind during summer. It is advisable to
plant 3-5 rows of shelterbelt trees. Cho-
ice of the shelterbelt trees can be made
from Acacia tortilis, Prosopis julifiora,
Cassia siamea, Albizzia lebbek, Zizyphus
Ill/mlnularia, etc.
HORTICULTURE CA'N PLAY
A ROLE IN AGRO-FORESTRY
IN TERMS OF
i) Establishing cottage ifldustry:-
Under this, small scale fruit preservation
unit can be established when the prices
of fresh fruits are not remunerative.
Technique for the preparation of ber
products, viz., squash. jam, preserve and
dehydrated ber (Chinese dates) has been
standardized at the CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Similarly dehydration units for indigenus
fruits such as Ker (Capparis decidua)
Sangri (pods of Prosopis Cineraria,) etc.
can be established. This will help as
income generating source for the farmers
of the region.
ii) Source of fuel wood: Fruit
plants requiring annual pruning give fuel
wood for the use of farm dwellers. A
159
five yea~ old ber tree gives about 8 kg
dry firewood on annual pruning, which
increases with the increase in age. It is
an excellent fuel tree and makes good
charcoal with a heat content of almost
4900 K Cal per kg. Heart wood of Zizy-
phus IIl.;mmu/aria also has calorific value
of 4400 K Cal per kg (Anonymous, 1980).
iii) Source of other byproducts:
Dried leaves of Zizyphus nummu/aria
(Pala) form a rich diet for goats which
are found in a large number in desert
areas. Leaves of ZizJ'phus mallritiana
are used to feed (asar silkworm. Ber
plant is also used to rear lac insects. Bark
is sometimes used for tanning purposes.
Some fruits such as jamlill and Pha/sa are
used to extract natural colouring agents
(dyes) where co altar dyes are banned.
Wood of many fruit trees also has marg-
inal timber value. These are used in
making farm implements.
iv) To provide nutritiolls diet: As
mentioned earlier, the diet of desert dwel-
lers is very poor, therefore, suffer from
malnutrition. Be,. which is a common
and adapted fruit of the region has, 150
mgjlOO g of pulp vitamin C. Aonlais
one of the richest sources of Vitamin C.
Inclusion of fruits in the diet will help
in combating the diseases occurring due
to their deficiency.
It is clear from the foregoing
discussion that a combined system of
forestry and horticulture will not only be
beneficial to the farmers of the area alone
but also to the nation as a whole by
stepping up the production of fruits there-
by increasing the potential of cottage
industries, an employment and income
generating venture.
 REFERENCES
Annonymous 1980. Fire wood crops.
Report of an ad hoc Panel of the
Advisory Committee on Technology
Innovation Board on Science and
Technology for International Deve-
lopment Commission on International
Relations. National Academy of Scie-
nces, Washington DC. pp. 16U-61.
Abichandani, C.T. and R.C. Yadav 1974.
Surface water potential of desert
catchments. Seminar on Desert
Technology, CAZRI, Jodhpur, August
30-31.
Pareek, a.p. 1977. Horticulture in the
arid zone system. In" Desert Eco-
system and its improvement." H.S.
160
Mann, CAZRI Monograph No. I, PP.
213-222.
Pareek, a.p. 1978. Quicker way to raise
ber orchard. Indian Hort. March.
June, 1978.
Pareek, a.p. and B.B. Vashishtha 1978,
Improvement of fruit and vegetable
crops for increased productivity in
arid zone. International symposium
on Arid Zone Research and Develop.
ment, held at CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Pareek, O.P. and Vashishtha B.B. 1980.
Soilless ber budlings for safe trans.
port. Indian Hort. Oct.-Dec. 1980.
Sen, A.K. 1972. Agricultural Atlas of
Rajasthan, lCAR., New Delhi.
 .
Hange management in agro-forestry system In
arid regions of India
L. D. Ahuja

INTRODUCTION the range productivity. By vtrtue of

Agro-forestry aims at integration their deep root system, they bind the
soil and reduce erosion hazards. Trees
of woody plants with useful herbage and
on the boundaries of rangelands, appro-
other plant species for different economi-
cal use. It include practising of foresty ach roads to grazing compartments, act
as shelter belts and wind breaks, thereby
with agriculture, pasture development,
reduce wind erosion hazards and improve
rangeland developments and other bran-
microclimatic conditions for better pro-
ches of crops.
ductivity. Although forests are a major
Range Forestry source for providing top feeds in some
Range forestry (Silvi-pa~toral) has regions, but in arid zone, areas under
been in practice/since decades in Indian forests in Zone 'A' (average annual rain-
humid tropics and dry decidual forests. fall below 300 mm) and Zone 'B' (aver-
age annual rainfall above 300 mm) and
Forest grazing {utilisation of primary
products from integrated system of woody over all average for arid districts of Raj-
plants associated with their ground storey asthan is 0.4, 1.3 and O.S per cent, respec-
(i.e., grass and herbage) has been a com· tively of the total land. The forest in
mon routine feature in Uttar Pradesh, Western Rajasthan (arid region) is char-
Tarai tract, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, acterised as scrub forest; and grasslands
Maharashtra, Jammu and Kashmir, Him- occur on plains, lower hill slopes, and
achal Pradesh etc. But in arid and semi undulating terrain in arid parts of the
arid regions, forest grazing does not con- state.
tribute much to animal production due to It has been a common observation
poor availability of forests in the region. in various parts of the world that more
Trees on rangelands, provide shade and better animal feed is obtained in
to grazing animals and are an impor- rangelands with shrubs trees and grasses
tant source of timber and fuel for together than with pure stand of grasses
range use. They provide nutritious top alone.· Suitable tree (top feed) species
feed in form of leaves, pods (rich in could be planted along boundaries, and
proteins and minerals) to livestock during approach roads of the compartments of
lean p~riods of the year, thereby increase grasslands in single or double rows. Tn

161
 addition, trees should be planted in stagg-
ered manner in the grazing blocks. A
'Good' rangeland may have about 50
trees per hectare.
Choice of tree species on the range
Prosopis juliflora succeeds on a
variety of soil types varying from highly
saline Bordering Rann of Kutch to Mur-
mey, rocky, sandy and duney areas, with
low rainfall. It provides nutritious feed
from pode for sheep, goats and camels.
But this species is frost shy. Acacia
senegal grows wall on rocky, murmey
duney and reractrory sites and provides
pods as top feed as well as vegetables for
human beings. Gum produced by this
species is of high quality with good dem-
and in pharmaecutical industry. Acacia
tortilis grows very well on active sand
dunes even in low rainfall region of
below 250 mm. It is fast growing and
frost hardy. Its leaves and pods provide
a good top feed; Calligollum polygonoides
is essentially a sand dune fixation plant.
lt~ , leaves and tender stems provide a
good top feed for camels, sheep and
goats. Prosopis cineraria is the most
important tree of the desert and is a very
good drought hardy. Zizyplzus Ilummularia
a bush provides very valuable nutritive
leaf forage containing 14, to 16 per cent
protein. Talrwrix articulata and Salvad-
ora persica perform well on heavy soils
with salinity. Acacia nilotica grows well
on low lying areas with heavy soils in
region with annual rainfall of 300 mm
and above and provides nutritious top
feed through leaves and pods. It can
tolerate salinity to some extent. Mixture
of seeds of Prosopis juliflora and Acacia
lIi/olica are' generally sown on the top of
162
the mound of trench and mound fencin
to estabilise it. In areas with annual rain:
fall of above 380 mm Azaditachta indica
Albizzia lebbak ano Dalbergia sissoo hav:
given good perforrnance. In extremely
arid areas Capparis aphylla has given
good performance.
Prosopis cinereria which is extensi-
vely lopped in winter can withstand
lopping without detriment either to its
growth or subsequent leaf yield. A
moderate sized mature tree of P. cinererill
yields about 15 kg of dry leaf forage
locally known as Loong and 5 kg dry
pods per year. Zizyphus nummularia
locally known as Bord; is also heavily
lopped in winter for its leaf fodder
known as Pala. Investigation.at Pali and
Jodhpur have shown that the species
growing in medium density (14 per
cent) is optimum in natural grazing lands
for maximum fodder production. One
hectare yields about 125 kg. of Pala top
feed.
The palatability ratings for leaves
of different top-feed species in the order
of preference are Acacia arabica, Proso-
pis cineraria, Salvadora oleo ides, Zizyphus
nllmmularia, Acacia' senegal, Albizzia
lebbek, Anogeisslls rotundijolia, A. pendula,
Calligon(ml polygonoides, Azadirachta
indica, Grewia tenax, G. spinosa, Prosopis
julflora and Tecomella undulata.
Care of trees
, on the Ranges
Wherever the root stocks of trees
exist and have assumed shrub or prostr-
ate form (Pillow form) due to excessive
browsing or felling; such trees should be
protected and properly pruned. This will
save cost of planting and raising trees.
Tree guards should be provided in areas priority for higher animal productivity and
where controlled grazing is being prac- greater animal proteins for human use.
tised. Different stages of rangeland deve-
Where the pasture is devoid of tree lopmer,t are discussed below:
species, or the number of trees in the Forage production due to protection
pasture is a meagre, seedlings of appro-
With adequate protection and graz-
priate tree species will have to be raised
ing native rangelands on carrying capa-
in nursery beds and planted in the past-
city basis, aiming at 70 per cent forage
ure. It is best to plant seedlings having
utilization level, forage yield increased
height of about one metre and above
by 148.3, 91.9 and 116.3 per cent in
during July and protect it with the tree
'Poor', 'Fair' and 'Good' condition class
guards. In areas with hard calcarious
grasslands respectively after two years.
pan below the soils, it is essential to
. Detailed studies reveal that forage incre-
break np this pan by rotary worm oper-
ased with the increase in rainfall, forage
ated by the tractor else the plantations
yield is also dependent on habitat parti-
will not succeed. Such trees will have
cularly the soils for obvious reasons.
to be protected against biotic factors
Production was Iowan shallow gravelly
for abut two years; and during periods
habitats and highest on deep heavy
of continued droughts watering will also
soils.
have to be carried out. Weeding round
the stem is very essential for about 2 Top feed cum shade trees on rangeland:
years after planting. Trees on the rangelands provide
Range Mangement andforestry shade to grazing animals, and timber and
Rangelands may be defined as Land- fuel for range use. They are important
source of top feed in form of nutritious
forms on which agriculture cannot be
top feed in form of leaves and pods to
sustained on a sound footing due to hos-
the livestock during lean periods of the
tile agroclimatic conditions. Such land
year, thereby increase the range producti-
forms are subject to erosion hazards.
Land capability class of such lands is class vity. Suitable tree species could be
V and upwards. Ii these land forms are planted (in single or double rows) along
not properly managed, these are a source boundaries, and approach roads of differ-
ent compartments of grasslands. These
of devastation of nearby fertile agri-
cultural lands, villages. etc. If properly will also act as wind brtaks. In addition
developed, and managed, they become a to that trees should also be planted in
poten tial source of forage grass, top feed, staggered manner in pastures. A good
pasture may have about 50 trees per
fuel, timber etc. There is acute shortage
of forage for livestock (about 35%) during hectare. This is discussed in details
earlier ..
years of normal rainfall, and the condi-
tions become alarming during scarcity Soil Conservation: Grasslandsj
years. It is therefore imperative to under- Rangelands generally exist on class V to
take development of rangelands on VIII land eapability classes which are sub-

163
 jected to erosion hazards. Soil conserva-
tion through mechanical and biological
means are essential for such land forms
for optimised production.
Soil Conservation (Mechanised):
On rangelands with shallow soils and
rolling topography, (slope about 2-5%)
contour furrows with cross section of 929
sq. cm. and 61 cm width and 22.6 cm
depth and placed 8 to 10 metres apart
have proved superior to contour bunds
and trenches. The increase in farage
yield has been of the order of 638 per
cent over the control (average of 10 year).
Soil conservation on rangelands with
average annual pricipitation below 200
111m-In extremely arid areas (Lawan-
Jaisalmer district) rangelands with grav-
elly barren shallow soils were provided
with ditch and mounds about 500 m
apart. In between these ditch and mound
lines, con\our furrows (929 sq cm cross
section) spaced 8 to 10 m apart were
constructed. Those soil conservation
structures trapped the naturally blowing
sands and on these sandy masses, Lasl-
urus sindicus grass (sewan grass, king of
desert grasses) succeeded naturally.
Herbage production during 1960 was 659
kg/ha (Jow perennial viz., E/el/sine compr-
essa 55%; and seqsonal herbage plants
viz., Indigofer'a cordifolia 36%). During
1975 and 1976 forage yield was 1722 and
2157 kg/ha; with Lasiurus sindiclls as 73.2
and 78.7 per cent, respectively.
Reseeding in forest areas
Reseeding of suitable perennial
grass species in range forestry system is
in practice in tropical humid and sub-
humid area~ of the country (Penninsular
164
India) Probably most successful work in
India is that carrie~ out by breeder
of famous Kangayam breed of cattle,
the Pattagar of Palayakottai in Coimba_
tore district of Tamil Nadu State. e'en-
chrus ciliaris has been in cultivation on
grey loamy, lime-rich soils from times
immemorial, Cenchrlls ciliaris has been
successfully grown in Shanar fuel series
in north Coimbatore Forest Division.
Cenchrus clliaris was successfully estab-
lished in Agri-forestry by sowing (broad
cast) after ploughing, Cenchrlls setigerlls
has also succeeded well. Reseeding in
forest areas has given encouraging results
and good dividents.
In arid and semi-arid areas; reseed-
ing in afforested areas has not been taken
up on massive scale. It is suggested that
spacing for forest tree species in areas
hence meant for development of Range-
Forestry system should be 5 x 10 m,
between trees and suitable grass species
may be established by sowings.
Contribution of grolilld storey (grass) in
afforested areas
To evaluate the contributions of
forage under different tree species, study
was undertaken in plantations of Prosopis
cinerar ia-, Tecomella llndlilata, A Ibizzia
lebbek and Acacia senegal planted at
the CAZRI Farm, Jodhpur, from 1958
onwards grouped under different sets of
silvicultural experiments. The data for six
years on forage production under diffe-
rent tree species in each experiment are
presented in Table 1. The forage prod-
uction under Prosopis cineraria (1.1-}.5
tjha) in all the four experiments was
higher than that under other species;
 ~
~~("f1N

~ ~.~ ~
o 0 00 *
\O~
0000
~
N
00
If)
,"""!OI
r-:N _ 01
\0 *
* *
_ on
mOl

~r-:
_0
* *

en rn en
(!) (!)
(!)
·u
(!)
·u
(!)
·u
(!) .....
0.. 0.. 0.. o
rn rn en r::
o
'"]
(!)

C;
.....
r::
oN
.;::
o
..r::
ro
.S
en
(!)
::s
C;
:>
*

165
 whereas mmlmum was under Acacia
senegal (0.6-0.7 t/ha). In experiment IV
though the plant population of P. ciner-
«rIa and Acacia senegal on hectare basis
were almost similar, yet the forage prod-
uction under Prosopis cineraria was hig-
her. On the other hand tree population
of Albizzia lebbek is sizeably less than
of Prosopis cineraria, but the fo(age
production was slightly higher under
Prosopis cineraria. Forage production
under Teeomella undulata stands second
and was comparable with Prosopis
cineraria, inspite of Jess population of
Tecomella undulata.
Contributions of perennial grass
species (viz., Cenchrus species and Eleusine
eompressa) under Prosopis cineraria was
highest (78.3%) and lowest under Teeo-
mella undulata (51.1 %).
It can safely be concluded that
production of grass (ground steroy) is
maximum under Prosopis cineraria.
During 1977, a desert rangel~nd
was ~uccess fully reseeded with Cenehrus
eiliaris. In this reseeded plot seedlings
of forest tr,:e species were planted during
July 1977. Tree species and spacing
given were as under:
Acacia tortllis
Colophospermum mopane
'Leucaena leucoeephala
Hardwickia binata
During first 3 years (1977-79) obser-
vations on plots under first three species,
viz., Acacia tortilis Colophospermum
mopane and Leucaena leucocephala (plan-'
ted during 1977) were recorded. As
Leucaena leucocephala was destroyed by
rodents (mostly desert hares), during July
1980, hardwickia binata replaced former
species.
Forage was harvested during
October-November every year. Data
regarding grass yield during different
years are presented in Table 1.
Yield of grass under different tree
species and control plots did not differ
significantly within a year. But the
variations in grass yield during different
years were discernible due to rainfall and
its distribution pattern. However, grass
yields are favourable in plots where there
there is association of Acacia tortilis and
grass.
Growth of tree species during earl-
ier years of growth is slow and may not
interfere with growth of ground storey.
With the advancement of age developm-
ent, crown cover and root system of the
tree developes progressively and it may
affect the ground storey. Hence for
such a long term experiments observa-
tions for more number of years are
needed to find valid conclusions.
Conclusions
Land unfit for agricultural cropping
spacing 5x5 m,and 5x1O m
spacing 6x5.m and 5x 10m
spacing 5xS m and 5x 10 ill
spocing 5x5 m and 5x 10 ill
may be usefully put under rangelands in
association with forest plants. The
development of ragelands in association
with forest trees is encouraging and would
be profitable in the long run.
166
 High Yielding Legulnes For ~rid And Semiarid
Rangelands
M. S. Yadav
The leguminous speci~s build up
soil nitrogen and organic matter besides
improving forage yield and protein cont-
ent of the companion crop. Hence there
is a need to give more emphasis on the
introduction of strains of selected forage
species of both grasses and legumes and
their better management practices. This
will not only enhance the productivity
but impart the stability in rangeland
production.
Some suitable leguminous trees
shrubs and herbs have been suggested
below depending upon the land types
(Deb Roy et al., 1978).
1. Sandy light and sandy loam, dry
habitats.
Prosopis cineraria, P. juilflora, Albizzia
lebbek, Cli/oria ternatea, Lablab purpur-
ellS, Cvamopsis tetragoneloba.
2. Stony, gravelly, slopy dry habitats
Acacia lortitis, Siratro A rylosia scarabaeoi-
des, Stylosanlhes hamata, C. terlragono-
loba, Vigna aconitifolia.
3. Red soil, dry habitats.
A. amara, Siratro, Stylosanthes humilis,
S. hamata, Vigna unguiculata, Velvet
. bean.
4. Black soil, dry habitats.
167
A. amara, Sesbania sesbans, Stylosanihes
guianensis., Desmodium tortosum.
5. Average moisture and good depth
soil
Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania grandi-
flora, S. sesbans, Desmenthus virgatus,
Vigna ungulc.ulata
The name of some important leg-
uminous trees, shrubs and herbs suitable
for multi-tier plant combinations in range-
lands are given below;
Arid
Trees - Acacia tortilis, Tama! ix sp.,
Prosopis cineraria, P. juliflora
Shrubs - Leucaena lafisiliqua, S. sesbafls
Semi-Arid
Trees - Acacia auricliliformis, A. niloticC1,
A. amara Albizzia lebbek
Herbs - C. ternatea, L. purpllreus, Sly-
losGr.thes hamata, S. scabra, R.
minima, I. oblungifolia, l. cardi-
/olia, A. scarabaecides.
Shrubs - L. latisiliqua, S. gralldiflora,
S. sesbans, D. virga/lis.
Herbs - Alylosia scarabaeoides, ClilOria
lernatea Stylosanthes guianensis,
S. humi/is, S. hamata, S. scabra,
Velvet bean, Lablab purpureus,
Macroptilium atroplirpUreU11l
 Some selected high yielding peren- upto 1500 ft. alt. It grows well in areas
nial -legumes of pasture are discussed of 300 to 750 mm rainfall. The legume
here. Field bean (Lablab purpureus (L.) is not very specific in its soil requirement.
sweet Dolie/los lablab var. lignosus) It is sown in rows at 10-15 kg seedjha.
Before sowing, the seed should be treated
2n = 22
with hot water for 5 min. for better ger-
The plant is native to Asia and mination. It gives two to three cut8 in
occurs throughout India. The main a year and dry matter yield ranges from
tract of its cultivation is Maharash- 20 to 40 q/h. The herbage contain 21 %
tra, Andhra, Madras and Karnataka CP, 33.3% CF. 34.7% NFE 0.8% Ca and
State. It is a semi-erect prostrate type 0.28% P. Digestibility as tested on sheep
bushy herb. It is an annual to biennial was 74.2% for D.M., 5.2% for C.P., 61.
under arid/semi-arid condition and pere- 6% for C.F. Var. JGFRI-23-1 and IGFRI-
nnial in humid condition. It is hardy S-12-1 were CAZRI-752, 1433 and 466
drought resistant, and fast growing leg- found promising in arid and semi-arid
ume. It gives luxurious growth in com- tract.
paratively drier months due to its deep
root system in sandy soils. It is sown in Stylosanthesspp. 'Slylo'
July-August and provide green fodder 'Stylo' is a promi-sing drought
during the lean period when other crops resistant pasture plant. The species are
are dried up. For fodder or grazing, suitable to wide spactrum of soils viz.
field bean is grown in rows @ 10-18 kg acidia, sandy to heavy loam soils. Among
seed/ha. The varieties Rongai (Kenya) the perennial sp. S. hamata, S. sea bra, S.
is suitable for humid and warm areas. guianensis, S. viscosa are promising ones,
CAZRl strain No. 144, 1462, 1259 has yiel- S. hilmi/is is an annual and has been
ded 20 to 40 Q/h dry matter under arid considered to be an outstanding pasture
condition. In semi-arid areas, Var. IGFRI- plant because of high protein content,
2214-II and IGFRI-S-22 I 8-1, possess- the retaination of high quality herbage
iQg errect and decumbent growth habit for a long period of time and the ease of
respectively yielded 275 and 250 q/ha of establishment.
green fodder in single cut while in double
hamata (L.) Taub.- Spreading type
cut 'management system yielded 235- S.
and 220 qjh under rainfed condition at herb with lanceolate leaves. Seeds
_ JGFRI. Jhansi. are brown in colour and hooked
shape.
Clitoria ternatea L. Cordofan pea.
S. seabra - A vigorous shrubby,
2n=16 medium tall errect pasture legume.
It is a twining perennial pasture_ Thick stemmed, woody sparsely bran-
legume distributed through out tropics ched.
and sub-tropics. C. ternatea grows in S. humilis- Spreading type annual herb
bush, grasslands, often on seasonafly- with profuse lateral branches covering
W1lter logged black clays, wastelands etc. the ground. It tolerate to soil acidity

168
 upto pH 4. It require high intensity
of light IGFRI-S-4109 yielded 400 qjh
green fodqer yield in two years at
Jhansi.
Seeds of stylo sp. should be cove~
d by a thin layer of soil i.e. 0.5 to I
re . .
em for uniform or better germmatlOn.
Seed rate recommended for S. hamata
and S. humilis are 30 kg and 10 kgjh re~­
pectively. Pasture grasses are grown m
alternate rows with stylo sp. Crude
protein content of stylo herbage ranges
from 12 to 18 per cent of the dry matter.
'Siratro' (Macroptelium atrnpurpureum
2n=22
DC). It is a perennial pasture plant
with trailing or creeping stem. It is bred
from two maxican ecotypes of P. alro-
purpllreum (Ruttan, 1962. It has deep
penetrating swoolen root and a high level
of drought resistant. Siratro is much
more suitable in tropical mansoonal
areas because in the moist soil, the
traing stem root arises at random
along their length. Siratro is seldom
grown alone but nearly always in grass
mixtures. 2.5 to 4 kg seedjha are sown
in grasslands. Low and frequent graz-
ing or cutting produce detrImental effect
on Siratro grown in mixture with grasses.
Before sowing the seed is scarified to
reduce the percentage of hard seeds. It
can perform well on infertile and some
what water logged ground but not on
saline soil. Variety IGFRI-S- I of Siratro
possessing prostrate stolonjferous growth
habit yielded 250-300 qjh of green fodder
yield in two cuts per year and had an
average of 16% crude protein.
Velvet bean (Stizolobium deeringianum
Bart)
169
The crop is native to India. yelvet
bean is practically useful for rainfed areas,
ravine lands, tidal forests, coconut and
arecanut fruit plantations. It is suitable
for sandy soil where most of the other
legumes fail. Velvet bean varieties are
annual, ibiennial or perennial. They are
prostrate, winding or trailing. Warm
and dry weather with intermitent showers
from 300 to 600 mm during the growing
season suits this crop the most. It
remains green upto the month of Jan.
after frosty condition set in. In the
month of June-July, the seeds are sown
in rows at the spacing of I m between
rows and 50 em within rows. Seeds are
sown @ 15 to 20 kg/h. Two rows of gras-
ses may alternate with one row of legume
in mixture. Green fodder yield ranges
from 250 to 300 q/h, As a pasture crop
the grazing is allowed after the maturity
of pods. Two varieties i.e. IGFRI-S-
2276-5 and IGFRI-S-2284-1 have so far
been evolved by Grassland Research
Institute, Jhansi. It contribute large
quantity of organic matter and nitrogen
to the soil.
Bankulthi (Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.)
Benth)
2n=22
It is a perennial climber or trailing
herb common in tropical India upto 24·
"
N and considered to be useful and well
grazed in natural pasture with the domi-
nance of H. contortlls by drilling in just
before the monsoon rains. Sowing rate
of 8· kg seed per h and application of 20
kg P 2 0 5 /ha has resulted in good mixed
pasture which at the ripe stage contained
upto 7% CP compared with about 2%
for unimproved H. contortus stands
analysed at the same stage of grwoth. It
is a deep rooted legume, thrives its roots
vertically upto 2 metres, horizontally 1.6
meter. It yields between 12 to 20 q/h dry
matter. It is relished much by sheep and
goats. It is found on sandy, red and
rocky soil in range-lands.
Rhynchosia minima (L.) Dc. (Dolichos
minimus L.) 2n = 22
It is distributed through out the
world tropics and sub-tropics, in grass-
lands or in scattered bush and tolerate
seasonal water logged for not too long
period. It is drought resistant and can
tolerate moderate soil salinity. It is slow
growing. Young herbage is eaten better
than that at advance stage of growth.
Seeds are treated with hot water for better
170
germination, Seed rate is' used 15 kg/h
It yield 5 to 10 q/h dry matter. R: mir.im~
contains 15.1%, CP, 1.7% EE 29.5% CP,
45.9% NFE, 1.28% Ca and 0.28% P. In
trials with sheep the digestibility of DM
was 60% CP 64%, CF 54% TDN content
was 60.9% and DCP 9.5%.
REFERENCES
Bogdon, A. V. 1977 Tropical Pasture and
Fodder Plants (Grasses and legumes),
Longman Inc. New York.
Hutton. H.M. 1970. Tropical pastures.
Adv. Agron 22 : 2-66
Magoon, M.L., Amar Singh, Mehra, K.L.
Yadav, M.S. and Krishnan R. 1974.
New high yielding varieties of forage
crops. Indian Farming, Nov. 74.

Breeding for desirable forage attributes In range
grasses and legurpes
R.S. Paroda
In spite of the largest cattle wealth
in the world, the animal performance is
one of the lowest in India. Main reason
for such a poor performance is non-avail-
ability of sufficient good quality fodder
as well as feeds. Shortage is consider-
able and it is estimated that we are short
of concentrates, green and dry fodder by
almost 6.0, 1.7 and 2.7 times, respectively.
It is estimated that the area under fodder
crops as well as grasslands is declining,
whereas animal population is increasing
every year by almost 2 per cent. In last
25 years, bovine population has increased
from 74 to 98 animals per 40 hectare of
arable land. In Rajasthan, livestock
population has almost doubled (from 9.4
to 18.1 millirns) during the last 20 years,
whereas area under less intensive use has
decreased by almost 25 per cent.
In order to meet the challange, it
is necessary that the resources are aug-
mented rationally so as to overcome the
existing deficit. Obviously it is essential
because 60 per cent of the expenditure
on milch cattle is accountable for the
fodder and feeds alone. National Comm-
ission on Agriculture has also stressed
the need for intensification of research
and development efforts so as to increase
forage productivity especially in the arid
and semi-arid conditions.
171
.
It is also in the present context of
energy crisis leading to shortages for che-
micals and fertilizers, etc., that a second
look on rational utilization of plant
resources, especially the grasses, legumes
and trees, has become necessary since such
a system is likely to provide higher and
sustained biomass production under stress
situations like shortage of water, fertili-
zers, chemicals, electricity, etc. It is now
often argued as to whether mixed farm-
ing is more realistic than the arable
farming system especially in the arid
zone of India.
Possible alternatives for increasing
forage production are:
I. To increase rr.ore area under
forages.
2. To improve genetic potential of
forages.
3. To have improved management
practices.
Of the three, first alternative is
rather less realistic since more area under
forages is unlikely in view of the incre-
ased pressure on land on account of alar-
ming growth rate of human popUlation.
Hence, second and third approaches are
the only possible ways to which we can
expect'some improvement in this regard.
Of these, second alternative is likely to
give more tangible results since improve-
ments, once brought about, would last
 longer without additional requirements
of inputs, etc., which are the essential
features of the third approach. Thus,
efforts are made here to enlist so me of
the desirable attributes and possible ways
of improving genetic potential of grasses
and legumes.
1. Nutritional requirements
Quality of the forage is most im-
portant since it is directly related with the
animal performance. Therefore, an idle
forage should be capable of producing
maximum of digestible nutrients per unit
of land per unit 'of time. Among quality
attributes, probably pro.tein (7-8 per cent
minimum) and dry matter digestibility
(in vivo or in vitro) <ire the most impor-
tant. In addition to these, the quantity
of dry matter produced per se is also very
important since it is of nO use producing
only good quality fodder if the quantity
of such forage is insufficient compared to
others. Fortunately legumes invariably
are superior in both protein and digesti-
bility but are relatively poor yielder com-
Table 1. List of improved varieties of range grasses and legumes.
Grasses/Legumes
A. Grasses
1. Cenchrus ciliaris
2. Cenchrus setigerus
3. Dichanlhium annulatum .
4. Lasiurus sindicus
5. Sehima nervosum
B. Legumes
I. Stylosanthes guyanensis
2. Stylosantltes humilis
3. Stylosanthes hamata
4. Macroptilium atropurpurium
5. Dolichos lablab
6. Clifofia ternatea
172
pared to cereal forages. .It is in this
context that range grasses and legumes
both have their importance and a role to
play. Other desirable attributes are:
better intake, more leafiness, resistance
to diseases, low toxicants like tannin.
saponin, Estragens, coumarin, HeN,
oxalic acid and mimosine content etc.
2. High dry mafler production
Production of high digestible dry
matter per unit of land is an important
aspect. Improved varieties of grasses and
legumes are much superior over existing
non.descript strains. Increased produc-
tion is, therefore, expected if the impro-
ved varieties of grasses and legumes
suitable for arid and semi-arid zones are
grown. List of such varieties is provided
in Table 1. Two to three fold increase
in DDM (digestible dry matter) is expec-
ted from new varieties evolved and thus,
all out efforts to cover more area under
such genotypes are needed. Breeding
efforts to improve leafiness in both grasses
and legumes will help in increasing dry
matter as well quality of the forage.
Improved vaneties
IGFRI-S-3108 and CAZRI 358
CAZRI J. and CAZRI 76
IGFRI-S-495
CAZRI 318 and CAZRI 319
IGFRI strain
IGFRI-S-4214 and IGFRI-S-91-1
IGFRI-S-4109 and IGFRI-S-22-48
Collections from CSIRO, Australia
Hawain Giant, k2, IGFRI strains
CA,ZRII44
CAZRI selection
3. Quick in regeneration
It is established that the dry matter
production can be increased through the
improvement in regeneration capacity oC
grasses and legumes. Such result~ have
been demonstrated in t:ase of cultIvated
fodder crops. However. quick, regenera-
tion is more important in case of range
grasses and legumes since these grow
through adverse climatic conditions for a
longer period than the cultivated fodders.
Need is, therefore, obvious to locate the
quick regenerating genotypes/strains.
Quality parameters in relation to regen-
eration are also to be examined.
4. Betler in establishment and seedling
vigor
Grasses are often very poor in their
germination, establishment and seedling
vigor. This results into very poor plant
stand. Not much work on these aspects
has been done and hence deserve due
attention.
5. Low toxicants
Grasses and legumes must be devoid
of toxicants since digestibility is adver-
sely iQfluenced by the presence of toxic-
ants. Some of the important toxicants
are listed below:-
Species Toxicants present
Grassses Oxalic Acid, HCN, tannin,
Nitrate-Nitrogen.
Legumes Coumarin, Saponin, Mim-
osine, Estrogens
173
Genotypes possessing considerable
range of these toxicants have been identi-
fied and efforts to breed for low toxi·
cants are obviously reqllired.
6. Better seed yielding ability
Improved seed is the catalyst of
new change and he_nce this aspect requi-
res no special mention. Invariably gras-
ses are very poor seed yielders. Being
apomictic in nature, grasses also have the
advantage of maintaining the genetic
purity provided superior strains in their
seed production ability as well as forage
attributes are evolved through suitable
breeding methods. Researches on this
aspect are required to be taken up with-
out much delay.
CONCLUSION
Forage production can be increased
substantially through the use of improved
strains of range grasses and legumes.
Both grasses and legumes are important
to meet the nutritional requirements and
hence are expected to improve the animal
performance. Scope for increasing the
genetic potential of grasses and legumes
exists provided required multi-disciplin-
ary efforts are made in the required
direction so that all desirable attributes
are incorporated in new genotypes.
Efforts in this direction would, therefore,
be advantageous from the point of view
of meeting the existing deficit both for
fodder and feeds.
 Utilization and Management Methods for Browse
(Native) Stands and Plantations
R.B. Das
The term "Browse" has a double
significance, its primary meaning is
"shoots or sprouts especially of tender
twigs and stems of woody plants with
their leaves, which are cropped (Browsed)
to a varying extent by domestic and wild
animals" - Dayton (1931).
Browse is also a generic term, app-
lied to shrubby, woody vine, or small
tree vegetation, whether palatable or not
forming one of the four main groups into
which range vegetation is popularly divi-
ded, the others being grasses, grass like
plants (i e. sedges and rushes and their
allies) and weeds.
Adaptability of Browse species
Browse species are enormously
varied in their distribution, being found
from seashore (and below sea level in such
depressions as the Death Valley), to the
timber line on'the HImalayas. They occur
in. most arid places where vegetati~n will
endure and also in the wettest of sites
such as water logged bogs. Normally very
few forms of plant life will endure a
greater degree of alkalinity or salinity.
than will certain shrubs which are used
as browse, and, on the other hand, vari-
ous bushes are commonly met within
the richest humus.
174
Also, browse species in nature grow
in pure or nearly pure stands, forming a
distinct shruby type vegetation; even
more commonly, however, they occur in
conspicuous admixture with other plants
for example as understory in forest or
more or less scattered individuals in
grasslands.
Normally a pastoral -system aimed
at utilizing the browse is characterized by
a distinct ecosystem. This consists of
two recognizable vegetal strata;
(a) A herbaceous stratum, very
largely dominated by mixture of
grasses, legumes of annual or
perennial nature with a height
reaching from 0.5 to 1.25 meter
at maturity; producing 0.75 to
1.75 tons of dry matter per hec-
tare, and having an active growth
period between late June to
September only.
(b) A ligneous stratum dominated
by shrubs, trees, bushes etc. These
trees and bushes may be locally
thick or sparse according to
soils, and their active growth
period generally is concentrated
during rainy season but they tend
to remain green almost through
 the year unless shrubs or trees
are of deciduous nature.
Vegetation growth and its utilization
The natural stand of browse species
subjected to management system of
grazing is normally suitable for arid and
semi-arid regions where sparsity of preci-
pitation and long duration of dry season
makes it basically essential and useful.
In th is region the. observations on
the pattern of utilization by the animal
influenced by its behaviour reveal that,
grazing is according to species, animals
utilize one or other stratum of vegetation
more or less preferentially. So goats and
camels make use of ligenous stratum
than do the sheep and cattle. But these
preferences may also vary according to
the season.
At the beginning of the rains the
livestock find residual straw from the
previous year (often in a poor state of
preservation) mixed with young shoots of
new plants (specially annuals) and new
sprouts on the ligneous vegetation, some
times fairly abundant. Then the utiliza-
tion of grasses which has grown rapidly
and, have reached the stage of active stem
growth, flowering and seed formation, at
the same time their amount of dry matter
increases, whereas their protein value
decreases. On the contrary, the shrubby
stratum providing' browse has a more
regular production and the qualitative
value varies very little affording a pattern
of utilization much different from pure
pasture stands of grasses or legumes or
the mixture of both.
As soon as the rains are over and
dry season begins. the herbaceous startum
175
when utilized offers to the animal only
dry straw with or without seed head,
more usually already fallen, tqgether
with rarely green perennial grass still
growing. Trees and shrubs although
reduce the'ir production but still furnish
some green vegetation.
Further, as the dry season continu-
es the situation deteriorates, the gramin-
aceous species and other annual species
of lower stratum in the silvipastoral
system begin loosing little by little its
volume and value. more and more bushes
shed their leaves and it is only at the very
and before the rains say sometime towards
the month of March-April that new buds
appear again on woody shrubs. The live-
stockfeed hungrily on them and utilization
of these buds help in gaining some lost
live-weight also.
Observations on grazing manage-
ment and utilization pattern in case of
cattle reveal that out of four domestic
species these are the ones which make
use of the herbaceous layer, but on the
other hand they search for a part of their
ration in the leaves, flowers and fruits of
woody shrub to greater and greater extent
as dry season continues. Thus, utilization
of browse species is very much influenced
by the needs and beeaviour of the lives-
tock and by application of management
practices.
What is the proportionate forage from
shrubs stratum
The contribution of woody shrubs
of browse species natural stand or
planted in making up the ration is, as a
matter of fact important, essential and
indubitable, but measuring its quantitative
proportion is particularly difficult.
 The nutrition needs of bovine browse from
Agrojorestry system
For our purposes in India we would
consider a reference to an adult animal
unit termed as Tropical "Livestock Unit"
(T.L.U.) as explained by Boudet and
Riviers (1968). It is an adult bovid of
live-weight nearly 250 kg. Its needs
have been evaluated as 2.3 Forage Unit
(F.U.) and 125 gm. of Digestible Protein
(D.P.) per day for its maintenance. This
quantity of Forage Dnit (F.U.) and Dig-
estible Protein (D.P.) must be contained
in the ration of 6.25 kg of dry matter
(D.M.) which an adult animal unit
(T.L.U.) would require in order to have
a satisfactory space filling coefficient for
digestion, the animal must ingest 2.5 kg
of D.M. per lOO kg of its live-weight.
Any P.D. or D.P. in the ration
exceeding these values will be used for
movement, or production of medt and
milk. The utilization and grazing man-
agement is directly linked to satisfy the
needs of the livestock from the brOwse
stand. If there is any lack of reSOurces
in the grazing unit, the management would
change and pattern of utilization would
be greatly influenced.
The ratio of R.E. is the ration
equivalent = total needs/6.5. It allows
us to compare directly the nutritive value
of feed (theoretical value given by analy-
sis expressed per kilo D.M. with require-
ments of the animal concerned. The
ration-equivalent would be:-
- For maintenance of T.L.D. 0.37 F.U.
and 20 gm DPlkg D.M.
- For 7 kg of movement per day: 0.64
F.D. and 4.6 gm D.P.fkg D.M.
- For 100 gm of weight gain: 0.053
F.D. and 4 gm D.P.fkg of D.M.
- 1 litre of milk 0.06jF.U. and 0.6 gm
D,P/kg D.M.

The data are summarized in Table No. I.

Requirements Short-range Long.range

movements movements
(rainy-season) (dry season)
F.D. D.P. F.lI. D.P.

Maintenance & movement 0.43 24.2 0.50 282

M + M + 100 g weight gain 0.48 28.2 0.55 32.4
M + M + 200 g weight gain 0.54 32.2 0.61 36.3
M + M + 500 g weight gain 0.70 44.2 0.77 48.3
M + M + 0.5 I milk 0.46 29.0 0.53 33.1
M + M+2 1 milk 0.5S 43.4 0.62 47.5
M +M + 5 1 milk 0.74 72.2 0.80 76.3

(F.D ..expressed in units per kg D.M.)

(D.P. expreseed in g/kg D.M.)

176
 Animal feeding habit and management
Among game animals elephant eat
both grass and woody plants as grass
cover is often insufficient for the animal;s
dail) needs, the utilization by elephant
converts savana woodland to grassland
at the rate of 6% per year as they seek
feed by pushing over Acacias and other
shrubs. The giraffe and camel are well
known browsers and eland grants gazelle
feed mainly on browse. The impala feeds
largely on pods of Acacia tortilis. The
zebra. wildbeast, buffalow and other
smaller antelopes feed mainly on grass.
Among domestic livestock, the horse
and sheep mainly utilize grass, other
herbaceous plants, and low browse; the
cattle supplements its grass and herbage
diet with some browse and pods, and the
goat supplements its dominatly browse
and pod diet with grass and herbage.
Field observations and recorded
data (French. 1940) indicate that plots
grazed for six years exclusively by cattle
became open thickets with poor grazing
and susceptible to erosion, while plots
grazed only by goats remained grasslands
with insufficient browse cover. Thus, on
pastures obtained by clearing shrubs and
thickets. goats can be kept to advantage
without fear of causing either pasture
degeneration or soil erosion. However,
heavy grazing by goats as witnessed aro-
und villages usually denude the browse
Or keep it under continuous suppression,
with de mage to other vegetation and to
the soil leading to desert like conditions.
A compromise in browse utilization i;
often made by keeping a mixture of
cattle and goats, usually at about a ratio
of four goats to one cattle, the proportion
177
being varied according to the trend in
botanical composition of the stand.
The importance of browse
"It is a humbling fact for grass~
pasture experts to realize that probably
more animals feed on shrubs and trees,
or an association in which shrubs and
trees play ail important part, than on
true grass-legume pastures" (Anonym-
ous, 1947). The importance of browse
is particularly relevant in the drier tropi-
cal areas of the developing countries
which lie beyond the existing limits of
agriculture, or in communual grazing land
within these boundaries.
It is also a well known fact, that
in semi-arid scrublands when grass gro-
wth is scanty the nomadie live-stock
breeders economy is based on the brow-
sing of trees and shrubs by camel, goats,
and other animlls.
Leguminous browse, because of ih
nitrogen-accumulating economy, is even
more valuable in animal nutrition than
other types. Chemical analyses reveal that
browse has high nutrient potential, ex-
cept for high fibre, and, by selective graz-
ing, animals will choose a diet of higher
nutritive value than normal sampling and
chemical analyses reveal (Wier and
Torrell, 1959); Haridison et 01.. 1954)
consequently, browse is a valuable com-
ponent of any environment.
Quantitative dietary in-sufficiency in bro-
IVse stallc/
Throughout the years. the vegetativ,
state of the edible woody species compo-
sing the grassland with browse stand in
monsoonal zone is relatively varied. so
that it may be considered that live stock
 by its grazing behaviour are always able
to find some green and fresh leaves. But
the quantity of feed they can make use of
is itself mostly variable. It is abundant
during the rains, when it is very little
utilized, for the livestock prefer grass
species, this production becomes rare
during the dry season, becoming at the
same time difficult to reach (unless anim-
als are fed by lopping) even during move-
ments, which they often make for this
purpose, cattle never have the opportu-
nity of obtaining 6.25 kg D.M. from the
browse species that could form the adequ-
ate ration.
On the other hand animals, which
are able to find opportunity to utilize the
green available portion of the feed from
this system get nutritive foliage which
always provides for the achievement of
nutritive balance and certain productivity.
It is also important to note that animal
should find a fair amount of perennial
grasses along with shrubs although, such
situation in nature are rare and could be
achieved only by raising stand with plant-
ation in proportionate manner evolving
'a balanced system under the concept of
Agro-forestry.
Hence, it appears that from quanti-
tative point of view, these feed sources
(except for fallen leaves which are ,akin to
straw) are feed rich enough to allow for
maintenance at all times and usually a
certain amount of production also.
Measuring utilization in brOlVse stand
Observations on livestock when
grazing is sufficient to prove that the
edible par,ts of the browse are far from
bei~g negligible, But, in an attempt to
178
arrive at quantitative estimates of thi~
feed source, if it is at all 'possible to
_estimate in rather small quantifies, we do
not have any experimen tal figures with
which to make the calculations. The
enimal behaviour tends to induce utiliza.
tion of pods and leaves of Acacia species,
kubabool, leaves of Zizyphus species,
Bauhinia species, and many others also.
Here, we are confronted with the
question as are we keen to evaluate the
utilization pattern influenced by animal
behaviour to know and, if so, "How do
we estimate with acceptable precision,
the average forage productivity per hec-
tare in a well defined agro-forestry vegetal
structure"? Or alternatively. "In what
proportion are the feed sources produced
by browse (Natural stand) a contribution
to the ration of the livestock".
The estimations of the degree of
utilization so far remains approximate or
even theoretical. It a ppears necessary
now to perfect a method of determination
involving directly the livestock affected.
Simultaneous measurements of vegetation
utilized by the livestock and the perfor-
mance of the livestock should enable us
to derive a method of estimating the
_forage I',otential of the ligneous stratum
of the browse stand which can from the
basis of utilization.
Utilization-Animal behaviour- Water point
interaction
In a shrub grassland ecosystem
when we desire to study the interaction
between animal grazing hehaviour with
respect to watering points for the live-
stock we find most interesting process of
appearance and dis, appearance of species
in the population dynamics. This is more
pronounced because of animal grazing
behaviour ;nfluenced by realtive palat-
ability of the species composing the
herbaceous and shrub stratum. The
net result of interaction of plant-animal
relationship is well marked and exhibits
the impact o'f degree of utilization of plant
community. There is a significant dete-
rioration ofplants composing the grazing
system beginning from the watering point
as we proceed away from it, - it is exactly
similar to the process we witness reflec-
ting the changes in vegetation due to
intensity of utilization, trampling and
animal behaviour; around a village.
Productivity influenced by grazing and
utilization
Yield of pasture varies a great del.!l
depending on the intensity and manner in
which different types and kind of animals
have grazed in relation to physical envi-
ronment, -and dynamic stage in the tread
of the pasture vegetation.
The highest and most regular yield
is achieved on sandy soils while lowest
on soils with calcarious hard pan with
very shallow soils.
The average yield of good pastoral
and with little deterioration over a num-
ber of years is of the order of I F. U. or
the 3 kg of edible DMjha per millimeter
of actual rainfall.
On a deteriorated pasture land and
on skeletal soil the production is generaly
0.2 to 0.5 F.U. or 0.6 to 1.5 kgjha of dry
matter per millimeter of rainfall, that is
one half or one fifth of the production
of non-degraded pastures on good soil.
179
In cases of extreme deterioration this may
fall as low as one tenth also.
Certain silvipastoral areas are also
characterized by continuous and over-
grazing" the average rate of stocking
being 1 sheep per 2 hectare, while the
animal carrying capacity may not be
greater than 1 sheep per 4 hectares, on
the average.
REFERENCES
Anonymous 1947. Commonwealth Agri-
cultural Bureau Publication No. 10.
Boudet, O. and Rivire, R. 1968. Rev.
Elev. M'ed. Vet. Pays Trop. 2 (French).
Brewbaker, J.L., Plucknett, D.L., and V.
Gonzalez 1972. Varietal variation
and yield trials of leucaena leucoceph-
ala (koa haole) in Hawaii, Hawaii Agr.
Exp. Sta. Research Bull. 166, 22 pp.
Dayton, William, A. 1931. Important
Western Browse Plants. USDA Misc.
Pub. No. 101. pp. 213.
French, M.H Some use and mis-use of
shrubs and trees as fodder. East Agri.
agric. J. 14: 157-165.
Hardison, W.A., Reid, J.T., Martin.
C.M. and Woolfolk, P.O. 1954. Degree
of herbage selection by grazing cattle.
J. Dairy Sci. 37: 89-102.
Weir, W.C. and Torrell, D.T. 1959.
Selective grazing by sheep as shown
by a comparision or the chemical
composition of range and pasture
forage obtained by hand clipping and
that collected by Oesophageal-fistu-
lated sheep. J. Anm. Sci. 18: 141-649.
 Palatability, Digestibility and Nutritive Value
of Some Important Top Feeds of Arid and
Seme-Arid Regions of India
P.K. Ghosh and H.C. Bohra
The arid and semi-arid regions of
India, covering nearly 41 % of the total
area of the country, have a variety of top
feed species. High animal pressure, coupl-
ed with generally low productivity of the
land in these areas, make the top feed
species especially important for sutained
animal production in these regions. Be-
sides providing the much needed nutrients
of which there is always a short supply,
the leaves of the top feed spcies like Pros 0-
pis cineraria and Zizyphus nummu/aria are
also rich sources of moisture, containing
as much as 50% of this valuable commo-
dities during summer.
Important top feed species
B.esides P. cineraria and Z. nummu-
laria, the following. are some of the top
feed species of this region: Ardu (Ailan-
thus exce/sa), Bargad (Ficlls bengalensis) ,
Ber (Z. mauritiana) , Neem (Azadirachta
indica), Pipal (Firos religiosa) and Sir is
(Alhizzia lebbeck).
Palatability
Ganguli et al. (1964) observed that
leaves of P. cineraria (Loong) have the
highest palatability followed by the
leaves of Z. nl/mmu/aria, A. indica and
180
A. lebbeck. In general sheep and goats
tend to consume more of top feeds (3.3
kg/ I 00 kg) than the perennial grasses (2
to 2.5 kg/l00 kg (Singh, 1981). Singh and
Patnayak (1977) had recorded a consump-
tion of 3.8 kg Ardu leaves' per 100 kg
body weight in sheep. By and large, the
consumption of Pala (leaves of Z. nummu-
laria) is more than that of Loong in both
sheep and goats, although consumption
of both these feeds by the goats 'is consi-
derably higher than that by the sheep.
This is, of course, related two distinctive
grazing behaviour of these two species, the
sheep being mainly a grazer and the goat
a browser like the camel. Adult camel
may consume approximately 7.0kg of Pa/a
or Loong per day which comes to about
'1.4 kg per 100 kg of these animals. Neem
generally not relished by the animals.
(Jayal, 1953), although goats are frequen-
tly fed these leaves in the Rajasthan
desert. The palatability of Neem leaves is
believed to be increased after treatment
with molasses.
Chemical Composition
Of the dry land top feeds, Ardu
leaves would seem to contain highest
crude protein percentage (19.6% on dry
 matter basis), while the two most paJa-
table ones namely Bordi Pala and Khejri
Loong have 140/., crude proteins each
excepting Bm'gad which is not so impor-
tant as a top feed species. Bordi Pala has
the highest (730/.,) total carbohydrates,
while Neem and Ardu have a very low
crude fibre content (14.60/.,). Bordi Para
and Khejri Loong appear to be similar in
this respect (17.40/.,). Siris (31.50/.,), Pipal
(26.5%) and Bargad (26.80/.,' would appear
to be too rich in crude fibre to serve as
good feeds, except during severe drought
conditions. The nitrogen free extracts of
the important top feeds are more or less
similar (about 500/.,) except for Silis which
has a low (360/.,) value. The total ash con-
tent of the Ardu leaves is highest followed
by Khejri Loong (12.90/.,), Neem (l I .30/.,)
and Bard; Pala (10.10/.,). For the sake of
comparison average values of different
nutrients of an important perennial grass
of this region, viz., Cenchrus ciliaria
(Dhaman) is given below: Crude protein,
4.50/.,; Crude fibre, 37.00/.,; Nitrogen free
extract, 44.70/.,; Ether extract, 0.7%; and
total ash, 13. 10/.,.
Seasonal variations in the proximate
components of the top feeds have been
observed. Lahiri (1978) has observed that
in Khejri Loong, crude protein is maximum
in winter, ether extract and nitrogen free
extract are maximum in summer and
crude fibre maximum during monsoon.
In Pala the nitrogen free extract increases
from monsoon to summer while crude
fibre changes in the reverse order in this
period. An important component of the
, top feeds is the tannin component, which
often determine their palatability. Gene-
rally tannins content of the leaves is
181
higher in winter than in summer. The
lignin content of the cell wall of the top
feeds is als.o an important determinant of
the usefulness of the feed. Khejri Loong
'suffer from the handicap of having a good
I
deal of tannins (150/.,) (Gupta 1967), which
not only reduce the, palatability but also
hinder optimum protein utilization. The
tannins combine with the feed proteins
or the microbial proteins and make the
conjugates indegradable in the hind gut
of the animals. The lignins, on the other
hand, decrease the digestibility of cell wall
constituents as in Polla.
As mentioned earlier the dry land
top feeds are often rich in moisture. This
preformed water substantially meets the
water requirement of the livestock of this
region.
Nutritive Vallie
Ardu leaves, Bordi Pula and Khejri
Loong-the three most important top feeds
are also high up in the TON (total diges-
tible nutrients) scale (640/." 50% and 450/."
respectively). Neem leaves also has a rea-
sonably good TDN (43%), while the DCP
(dig'estible crude proteins) value of Ardu
leaves is quite high (160/.,). that of the
more palatable Bordi Pula or Khejri
Loong is considerably low (5.60/.,). The
role of tannins in this respect has already
been mentioned (Gupta, 1967; Nath et al .•
1969; Bohra, 1980). The presence of a
tryp~in inhibitors have also been reported
(Nath et al.. 1969). The DCP of the
relatively less palatable Neem and Siris
are re~atively high {9.3 and 11.3%. respec.
tively. From the point of view of feed
value therefore Ardu leaves should be
considered the best. However, this tree
does not occur as extensively as either
 Table 1. Dry matter consumption (kgjlOO kg body weight) of leaves 'of some
top feed plants

Local name of Botanical name of Palatability of leaves Test

the plant the plant tintake, kg/lOO kg animal
body weight)
Ardu Ailanthus excelsa 3.8 Sheep
Bordi Zizyphus nummularia 3.3 Goat
2.8 Sheep
1.4 Camel
Khejri Prosopis cineraria 2.8 Goat
1.9 Sheep
1.4 Camel
Neem Azadirachta indica 4.0 to 6.0· Buffaloe
0.33* Sheep
Pipal Ficus religiosa 1.9 Bullock
4.7 Goat

·Values are in kg/animal.

Table 2. Proximate components (%) DM basis) of leaves of some top feed plants
Local name Botanical name Crude Ether Crude Nitrogen Total Total
of the plant of the plant protein extract fibre free ex- carbo- ash
tract hydrates
• Ardu Ailanthus excelsa 19.6 3.7 13.5 47.7 61.2 15.5
Bargad Ficus bengalensis 9.6 2.6 268 51.6 78.4 9.30
Bordi Zizyphus nummularia 14.1 3.0 17.0 55.8 72.9 10.1
Khejri Prosopis cineraria 14.0 1.9 17.8 43.4 61.2 12.9
Neem Azadirachta indica 15.8 3.5 11.8 57.6 69.4 11.3
Pipal Ficus religiosa 9.7 2.7 26.9 45.8 72.8
Sirts Albizzia lebbeck 16.8. 4.0 31.5 36.2 67.7 11.5

Table 3. Cell wall constituents ~/~ on DM basis) of the leaves of some top feed plants
Local name Botanical name NDP ADP Hemi- Cellu- Lignin Silica
(cell-wall (ligno- ceIlu- lose
constitu- cellulose) loses
ents) .
Ardu Ailanthus excelsa 29.1 26.9 2.2 14.8 8.7 3.4
Bordi Pala Zizyphus 33.7 23.4 10.3 10.4 11.0 2.0
nummularid
Khejri Prosopis cineraria 45.5 28.4 17.1 16.9 7.8 3.7

182
 Table 4. Percent digestible crude protein and total digestible nutrients of the I~aves
of some top feed plants

Local name Botanical name of Digestible Total digestible Test animal

crude proteins nutrients

Ardtt Ailanthus rexcelsa 16.2 63.8 Sheep

Bargad Ficus bengalensis 2.0 44.5
Bordi Zizyphus Ilummularia 5.6 49.7 Sheep
6.0 52.0 Camel
Khejri Prosopis cineraria 4.5 41.0 Sheep
8.9 48.7 Camel
Neem Azadirachta indica 9.3 42.8 Sheep &
Goat
Pipal FiclIs religiosa 5.5 39.2
Siris Albizzia lebbeck 11.6 49.3

Klujri or Bordi in the dry regions. While
top feeds, in general provide more energy
than the grasses, per unit of feed material
taken, the digestibility of cellulose from
desert grasses like C. ciliaris is higher than
that of the top feeds (Bohra and Ghosh,
1977), presumably because of the high
lignin content of the top feeds.
treatment with ferric· chloride (Gupta,
1967). Formaldehyde protects the feed
proteins from microbial degradation in
the rumen. Most of the proteins became
available to the animal for production
purposes. Treatment of Loong with ferric
chloride has improved the DCP value of
this feed for sheep.

The nutritive value of different feeds Future lVork

differ with animal species. For example,
Pala has high nutritive value for camel
followed by the sheep and goats, while
Loong has the highest value for goats,
followed be the camel and the sheep.
Improvement of nutritive value
Successful attempts have been
made to improve the nutritive value of
Pala by treatment with formaldehyde
(Ghosh et al., 1971) and of Loong by
The palatable, nutritious and adap-
ta ble top feed species are already known.
However, these has been no selection of
any of these species for faster growth and
higher production. There species have a
distinct role to play in the agro-forestry
system of arid and semi-arid areas. It is
important that immediate attention is
paid to optimize top feed production in
this region.

183
 N-r-No.O'\_\ON)\O
r-oo'<l:-:O'\O.,.., NC""I
- N ...... C"i-.iC""l-.i
-H-H-H-H--H--H-H-H-tl-H
'<:f"r-'<I:oo\O 0'\ ..... 1£)

OOI.C)<')N)v)-.ir-:r-: 0
'<:f" '<:f" '<:f" <') \0 I \0.<') ~

<')NOOr-O'\O r-
C"IO""'O\OC"IO'\C""I
-C"i1"')1"') "")<')0\00

--H+l+I +l+l-H-tI+I-H-tJ
~",,=t--;'<:f"~ \O<')r-OO
f")V)NV)o\Oor"'i0
.,.., .,.., '<:f" "" r- I \0 .,.., '<:f"
I

-H-H-tI-tI-tI-tI-H-tI-tI-H
~\Or")o.~",,=-N
000\\000 _0v)\C)C""I
'<:f"'<:f"'<:f"<,)Nr--;,r-<')~

...... r- r-ooNr--NOOOOtrl.,..,
r-r- t--;r-r-N-'<I:\Or-~
\0
..,.)N)C""I'<:f"-.iNr-O~OO
0 0 N
-H-H-tI-H-tI -H -tI -H -H -H -tI -H -tI --H -H
'<I:O'\r-OOOOOO:NNN
C"iO'\No\r-OO'<:f"C""I""';
'<:f"'<:f"trlN \O~r-N~
I

Ol)

184
 REFERENCES
Bohra, H.C. 1980. Nutrient utilization of
Prosopis cine~aria (Khejri) leaves by
desert sheep and goats. Ann. Arid Zone
19: 73·81.
Bobra, H.C. and Ghosh, P.K. 1977. Effect
of restricted water intake during
summer on the digestibility of cell wall
constituents, nitrogen retention and
water excretion in Marwari sheep. J.
Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 89: 605·608.
Ganguli, B.N., Kaul, R.N. and Nambiar,
K.T.N. 1964. Preliminary studies on
a few top feed species. Ann. Arid Zone
3: 33-37.
Ghosh, P.K., Ratan, R. and Taneja, G.C.
1971. Effect of chemically protecting
dietary protein from microbial degra-
dation in the rumen on wool growth.
Indian J. Exptl. BioI. 9 : 10l}-11O.
Gupta, M.L. 1967. Studies on variation in
nutrient content of Khejri (Prosopis
spicigera) and observations of the fac-
tors affecting its nutritive value.
185
Unpublished M. V. Sc. thesis, University
of Udaipur~ Udaipur. ,-
Jayal, M.M. 1963. Neem (Azadirachta
indica) leaves as a feed for livestock.
A study on their palatability, chemical
composition and nutritive value.
Indian Vet. J. 40: 83.
Lahiri, A.N. 1978. A note on Prosopis
cineraria (LInn.) Macbride. Central
Arid Zone Research Institute,Jodhpur.
Nath, K., Malik, S.N. and Singh, O.N.
1969. Utilization of Zizyphus numml.lla-
ria leaves by three breeds of'sheep.
Aust. J. Agric. Res. 20 : 1131-1142.
Singh, N.P. 1981. Utilization of top feeds
for sheep and goats. National Saminar
on Sheep and Goat Production and
Utilization held at Udaipur, Aprilll-14,
1981.
Singh, N.P. and Patnayak, B.C. 1977.
Nutritive value of Ailanthus excelsa
Roxb. (Ardu) leaves for sheep. Indian
Vet. J. 54 : 198.
 Diseases in arid land crops and their management
Satish Lodha
Many factors are responsible for
moulding the agricultural economy. The
most important of these is the alarmingly
increasing rate of population. Thus one
of the main problems in agriculture is to
step up food production to keep pace
with the increasing population.
There are two ways of improving
the output of production : to increase
crop productivity and to avoid crop fail-
ures. Diseases and pests become a limiting
factor for successful crop production and
are responsible for crop failures to a
considerable extent.
In arid land, crop diseases are
sometimes of little importance while at
other times these become disastrous. In
recent years cultivation of bajra was
reduced. due to constant attack of green
ear and Ergot diseases. In addition to
seasonal crops diseases take away a major
share in'forestry. Management of diseases
is of utmost importance in forest estab-
lishment as any forest takes decades for
establishment. Infestation with soil' borne
pathogens in addition to killing the esta-
blished agro-forestry system also do not
allow its proper re-establishment.
"In tropics protection research is
needed more than the prod uction rese-
arch" a very eminent scientist had once
said; holds true for most of the tropical
186
and semi-tropical areas. Certain agro-
climatic factors are attributed for deve-
lopment of few specific diseases.
1. Limited availability of water to
crops and trees results in loss of vigour
of roots, which in turn invites soil-borne
pathogens.
2. In arid areas, little irrigation may
provide the moisture for dew formation
which in turn may favour diseases.
3. Adverse climatic conditions of
summer in arid areas do not allow patho-
genic propagules to survive. However,
fungi like Rhizoctonia and Fusarium does
survive as saprophytes for a longer time
by forming resting spores.
4. In the warm weather, powdery
mildev,-a pathogenic group of fungi is
also a major threat to a number of
diseases.
A brief account of the important
diseases prevalent in various arid land
crops along with control measures is dealt
herewith.
CROPS
Bajra (Penniselum typhoides). It is the
most important khar~f crop taken in arid
areas. Many pathogens are responsible
for considerable losses; although precise
information is lacking about extent of
damage.
 1. Downy mildew or Green ear
(Sc/erospora graminicbla). This is consi-
dered as the most important dhease.
It appears in two stages.
a .. Downy mildew - It occurs
on leaves only in the form of stre..lks on
the upper surface due to chlorosis. Be-
low thesc streaks on lower surface a fine
downy growth of the fungus may be seen.
b. Green Ear - In this stage
symptoms are produced in the infloresc-
encc. Ears are deformed and all floral
parts are transformed into twisted leafy
structures giving the ear appearance of
green leafy mass.
The disease is favoured by a temp-
erature range of 15-2YC and 75% relative
humidity. It is known to be seed as well
as soil borne.
Control : At present no resistant variety
is available. However, few strains like
BJ 104, PHB 10, PHB 14 and BK 560
are fairly tolerant. Seed treatment with
Agrosan GN (0.3%) or Apron (0.2%)
is known to reduce the incidence.
2. Ergot (Claviceps fllsiforms)-
The disease occurs in almost all the bajra
growing areas in moderate to severe form
and sometimes whole crop is devastated
by the production of honey dew stage of
the fungus.
The disease appears as small drop-
lets of pinkish or light coloured fluid
exuding from the spikelets in different
parts of spike. This stage is known as
honey dew stage. In course oftime exuda-
tion dries up and in place of honey dew
several agglomerated, dark, sticky patches
may be seen on the ear. In the place of
ovaries small dark brown sclerotia could
137
be seen proje~ting from in between the
glumes. Severely infected ears rarely
produce healthy grains.
Control: Seed treatment with 20% salt
solution separate sclerotia from seeds
as sclerotia float up in the saline
water. 'Early sown crop (before 30th
June) have been found to escape from
disease.
3. Smut (Tolyposporium penicilla-
riae). It is assuming considerable impor-
tance particularly in arid areas. Smut
incidence as much as 35% has been obser-
ved under Jodhpur conditions. A few
grains on the ear are replaced by oval
to top shaped sori, which are generally
two to three times the size of the nor-
mal grains.
Control - No effective control measure
is available. However, Vitavax (0.2%)
spray.at the time of flag leaf stage is
known to reduce the disease incidence.
Rust (PlIccinia pefllliseli) and few
leaf spots (Pyricularia setaraie, Curvularia
penniseti of minor importance are also
observed.
Guar I Cyamopsis tetragonoloba). The
cultivation of guar is assuming
importance due to its industrial use
and fodder value.
1. Bacterial blight (Xanfhomonas
cyamopsidis) is considered to be the most
serious disease of this crop. Studies
conducted at CAZRI. Jodhpur has shown
that heavy infection reduces the yield by
45-50%. It appears as both leaf spot and
blight simultaneously. The spots are
intraveinal, round, water soaked or oily
in appearance and well developed 0,1 the
dorsal surface of the leaf. They may
 enlarge or coalesce but ultimately result
in blighl phase. In severe infection it
produces longitudinal streaks resulting
into blackening and cracking of stem.
The conditions favouring the disease are
spatterin,g rains, high humidity and warm
temperatures (28-30°), the bacterium is
internally see borne.
Con/rol: Fairly tolerant varieties
iike Durgapura safed, BFG 75 should be
cultivated. Hot water treatment of
the seed at 56°C for 10 minutes or seed
treatment with streptocycline (250 ppm)
followed with 2 spray at an interval of
30 days reduces the incidence of disease.
2. Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria
cyamopsidis). It manifests mainly on
leaf blade as dark brown, round to irreg-
ular spots varying from 2-10 mm in diam- -
eter. The disease is seed borme but Control: 2-3 sprays of Bavi~tin (0.02%)
secondary infection is air bornr.
Control: Resistant varieties should be
cultivated. Two sprays of Dithane
Z-78 at an interval of 15 days after
the initiation of disease reduces the phaseo/ina) and powdery mildew (Erysip·
incidence.
3. Dry root rot (Macrophomina
phaseolina). It appears in extreme dry
conditions due to increasing moisture
stress. Root shows rotting due to infec-
tion of' fungi resulting in wilting symp-
toms on the above ground parts.
Cowpea (Vigna sinensis), Moth
(Vigna aconitifolia) and Moong (V;gna
radiata). In most of this region, people
cannot afford animal proteins and _are
largely dependent on plant sources. These
facts emphasize the economic importance
of the disease problems in leguminous
food crops.,
188
1. Yellow mosaic: First symptom
appears on young leaves as yellow Specks
br spots. The leaf emerging from the
apex shows bright yellow patches inters.
persed with green areas. Complete yello.
wing of the leaves and stunting of infected
plants are also common. Diseased plants
usually mature late and bear very few
flowers and pods. Disease is transmitted
by a white fly (Bemisia tabaci).
Control: Resistant varieties should be
cultivated. In early stage infected
plants should be uprooted.
2. Cercospora leaf spot. (Cercosp.
ora sp.) Brown spots with white centre
and reddish brown margins appear on
leaves after 30-40 days of sowing. Size
of pods and seeds are also re~uced.
and Zineb (0.2%) at the interval of 15
days on 35 days old crop can control
the disease.
Dry root rot (Macrophomina
hue polygoni) also occurs on pulses.
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)
1. Smuts: Four types of smuts occur
in India.
a. Grain smut (Sphacelotheca
sorghi)
b. Loose smut (S. cruenta)
c. Long smut (To/yposporium
ehrenbergii)
d. Head smut (Sphacelotheca reili-
ana)
Control: Seed treatment with sulphur or
organomercurials.
2. Downy mildew. (Sclerospora
sorghi). The disease manifests itself as
a downy, whitish growth on the lower
surface of the leaves. If the infection
takes place early~ the plants are severely
~tunted and produce no ears.
Control: Resistant varieties should be
cultivated.
Date-palm (Phoenix dactyli/era)
Graphiola leaf spot (Graphiola
phoenicis). This disease occurs as leaf
spots. Numerous minute sori develop
on the pinnae of one year old leaves.
Yellow mass of spores 1iberate from
each sari. Development of these sari
increases with the age of the leaf thereby
reducing the life of the leaf.
Control: Prunning of older leaves reduces
the incidence of disease. Spray with
copper fungicides is also recommen-
ded.
Other diseases of minor importance
are black scorch and stem end rot.
FRUIT CROPS
Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) is gain-
ing importance as a commercial fruit
crop in arid areas due to its drought
hardy nature. Till recently diseases
were not a serious problem in ber.
But in recent years two diseases have
assumed importance reducing the
yield and market value of ber fruits.
1. Powdery mildew (Oidioum erysiphoides
sp. zizlziphi). It is the most impor-
tant disease of the crop. The disease
appears on fruits during October-
November after the fruit set is comp-
lete. Small whitish spots appear on
young fruits, which later enlarge and
189
coalesee and finally turn brown to
dark brown and cankerous. 'The
affected fruits either drop off prema-
turely or become corky, cracked and
underdeveloped.
Control: Cultivat ion of resistant varie-
ties is recommended. Two spray of
Karathane (0 2%) after the fruit set at
an interval of 15 days control the
disease satisfactorily.
2. Sooty mold (lsariopsis sp.). Blackish
spots appear on the underside of the
leaves which later COver the entire
lower surface giving a sooty appear-
ance. The leaves look yellow and
brown on the upper surface and drop
prematurely.
Control: To control this disease spray
with Blitox (0.3%) is recommended.
Other important diseases: Witches'
broom (Mycoplasma), Fruit rots (Asper-
gillus sp., Alternaria sp. Collectortrichum
·sp. etc.), and leaf spots (Cercosporajujube,
Alternaria state of Pleospora, Cladospor-
ium sp. etc.) are also common.
FOREST TREES
Forests provide multipurpose bene-
fits as sources for timber, fuel, fodder
and minor forest produce, for conserving
soil and water, moderating climate, off-
ering food and shelter for wild life and
adding to the aesthetic value and recrea-
tional needs of man. To develop and
protect forest which are one of the world's
greatest renewable natural resources for
maximum productive and protective
functions are the prime objectives of
forestry, Protection of forests from dise-
ases constitutes one shch objective.
 The common trees in arid zone
forestry are Acacia sp., Prosopis sp.,
Albizzia sp., Azadirachta sp., Zizyphus
sp., Dalbergia sp., Holoplelia sp., Eucaly-
ptLiS sp .. etc.
A brief account of important diseases
commonly occurring on arid zone trees is
given below :
Acacia
1. Ganoderma Root Rot. (Ganoderma
lucidum (Leyss.) Karst. causes serious
root rot mortality in number of Acacia
species as well as other trees. G. lllcidum
infects roots through intact as well as
injured surfaces. The pathogen attacks
and kills the bark and causes white spongy
rot in the sapwood. All stages are
susceptibl.:, however. symptoms are exhi.
bited after fe w years. Affected plants
exhibit pale foliage which eventually
dries up. The fungus produces thin
white mycelial mat between the bark and
the wood. It possesses ectotrophic growth
-in the form of small, thin mycelial aggre·
gates on bark of roots and also on obje-
cts. like stones and soil lumps which are
in direct contact with infected roots. Its
spread from a diseased to a healthy plants
occurs by direct r00t contact. Therefore.
in line plantings, the spread is rapid
Jrom 'plant to plant once the infection.
established 'in the line. Mortality starts
from the third year and increases with
-age of the plantation.
Fruit bodies of G. lucidum comm-
only develop on affected plants, usually
at the base or apparently on the ground
,~ut in the latter case, the fruit bodies
are invariably attached to decay roots.
Due to presence of sporophores, it is
easy to l~cate the infected plants.
190
Sporophores are uS).lally stalked,
rarely sessile. corky, later woody. Stalk
and upper surface are shiny laccate,
lightly zoned.
Control: Mortality due to Ganoderma
may be minimized or kept under cont-
rol by adopting one or more of the
following procedures.
(i) Mechanised plantations. G.
lucidum is endemic in the natural forests
but becomes epidemic if a plantation is
raised after clear felling a natural broad-
leaved forest without clearing residual
roots and stumps. The disease risk is
minimised to a large measure by raising
mechanised plantations where stumps and
roots are mostly removed.
(ii) Isolalioll trenche/i: Once the
disease establishes in the line its further
spread is rapid from plant to plant thro-
ugh root contact. This lateral spread
can be checked by isolating the row of
diseased and dead plants from the adja-
cent healthy plants by digging trenches
about 0.3 m wide, 0.7 m deep and I.5 m
long across the line.
(iii) Planting resistant species: In
a reforested stand where the risk of G.
lucidum root rot mortality is apprehended,
it may be advisable not to plant suscepti-
ble speties.
2. Fames badius heart rot (Fornes
badius) : It is a wound parasite. The
fungus infects host through injuries due
to mechanical causes and damage caused
by animals.
Control: Control of avoidable injuries
inflicted to trees will reduce the in-
cidt:!nce of the disease. Sporopho res
should be systematically removed.

Albizz ia
1. Ganoderma Root-Rot. As descri-
bed in Acacia.
2. Leaf Rust. (Ravenelia japonica).
It forms dark brown rust pustules occur-
ring solitary or in groups on both surfaces
of the leaflets and pods. Profuse develop-
ment of rust pastules almost plasters the
leaf surfaces and this may affect the met-
abolic activity of plants.
Control. : Spray with systemic fungicides
reduces the disease.
Dalbergia
l. Ganoderma Root· rot.
Eucalyptus
2. Pink disease (CorticilIIn salmon-
icolor). It is widely distributed in the
tropics. The fungus possesses a wide hope
range among woody plants. Young plants
may show repeated die back and mortality,
while those which have escaped infection
during the early stage, may at a later per-
iod become infected resulting ill deveop-
ment of cankers. It occurs on the host in
four growth forms, viz. Pustule, obweb,
hecator and pink incrustation.
Control: In locations where the disease
hazard due to C. salmollicolor is high,
a prophylactic spray is likely to afford
protectio,n to plants againts infection.
Other trees. Among other trees, Azadira-
chta sp. suffers from Genoderma root
rot, pink disease, powdery mildew
and some bacterial diseases.
General principles of plant disease control
i~ Agro Jorestery system.
191
Our prime objective in agro-forestry
system is to grow crops and trees free
from diseases and obtain a profiitabe
harvest. I,n the event of an outbreak of a
disease control measures that have to be
adopeted should be economically justifia-
ble. But Ibefore suggesting any control
measures precise information is needed
on the monetary losses due to diseases.
In case of agroforesty system, control
measures are limited, to what can be
achieved through silvicultural and mana-
gement practices, to create growing
conditions ideal for growth of the crop
but unfavourable to development of the
disease. The principle of disease control
In such a system are listed here.
I. Sanitation
2, Eradication
3, Isolation trenches
4. Chemical control
Silvicultural and management prac-
tices listed below are considered better in
controlling a large number of diseases.
1. Choice and improvement of site
2. Choice of species
3. Cultural practices
In addition to these control measu-
res, development of genotypes resistant to
specific diseases is of paramount impor-
tances, Indigenous and exotic germ-plasm
(food crops, grasses and forest trees)
-should be screened against specific
diseases under artificial epidemic condi-
tions Suitable agronomic charaders should
be incorporated in resistance breeding
proggrilmme.
 Prospects of pest rnanagement in crops
and trees of arid area
Satya Vir
Man's association with insects dates
as far back as the day he arrived on this
planet. He started establishing himself
in the company of insects who were by
that time fully established on earth. In-
sects may be taken as probably one of
the oldest, if not the oldest, denizens of
this earth. If we assume the age of the
earth to be of 24 hours, then the insects
have been on this earth for the last 8
hours as compared to only few seconds
of man's existence. Man has baen associ-
ated with insects as early as later Pliocene
period. The secret of long successful
existence of the insect has been their exc-
ellent mechanism bestowed upon them by
nature. They have such mechanism and
arrangements as their having exoskeleton,
smallness of size, rapid rate of multiplica-
tion different shapes and mode'! of life
forms, varied requirements of food and.
shelter, etc, give them advantage over
other forms of life. They have d,eveloped
engineering skills in manoever oddities
to their benefit and also adopted them
selves to the changed and modified state
of environment.
It is also well known that, as a
group, insects far out number all other
animals put together comprising about
toree fou'rth of the total species on the
192
earth. So far about three million species
of insects have been recorded and they
occur in every possible ecological niche.
The number of individual insects is believ-
ed to be around a billion billion (10)8.
For every human being, there are as many
as about three hundred million insects.
Fortunately, most insects ar~ benign and
some are even beneficial like pollinators,
but a very small minority-perhaps no
more than 0.1 % of the total insect spe-
cies-are in direct and constant competi-
tion with us, sharing our food and other
vital resources and several of them carry-
ing serious diseases.
In the field of agriculture with
which we all are concerned the harmful
insects play a vital role. They not only
directly damage the crop plants or injure
the livestock of economic importance but
also caJry and transmit several diseases
which indirectly increases the losses. It
is presumed that about 10 per cent of
the agricultural produce is lost annually
due to insects and under conditions favo-
urable to them, the loss may be even
more. Recent surveys by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations, confirm the startling fact thar
even today more than one third of the
potential annual world harvest is destro-
yed by insects, weeds and plant diseases.
Tbe financial loss in 1975 was estimated
at over 75 million dollars which was
equivalent ·to the total volue of the
world's grain harvest together with Jhe
world's potato crop (Pesticide Informa-
tion 11(12); 1976).
rage The significance of these, figures
can be realised easily if we match this
loss with thetotal food shortage in the
world today. It can be safely stated that
if this loss was prevented. we would no
longer short of food, at least for some
decades.

The Pesticide Association of India Yield Prorjucliol1 Under Crop Production

also carried a study and estimated that
the pestes'lnd diseases caused an annual
loss of an average of 18.4 per cent to
our agricultural producti"on which works
out to Rs. 5000 crores. In India, about
2 million tonnes of food. are lost in stro-
Umbrella
Dramatic increase in yield of crops
were obtained when appropriate crops
protection measures (mostly pesticides)
were adopted as reflected in Table 1.

Table 1. Effect of crop protection on yield level in major crops.

Crop Yield (q/ha) . Increase in yield

Treated Control ('Yo)

Rice-Jaya 46.4 33.2 40.0

Jowar CSH-l 357 15.5 130.0
Bajra 12.5 8.3 50.6
Maize 53.3 40.7 30.0
Mustard 5.4 1.4 285.7
Chickpea 17.2 12.3 40.0
Cowpea F.S. 68* 13.1 8.5 54.1
Cowpea JC5* 16.1 9.4 71.9
Moth T-t8* 9.2 5.7 62.2
Moth Jadia* 9.9 6.3 57.9

(Average over several locations and seasons)

Source: 1. Annual Progress Report of All India Co-Ordinated Projects on Rice,

Sorghum, Millets, Maize, 1968-71.
2. Towards self reliance in Agriculture JIJ)72), JARJ, New Delhi.
*3. Annual Progress Report, 1980, CAZRI. Jodhpur.

193
 Crop Protection During Last 25 years food material to the insect pests continu_
The past 25 years saw a major ously throughou t the year. These factors
evolution in the usage of crop protection also aggravated the pest situation to a
technology, and this mainly revolved serious stage.
around the production of several kinds of Our main researches during the past
chemical pesticides. Until! the 2nd world three decades have been to find out the
war, most of the pesticides belonged to the pest mortality after exposure of the pesti-
category of plant products or inorganic cides in a known concentration. Only rare
salts. Nicotene, rotenone, pyrethrum, attempts were made to trace the influence'
lead arsenate and like held the scene. of these chemicals on the components of
However, with the discovery of DDT agroecosystem. However, there is a
these were mostly relegated to the back- danger, that their toxicity may not be
ground and a whole new class of chemi- exerted in unwanted directions to the
cals was sYlrh ~sised and uS'?d. These mos- detriment of the users, the consumers and
tly consisted or organochlorines, organ- the biological environment in which the
ophosphates and other "broad spectrum" materials are used. Therefore, the first
poisons. The world market today offer step before planning a control measure
120 insecticides, 95 fungicides, 26 nema- is to have an overall idea for the pest-
tocides and 11 rodentocides as compared host behaviour by continuous surviellance
with 24 p~sticides which were in existcance of the crop and trees. These surveys are
in 1930. In India, we are using 105 also required to find out the "Economic
different kinds of pesticides of which 43 Threshold" level of the pest. Economic
are now manufactured in the country. threshold is defind as the pest population
There has also been a great increase in density or damaged level at which control
its use fwm about 2350 tonnes in 1955-56 measures should be taken to prevent any
to 58,814 tonnes in 1975-76. economic injury level from being reached.
Pest problems becomes more impor- The success of the pest management
tant in countries having warm humid depends on correct identification of the
clImate such as India. Climatic conditions pest, determination of economic thres-
holds, effective sampling techniques and
which are suitable for plant growth are
good knowledge of pest life cycle, viz.,
aslo suitable for insect pest mUltiplication.
biology and ecology. The insect damage
In recent years pest proolem gained more
is assessed by visual observations and
importance as farmers are gro",:ing high
counting the popu1ation of samples or
yielding vareities, not knowing whether
indirectly by assessing the damaged
they are resistant to pest of the area or
leaves, stem. fruit etc.
not. Farmers to get more yields. apply
more nitrogenous fertilizers, making t.he Insect Pests of Crops and Trees /n Arid
crop more susceptible for pest and Region
diseaases. In anxiety to earn more profit More than 50 species of insects are
per unit area. farmers grow two or three known to attack various crops and trees
crops in a' year and indirectly they provide under arid conditions, although. a dozen

194
of them cause serious damage to them.
An account of majbr insect pests along-
with their control is briefly discu$sed in
the following paragraphs.
A : Lepidopteran Pests:
J. Hairy Caterpillars (Amsacta moorei;
Amsacta spp. family: Arctlidae
The pest is appearing sporadically in
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and other states in light soil
zones. The adults are white moth with
yellowish or brownish streaks along
margins. The moth emerge out when
there is first soaking rain during mon-
soon. The eggs are laid on the lower
surface of leaves which hatch into very
active reddish hairy caterpillars. These
caterpillars are voracious feeder which
cause damage to cultivated and unculti-
vated crops. The seedlings are eaten
completely by caterpillars leaving only
stumps and sometimes defoliate the plant.
Contro I : These hairy caterpillars can be
controlled by dusting the crop with
10%. BHC or 1.5% parathion or spra-
ying with 0.05% parathion or 0.06%
diazinon emulsion.
2. Pod borer (Heliothis armigera Hubn.)
family: Noctuidae.
The insect damaged the crops when
it comes to fruiting stage. The caterpillars
not only defoliate the tender leaves but
also bore the green pods and feed upon
the ripening grains. This is also a poly-
phagus pest. Unless pest is controlled in
the initial stage' of infestation it takes a
heavy toll of the crop.
Control: The pest can be effectively con-
trolled by spraying with 0.07% endo-
sulfan or monocrotophos emulsion or
195
dusting with carbaryl 5% at@ l~ kgJha
or BHC 10%, Malathion 4.0% and
Endosulfan 4.0% dusts are also effec-
tive.
3. Castor semi-looper (Achaea janata)
family Noctuidae
This is the most serious pest of cas-
tor. While occurring in larger number, the
semi-looper strips the castor plant bare
of all foliage. The adults are also fruit
sucking moth which cause serious damage
to citrus. Adults are pale reddish brown
moth. The full grown larva is dark and
marked with prominent blue black yellow
and reddish strips. There is a character-
istic white mark on the head.
Control: Diazinon 01 methyl parathion
0.05% has been recommended for
control.
B : Hemiptera: J[omopteran Pests:
4. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Glen) family:
Aleyrodidae
It is a very small white insect which
is a vector of yellow mosaic virus in black
gram, cowpea, moth etc. The disease
considerably depresses the yield of these
crops. The transmission period of the
disease is very short and the insect do the
harm by inducing the virus, even if they
a'light on the leaves for a short period.
It has a very wide host range.
COlltro!: The insect can be effectively cout-
rolled with the application of systema-
tic insecticides, viz, aldicarb, ph orate
disulfoton @ 1 kg/ha in the soil at
the time of sowing. The folJiage dam-
ag~ can also be controlled by dusting
crop with 10% BHC or spraying with
0.07% endosulfan or 0.1 % lindane
emulsion.
 5. Green Jassids (Einpoasca kerri
Pruthi) Family: Cicadellidae
The adults and nymphs of this
insect suck the sap from the leaves of
Kharif pulses and the damage is more
severe when the plants are young. The
leaves become crumpled and infested
plants look sicky. The insects avoid direct
sunrays and are generally observed on the
lower surface of leaves.
Control: Same as discussed for whitefly.
6. Aphids (Aphis craccivora Koch:
Lipaphis erysimi Kalt etc). family:
Aphidldae
These insects attack Kharif and rabi
crops. Insect colonies are observed on
the branches and leaves. They suck the
sap and in case of severe infestation the
plant growth is checked.
Control: Insects can be controlled by use
: of systemic insecticides namely disul-
folten applied in soil at the time of
sowing. When the infestation is ob-
served after 4-6 weeks, spraying the
crop with 0.1 % lindane or 0.07% end-
osulfan or 0.04% monocrotophos
emulsion.
C. Coleopteran Pests:
7. Grey weevils (Myllocerlls spp.): Cur- it lives as scattered individuals in the
c,uliondae
The weevil incidence are 'very com-
mon in Rajasthan, M.P. and Delhi. The
margins of leaves are eaten here and the-
re irregularly. The eggs are laid in soil
and grubs also pupate in soil,
Control: Dust BRC 10% at the @ 20-25' Government of India to keep watch over
kg/ha.
S. Moong weevil (Cyrtozemia cognata ) ment and undertake control measure
fa.mily: Curculionidae.
This is one of the serious pest of
pulses and grasses in Rajasthan. The
emergence of insects in fields is noticed in
the last week of July and continued UPtD
mid of September.
Control: Dusting the crop with 10%
BRC at the @ 20 kg/ha.
D. Orthopteran Pests:
9. Grasshopper: (Co/emania sphenar-
;oides) family: Acrididae
The pest appears in Rajasthan,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
other bajra growing states. This is a fairly
large wingless grasshopper with lateral
raddish brown strips. The general colour
is green. The nymphs and adults feed
on leaves irregularly from margins and
sometimes entire plants is eat~n leaving
mid ribs. Young nymphs emerge aJter
S.W. monsoon has set in.
Control: Dust BRC 10% at the rate
of 20 kg/ha.
10. Locust problem: (Sohistocerca
gregaria) Famliy : Acrididae
The desert locust prefer arid and sami
larid region, and the Rajasthan desert is
well suited as one of its permanent home.
During recession and between plagues
solittary phase., Under favourable rainfall
conditions, there ·is a mass and crowded
multiplication and the populationis is
transformed into the gregarious phase,
giving rise to incipient swarms. For
control of locust, a department of Locust
Control Organisation is maintained by
the desert areas for any locuost develop-
when necessary.

196
 Olher Insect Pests:
1], Termites (Odolltotermes spp., Micro-
termes spp. etc) Family: Termitidae
Economicany, termites cause enor-
mous damage to crops, plants, forests
nurseries, fruit trees and' wood work in
building. Termite management needs
greater attention in view of their attack
on pulses, cereals and forest trees in the
desert ecosystem,
Control: Use_ of decomposed manure
and disposal of crop residues from
field redues pest infestation. Aldrin
and heptachlor 5% dust @ 1.25 kg or
BRC @ 25 kg/ha applied in furrows
at the time of sowing effectively redu-
ces the damage. In standing crop,
aldrin 30 EC @ 1.25 kg a.i.Jha wit4
irrigation water provides relief.
12. White grubs (H%trichia consanquillea.
Anomala spp.) Family: Scarabaccidae.
The adults are brown to brownish
black, 13-19mm long, larvae are C-shaped
whitish to cream coloured with brownish
head. 1he beetle!> are observed after good
monsoon shower. The adults are noctur-
nal and cause damage between 8 p.m. to
5 a.m. They feed on foliage of round
about trees like neem, ber, babul, Khejri
etc. The grubs eats away nodules rootlets
and main-root ultimately killing the
plants. In normal conditions one grub
Can damage all the plants in 1-2 ft. raw.
Control: 1. Spray endosulfan 35 EC on
surrou.,ding host trees to destroy the
adult ones. This has to be taken up on
village basis or community basis to
have effective control.
2. Apply Ph orate 10% granules at 2.5
kg. a.i.Jha as soil application before
197
sowing, Heptachlor 5% dust at 3.0
kg. a.i./ha 9r BHC 10% at 6 kg. a.i.tha
13. Ber fruit fly: (Carpomyia vesuviana)
family: Tephritidae.
The pest is most destructive to the
ber fruits species Zizyphus mauritiana. The
damage is caused by the larvae which are
creamy whIte and slightly smaller than
those of other fruit flies. The adults are
smaller than the houseflies, brownish
yellow with brown longitudinal strips.
The pest builds up population in winter,
reaching peak in January to March.
Fleshy varieties of ber are more seriou-
sly damaged.
Control: Adult fruit flies can be control-
led by spraying the trees with mixture
containing malathion 0.5% and
molasses 1'Yo. Insecticidal schedule of
monocrotopbos 0 05%, carbaryl 0.2%
and malathion 0 05%. starting with
the first spray in mid-October, second
one after 3 weeks and the third six
weeks after second spray respectively
is very effective in reducing the damage
to the fruits.
14. Gall fly (Lasioptera sp.)
This is the most important pest of
khejri in Rajasthan. The fly causes galls
mostly along branches. The gall appears
as a rounded or oval thickening, Each
gall contains 1-3 maggots and adults
escape from the gall by making a minute
hole.
Contro!: 2-3 application of endosulfan
@ 0.05% to 0.08% at the interval of
7 days give good protection ..
Stratagy of Pest Control
Broad spectrum pesticides are use-
ful and valuable for crop production but
their indiscriminate use can disrupt many
 natural control mechanisms. Since most
chemical insecticides are relatively non-
selective, they cause adverse effect on
non-target organisms in particular and
on the environment in general. Develop-
ment of insecticidal resistant strains,
pollution hazards, a resurgence of secon-
dary pest problems and destruction of
predators and parasites are some of the
disadvar:tages of chemical control. In
the past total pest control was often
translated into total pest kill using highly
toxic insecticides. But with the increased
recognition and understanding of the
forces at work in the environment came
to the knowledge that. many troublesome
pests can be managed or kept at level of
reduced economic significance by using a
programme of cultural, biological or
chemical control methods. Here, the
mention may be made to the integrated
control concept. The judicious choice of
improved varieties for a particular region
which among other attributes-exhibit
multiple mechanism of resistance to
insects could improve the crop production.
Tentative economic threshold and need
based spraying, preservation of natural
enemies and the available cultural metho-
ds can be pooled and an integrated
control practices formulated. It is essential
that integrated pest control programme
for pests of all crops is launched straight-
away to minimise the problems cr~ated
by insecticides.
Role of Entomologist in Agro-Furestry
System
Basic information on the entomo-
logy of agro-forestry system in tropical
areas and in parlicular from small farmer
situation, is scant. This is due to the
preoccupation in the past with the ento-
198
mologj of sole cropping and the emphasis
placed on research on cash crops, which
often meant that resources were diverted
to researeh on insecticides. Initially work
will have to be concentrated on a relati_
vely small number of typical agro-forestry
situation using large plot size and loca_
tional replications. Data so far obtained
indicates that the situation with regard
to yield loss in agro-forestry system
caused by insect pests and pest/predator/
parasite relationship are very complex.
Polyphagous insects are known to be
attracted by mixed odours and thrive in a
habitat providing two or more essential
hosts in close proximity. There appears
to be demonstrable differences in pest/
parasite relationships not only based on
crop, trces relationship, but .also on
factors as cultivar. season and soil type.
These micro-effects can be seriously
affected by climatic effects which results
in large scale immigration of major pest
species. Even in integrated contf(~1 pro-
gramme in cash crops where pesticides are
used in the most effective way by ecologi-
cally guided application methods, there is
an ever present danger of some degree of
environmental contamination and hazards
to natural control agents. Problem will
arise in application of pesticide in agro-
forestry sy~tem. It is difficult to prevent
drift reaching the non-target crops.
Differences in crop and tree heights,
susceptibility and maturity and inconveni-
ence to applicators while movement with
existing machinery are other problems for
pest suppression with pesticides under
agro-forestry systems. Thus entomologist
have a vital role to play in furthering
. understanding of agro-forestry system
and in enhancing their productivity.
 Role of rodent pests in agroforestry system
Ishwar Prakash

INTRODUCTION We have so far recorded 17 species

A Wide variety of methods and
practices are being employed for controll-
ing increasing' xeric conditions and to
augment the productivity of the desert by
afforestation, establishment and impro.
vement of pasteurs and grasslands, she-
later belts, and sand dune stabilisation.
All these practices involve sowing of
seeds and plantation of saplings, which
establish and grow in an adverse environ-
ment withstanding critical ecological
conditions. Even a small disturbance in
Ihe ecological balance result in mortality
of vegetation to such an extent that
it is wasteful of energy and money sp~nt
over tl~eir establishment. Field rodents
disturb this delicate balance and deter
the human efforts to revegetate the arid
and semi arid lands.
THE DESERT RODENTS
In the desert region field rodents
are the worst enemies of almost all prac-
.tices and technologies being evolved for
the development of the desert. The rodents
'not only inflict losses to foodgrains, stan·
.ding crops but also ravage the native
rangelands, devastate the trees and sown
grasses for sand dune stabilisation, and
are severe. threat to bunds and otht:r soil
conservation works.
of rodents from the desert of Rajasthan.
Some of these rodent species exhibit a
habitat specificity and other are distri-
buted all over the desert. Nesokia indica
and Bandicota bengalensis are found in
the irrigated fields in Sri Ganganagar
district whereas Golunda elliot; and Mus
booduga are found in irrigated fields in the
south-eastern desert on the foothills of
Aravalli ranges. Rattus melrada pal/idior
occurs in crop fields as well as in grass-
Jands. Rattus cutchicus and Mus cervicolor
phillipsi inhabit only the rocky habitat,
whereas Gerbil/us gleadolVi is more numer-
ous in the extreme arid sand dune country
in the west. On the other hand, Tatera
indica and k[eriones hur,;anae, the two
gerbils, are found allover the desert; and
Rat/us rallus ruJescens and Mus musculus
bactrianus live inside buildings and are
distribuled throughout the desert. The
species specificity and diversity of desert
rodents in relation to various habitat
types makes the problem more complex
for the control operator since one method
cannot be applied to all the rodent species
in a similar pattern over all the habitat
types.
Our studies on the ecology and
ethology of desert rodents have yielded

199
 information regarding the distances bet-
ween bait stations (on the basis of home
range data) the optimum season for con-
trol operations (on the basis of observed
population fluxes and breeding cycles),
and the effective ways of bait placement
(on the basis of habitat types.)
CHARACTERISTICS OF RODENT
DAMAGES
Grasslands and ranges
In the rangelands, wherever the
seeds of Cenchrus setigerus, C. ciliaris and
.L. sindicus are sown for improving the
fodder quality to enable better feed to
grazing animals, the rodents dig them up
and feed on thus minimising chances for
their establishment. The intake of grass
seeds especially by M. hurrianae is maxi-
mum as compared to other desert rodents
(Prakash et at., 1967). In addition, they
cau~e considerable damage to standing
grasses. In monsoon, the rodents prefer
to feed upon the unripe inflorescence of
grasses but as they are unable to reach
them, the entire plant is cut and only the
chqicest parts are eaten, rest being left to
desiccate and blown away by strong winds.
Like this they devastated 40 acres of
Lasiurus sindicus experimental pasture at
Bikaner and 27 acres L. sindicus at
Jodhpur, deterring all the efforts for pro-
viding 'better nutrition to grazing live-
stock. At Maulas"ar, one of the Range
Management and Soil Conse,fvation
'paddocks of the Institute, during 1965
rainy season, the desert gerbil population
was 477 per hectare and an immense loss
was incurred by them to the natur~1
grasslands dominated by Cenchrus ciliaris.
It was revealed that they only fed upon
fodder species leaving other grasses and
inedible vegetation. The palatability index
200
(Prakash, 1969) on the basis of uncon.
sumed plants which were found IYin
near tll.e gerbil burrow openings in fou!
principal plant communities was : Cen.
chrus ci/iaris - 4.0, Aristida adscensionis
- 3.7, Eragrastis ciliaris - 3.0, Digitaria
adscendens - 2.7, Barchiaria ramasa_
2.6, Tragus biflorus - 2.6.
The palatability rating clearly indio
cates the gerbil preference for grasses
which are also relished by sheep and other
livestock. The annual feed requirement
of gerbils (477 per hectare) was 1044 kg!
hectare (costing around Rs 225/hectare).
The annual forage production of this
rangeland during that year was 1210 kg!
ha. A comparison of these two figures
ind icate that gerbils would leave only little
forage for the grazing livestock. Thus
the desert gerbil competes seriously with
the livestock for forage and if livestock
is to be developed, this pest should be
effectively controlled.
A study of the stomach contents of
the desert rodents. (Prakash, 1962; further
highlights their damaging propensities.
During the winter they feed chiefly on
grass seeds but during the summer they
turn to rhizomes of grasses, partly because
the seeds have already been consumed by
them and partly to get some water from
"the rhizomes, which have a higher water
content. In the rainy season the rodents
feed upon leaves and flowers. This "rota-
tional feeding" by the rodents makes them
all the more dangerous for the mainten-
ance and regeneration of netural pastures.
Sand dune stabilisation
The damage done by the rodents to
the tree species, particularly to saplings,
is chiefly of two, types: (i) debarking, and
(ii) completely slicing the stem. The first
type of damage has. been observed on
Albizzia lebbek Prosopis (ineraria and
Acacia torti/[s. The activity is restricted
to about half a metre from the ground
surface but may extend to the lateral
branches also. Usually, the cortical cells
of the stem are debarked causing a detri-
mental effect on the growth of the trees.
At times even the xylem vessels are in-
jured which prevents the ascent of sap,
leading to the death of the tree. The
debarking activity has been observed in
trees upto 3 to 4 years of age. In the hilly
terrains porcupines inflict severe damages
to trees.
Stem of Prosopis juliflora and Aca-
cia tortilis were observed to have been
completely cut it the function of stem and
the root, resulting in the death of trees. In
sand dune fixation area at Udayramsar,20
trees were damaged in about one mon~h.
This activity goes on under the soil sur-
face. It is detected only when the tree
starts drying up and after investigation it
is fOI.l:nd that the whole stem has been
transversely sliced by the desert marau-
der. F. juliflora trees were also observed
drying due to rodent damages in the
Great Rann of Cutch. The sown and
regeneration grasses on the sand dunes
are also not spared. Even the mulches
and micro wind breake are quickly colo-
nised and cut down by their fossorial
activity. It is rather difficult to quantitiv-
ely estimate such damages but to a person
stading in a gerbil infested sand dune, its
mere sight will give an idea of the exten-
sive damage caused to the natural vege-
tation by the rodent, which is a deterring
factor in stabilising sand dunes and turn-
20t
ing it green.
Soil cot.servafion
The fossorial activity of the desert
gerbil is also a big threat for any soil
conservation work. Its burrows are exten-
sive and have no fixed plan (Prakash,-
1962) The burrow openings are 'scattered
everywhere and as many as 14,000 per
hectare have been observed. By tunnelling,
it excavates out fixed soil which form
small mounds (about 1 kg) near each
burrow opening. A moderate estimate
revealed that with as many as \3, 860
burrow openings in a plot of 60m x 90m,
it unearths about 17, 000 kg soil per
hectare and. being, loose it is blown away
by strong winds. According to another
estimate (Sharma and Joshi, 1975) this
rodent excavates 61, 500 kg soil /km2/day
during summer months. Thus the desert
rodents looses the fixed sojl in huge
quantity and deteriorate the desers condi-
tions and even help in desert expansion.
The rodents also prefer to burrow
in the contour furrow, and bunds which
are constructed for harvesting water.
The net work of burrows totally destroy
them and the water seeps through the
tunnels failing the basic purpose for
which they are constructed.
TECHNIQUES FOR DAMAGE
CONTROL
Biological cOn/rol
Considerable interest has been
generated in the possibility of biological
control of vertebrate pests because of the
phenomenal results obtained in
controlling certain insect pests by the use
of sterilization, predators or parasites.
 There are several possible approaches to
this objective.
Sterility
Some of the most spectacular
successes against insects have been
achieved by this method. Promising resu-
lts have been obtained with chemosteri-
lants in halting reproduction in coyote in
some parts of the United States. Chemos-
terilants or castration of males has been
suggested as possible methods of reducing
the nuisance of monkey troops and feral
dogs in India. While these techniques
offer some promise against these larger
animals with restricted breeding seasons,
its use against rodents is curren tly beset
with many technical difficulties. Sterilant
chemicals to be effective must sterilize
the animals for at least one breeding
season. As most rodents breed every
month of the year in India, though there
are normally peaks of reproductive
activity, it would be exceedingly dfficult
and expensive to ensure their: infertility
for an entire year with the present
ster1lant chemicals The probable rejec-
tion of the chemicals in bait under field
trials is another problem. Until much
more is known about chemosterilants';
this must remain a possibiltiy for the
future. '
Predators
There is a common belier' that
predators control rodent populations.
Actually the reverse is true as shown by
the year or more lag in the numbers of
predators wild cats and fox) taken in the
Canadian North West following natural
cyclic trends of their prey (snowshoe rab-
bits.~Predators exert very littfe influence
202
in the artificial habitat created by man
Artificial control of predators are nece~
ssary for man's economic and physicai
survival. It is rare when the take of the
predators wjJJ reduce a pest species to the
level required. Predators are definitely
creatures of opportunity and usually take
whatever is easier and most abundant.
Therefore, as the numbers of prey drop
so does the interest shown in them by the
predators, even though they may still be
at a damaging level as far as man's
interests are concerned. The Indian
mongoose was introduced into the West
Indies to kill rats in sugarcane fields. The
plan worked until the mongoose turned
to easier prey and practically eliminated
ground resting birds and poultry on the
Islands.
Parasites and diseases
These _may work very selectively
against insect pests, but it involves mani-
pulation of a more dangerous nature
when attempt is made to introduce para-
sites or diseases of vertebrate animals. In
the first place they may not be very
specific, e.g., the 'rat bacteria' used in
Europe are actually Salmonella typhimu-
rium, which cause food poisoning in man.
An example of a more selective parasite
is myxomatosis for the control of the
European rabbit in Australia. While this
appeared to give spectacular species when
first introduced, the rabbits quickly built
up resistant strains to the parasites. 1t is
now only effective against extremely high
populations, whereas considerable damage
occurs at much lower population levels.
Cropping practicey
Another method is the changing of
man's habits the planting of varieties of
grain difficult for animals or-birds to husk,
changing harvesting practices so that
grain is not left piled in the field to dry
for 2 to 4 months as is done in Rajasthan,
planting crops that are not as susceptible
to the animal depredators prevalent in
the area, and abandoning of cropping in
areas that are most susceptible to animal
damage such as those near forest preserve
boundaries. Changes in sowing, weeding,
harvesting and storage could all be
utilized to cut down the losses due to
animals.
Fumigation
Rodents can be killed with poisnous
gases where baiting and trapping may not
be equally effective. Some of the common
fumigants are cyanide, methyl bromide,
chloropicrin, carhon monoxide, ethylene
dibromide, aluminium phosphide etc.
Cyanides can be used with a foot gas-
pump or by adopting spoon method.
Since aluminium phosphide is available
in pellets (tablets), its use is more conve-
nient in fields. On exposure to humid air
inside the burrow, the compound releases
phosphine gas which is lethal to verte-
brates. After doing all the burrow open-
ing in a field, 1.59 tablets of the fumigant
should be inserted in the freshly opened
burrow openings, which should be
plugged securely with mud to check the
escaping gas. This fumigant brings forth
better results in humid, sub-humid zones,
irrigated situations and during rainy
season in dry zone. Full details of impli-
cations, hazards and precautions to be
taken while fumigations use are dealt
with by Fitzwater and Prakash (1978) and
Prakash (1975).
203
Trapping
Rodents can be trapped in highly
infested areas or to tackle the residual
popUlation after a control campaign.
Snap (break-back) traps are more success-
ful than the live traps. Since rodents
develop trap shyness towards an object in
which they have to enter and through
which they cannot see. Traps should be
placed where the animals are regularly
encountered rather than relying on bait
to draw them to great distances out of
their normal paths. Many rodent species
move on definite paths or 'runways'.
Traps should be placed alongwith them.
Their preferred food should be used as
bait.
Poison Baiting
The use of toxic chemicals is the
most effective, cheap aud humane method
of reducing rodent population. A number
of toxic chemicals as well as anticoagul-
ants are available for baiting the rodent.
The most used one is zinc phosphide 1.5
to 2 per cent zinc phosphide should be
thoroughly mixed with cracked foodgrain
like wheat, millet, rice, maize, sorghum
along with 2-3 per cent vegetable oil.
Poison baiting should be carried out for
a day since jf it is continued for more than
a day, not only the consumption of the
poison bait is low to be wasteful of labo-
ur and material but the rodents also
develop poison aversion and bait shyness.
Prior to poison baiting, pro baiting is
essential. The modus operandi for poison-
baiting sequence should be
Day I. Prebaiting (Cracked food-
. grain + 2-3% vegetable oil)
Day 2. Prebaiting (Cracked food-
grain+ 2-3% vegetable oil)
 Day 5. Poison-baiting (Cracked
foodgrain +2-3 % of vegetable
oil + 1.5-2% zinc phosphide)
Day 8. Fumigation of live burrows
only with aluminium phosphide
tablets
Day 9 & 10. Harborage removal and
sanitation. Repeat the whole
sequence after six months or
enter if required.
Time for rodent cuntrol
For a rodent infestation in a loca-
lised area or to save the crops from a
sporadic attack, control operations can be
taken up at any time of the year. But
when a massive rodent control operation
is to be taken up in the fields of a district,
its timing has to be properly fixed to
achieve best results at a relatively lower
cost. Studies on the ecology of field
rodents have helped in arriving at a
decision about this important aspect of
rodent control. It has been found thot the
breeding rate of most of the field rodents
is minimum during summer months and
in the months of December. Studies on
their population dynamics Indicated that
lowest numbers occur during May ana
June. Analysis of their food habits
pointe<\ out that acceptability of baits was
maximum during summer months when
there was paucity of natural food. These
results led us to postulate that summer is
the most appropriate season when large
scale rodent control should be taken up
effectively. If the job is done precisely.
the need for follow up programme will
arise only during next summr as stud-
ies at the CAZRI have shown that the
rate of rei~festation by rodents is slow.
But it will always depend upon the area
204
in which the rodent control operation
has been taken up. If rodents are control_
led on a district level, i.e. in a large area
the reinfestation will be slow but if it i~
carried out only in one hectare or so
naturally the immigration of rodents fro~
the surrounding areas will make reinfest_
ations quick.
Sustenance strategy
For achieving a sustained preven-
tion from rodent losses, it is essential
that control operation is taken up in as
large area as possible. The compaign
should be repeated at as six monthly
interval or earlier if required.
Training and Edtlcation
The control of rodents can only be
successfully done with the clos~ coopera-
tion and understanding of the public.
The organisers of this work should initia-
lly spend much time in organising lactures
(in local language) supplemented by films
on the advantages of rodent-free living
and on actual rodent control work. Such
education through good films leave a
better impression on the public than only
lectures or talks. Public can also be
educated by short pamphlets of diseases
through rodents. Television and radio
are also very suitable media for this work
.and fullest cooperation from the organisa-
tions should be sought by the control
organisers. In every state and in every
block, one village should be made "rat-
free" for demonstration purposes. By
a multichannel propaganda against the
rodents. the people will become aware
of the problem and will be able to over-
come their religious and sentimental
taboos and the public will extend full
cooperation after a good understanding
of the advantages of the rodent control
(Prakash, 1976).
It is evident from this account that
rodents play a'n improtant role in the
Agro-forestry system in the deserts and
proper strategies are essential to mini-
mise losses due to pests.
REFERENCES
Barnett, S.A. and Parkash, I. 1975.
Rodents of Economic Improtance in
India. Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi
& London. 1-175.
Fitzwater, W.D. and Prakash, I. 1973.
Handbook of Vertebrate Pest Control.
leAR, New Delhi: 1-92 (Revised by
Prakash, I. 1978).
Gupta, R. K. and Prakash, I. 1975.
Environmental Ano1/ysis of the Thor
Desert. English Book Depot, Dehra
Dun 1-484.
Gupta, R.K. and Prakash, 1. 1979. Mana-
gement of Range resources in the
Indian arid zone with reference to
rodent control. Proc. indian natn. sci.
Acad. 44: 312-319.
Prakash, I. 1962. Ecology of gerbils of the
Rajasthan desert, India. Mammalia
26: 311-331.
205
Prakash, I. '1969. Eco-toxicology and
control of Indian desert gerbil,
Medones hurriallae Jerdon. V. Food
preference in the field during mon-
soon. J,. Bombay nat· Hlst. Soc. 65 (3)
; 581-589.
----~' I. 1974. The Ecology of Verte-
brates of the Indian Desert. Chapter
XlH in Bio-geography and Ecology in
India. Dr. Junk b.v. Verlag. The
Hague: 369-420.
- - - - , I. 1976. Rodent Pest Manage-
ment - Principles and Practices. Mono-
graph No.4, eAZRI. 1-28.
- - - - , I., and Ghosh, P.K. (ed). 1975.
Rodents in Desert Environments. Dr.
Junk b.v. Verlag. The Hague, 1-628.
- - - - , I., Purohit, K.G. and Kame-
tkar, L.R. 1967. Intake of seeds of
grass, shrub and tree species by three
species of gerbils in Rajasthan desert.
Indian For. 93 : 801-805.
Sharma, V.N. and Joshi, M.e. 1975. Soil
excavated by desert gerbil, Meriones
hurrianoe (Jerdon) in the Shekhawati
region of Rajasthan desert. Ann. Arid
Zone 14 : 268-273.
 Terrnites and their control: a paramount need in
agro-forestry
D.R. Parihar
One of the major problems of arid
and semi-arid zones, from agroforestry
point of view is the severe infestation of
crops and trees by termites. In this
regard, several species have been consid-
ered as the pests of agro-forestry (Harris,
1969; Kushwaha, 1972; Narayan and
Ratan Lal, 1952; Sankaran, 1962; Roon-
wal, 1979; Parihar, 1978, 1979, 1980 a-c).
Plants are generally attacked by termites,
when they are not in a vigorous state of
growth and when their vitality is low
either due to internal growth factors or
to environmental causes such as drought
or poor soil fertility. Longlived plants
such as' trees and plantation crops are
more susceptible to attack in the seedling
stages and the annual crops near harvest
time. In all cases it is worker caste
which does, the maximum. damage.
Plant species
Leucaena Jellcocephala
Zizyphlls nllmmularia
Eucalyptus carraldulensis
E. hybrid
E. atriodora
Salvodora oleo ides
Capl!aris dec;idua
206
Termites are polymorphic, consisting of
three forms or castes viz" worker,
soldiers and reproductives.
I. Termites of forest trees and their
control
Both of indigenous and exotic spe-
cies of plants are susceptible to termite
attack (Table I). Exotic species like
Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia
tor/iUs both are attacked by Odontont-
ermes gurdaspurensis Holmgren and O.
lantiguloides respectively. Indigenous
species like Prosopis cineraria by Odonto-
termes obesus, Azadirachta indica by O.
gurdaspurensis. The attack on indigenous
species is severe in dry season (Nov-June).
The plants are exclusively attacked at
their roots. The intensity of damage to
some forestry plantations are as follows:
Termite species % damage
Microtermes mycophagus 26.26
M.obesi 47.08
O. gurdaspurensis 33.00
O.obesus 56.66
O.obesus 52.00
M. Mycophaglls 22.00
Psammotermes rajastlianiclls 50.00
 Table 1: Termites injurious to agricultural and plantation crops and fruit and
otller trees in Rajasthan.
Termite species Plant damaged Reference
L Microcerotermes telluigna- Wheat crops, Parihar, 1978
thus Holmgren Calotropis pro cera
2. Odonlolermes obesus Cotton, jowar, barley Kushwaha, 1960
(Ram bur) groundnut, Khejri Bhatnagar, 1962
(Prosopis cineraria) R.C. Sharma, 1964
Gulmohar (Delonix ragia) Parihar, 1978
3. Microtermes obesi Holmagren What, bajra, barley, gram, Narayan & Ratan
sugarcane, chillies. Lal, 1952
Guar crop. Kushwaha. 1961
4. Micro/ermes mycophagus Parkinsonia aCllleala Parihar, 1977,78
(Desneux) castor crop
5. Micro/ermes laxmi Pro!.opis juliflora Roonwal, 1979
6. Microcerotermes baluchis- Ouar Parihar, J 978
taniclls
7. Amifermes belli Bursera dupee/alia Parihar, 1978
8. Odontotermes gurdaspllrensis Eucalyptus camaldulensis Parihar, 1978
Azadirachla indica
9. O. lantiguloides Acado torti/is Parihar, 1978
10. O. brunneus Dalbergia slisoo Parihar, 1978
II. Odontotermes guptai Guar crop Parihar, 197F.
12. AllacanfTlOtermes macro- Cenchrlls ciliaris Parihar. ! 978
cephalus LasillYlis sindiells
13. Psammotermes rajasthanicus Tecomella undulata Parihar, 1978
14. Bremotermes paradoxa lis Eragrostis paoeoides Parihar, 1978
DiclwntflUs annulatus

The parts of almost all trees are
attacked by termites. The attack usually
occurred under earthen run ways which
Were plastered on the bark under whose
workers and soldiers travelled to and fro
from the ground connection to trunk and
sometimes also to branches. The work-
ers eat the bark surface, but the damage
so ~alled is negligible. Exceptionally
ho~ever, the damage become serious
when they exend their operation to
sapwood and sometimes to heartwood.
In old trees, colony originate at the bore
of trunks, later penetrate into trunk.
Th is is followed by an extensive hollo-
wing out of the heartwood.
Control
1. With a brush liberally paint the
trunk upto a height of about 15
em with emulsion of 0.1-0.2 %
aldrin or BHC in Kerosine oil.
The treatment should be given
after scrapping off the earthen

207
 runways made by termites on Seed dressing: Wheat seeds @ one
tree trunks. quintal will be sprayed with the help of
2. After making a shallow pit, 5-10 hand sprayer wtth 400 ml of 30 Ee and
gm of aldrin or BHC is applied should be dried' on surface for 8 hours
around the base of trunk in before sowing can protect crop very
ground. It can protect the trees effectively.
effectively. Soil treatment: Aldrin 5% dust 0
3. Spraying of the emtdsion concent-
1.25 kg a.ijh applied in furrows at the
rations of 0.03% of aldrin @ one
time of sowing.
litre per tree in a shallow channel
in ground around each tree can Treatmenl of standing crops: In
standing crop, aldrin 30 EC @ 1.25 kg
control effectively the termites.
a. i.jha can be applied with running
2. Termites affecting to agricultural
irrigating water.
crops and their control
The most common termites attack- Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides)
ing cereals in India are Mlcrotermes obesi, This crop is attacked by termites
ad ntotermes obesus. They account for (Microtermes obesi) throughout the north-
almost 8 I per cent of the total losses ern India. The roots and later on the
(Roonwal, 1979). stem are attacked, resulting ill' wilting and
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) ultimate drying of the plants.
The most important species of
Chillies (Capsicum annum)
termites damaging wheat crop are
Odontotermes obeslls, Mierotermes obesi In Rajasthan, Chillies in various
M ieroeerOlermes tenuignathus, Nasutiter- stages of growth is attacked by termites.
mes sp, and Trinervitermes bi/ormis, T. A loss of 10-45 percent has been recorded
rubMis in India. at Mathania (Jodhpur). The culprit
Wheat is damaged in both seedling species are adonlotermes obesus and
and growing stages. Termites eat the Microtermes obesi.
roots, resulting in yellowing of leaves Control: Aldrin 30% EC @ 5 litrejha
and, finally, death of the plant in cases with irrigating water can protect the
of seveJe infestation. Fletcher (1912) standing crop very effectively.
estimated the . annual loss to .grain crops
Maize (Zea mays)
as a whole, including wheat, at Rs. 280
million, while Husian (1935) put the ioss Considerable losses to maize plants
at 6-25 per cent. In Western Rajasthan is caused by OdonTotermes obesus, and
Sharma (1967) put the loss at 0-15 per Microtermes obesi. The plants are
cent, while Parihar (1978) account· the attacked at ground level or underground
loss 0-7.15% (roots) throughout the growing season
Control of wheat termite: The from germination onwards.
following methods may be used to. Control: Effective protection has been
prot~ct the ,wheat crop. obtained by dusting field with aldrin

208
 1 kg. a- i.jha in the top 15 em layer Patel 1962): Odontotermes obesus, Micro-
of soil. fermes obesi, Trinervitermes hi/armis and
Iowar (Sorghum vulgare) T; ruhidus. These termites attack roots
It is attacked by termites (Microter- and also tunnel into the stem near ground
mes obesi) in the seedling stage. The . level, the plants wilt and die in case of
maximum damage being caused to plants severe attack.
which are under 15 em in height tBeeson, Cantrol : They can be checked by using
1940). carbaryi @ 20-30 kgjha or BHC 10%
Pulse crops dust @ 60-70 kg/ha.
Termites are known to attack pulse Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
crops in india. They are a major pest of The crop is attacked by Odontoter-
red gram (Cajanus cajan) Bengal gram mes obesus and Trinervitermes -hi/ormis.
(Cicer arietinum) and cowpea (Vigna The plant, both at and below ground-
sinensis) by· Odontotermes parvidens and level, as well as the burried nut are
Microtermes mycop/zagus and M. obesi, attacked.
respectively. More than 15 per, cent loss-
Control : The pest can be controlled
of cowpea crop has been estimated.
effectively by using 6 per cent heptach-
Control: Termites (Microtermes mycopha- lor dust at 25 kg/ha.
gus) can be checked by seed dressing
REFERENCES
of aldrin EC at 125.0 gm actual per
Rusan, M.A. 1935. Pests of wheat in India
quintal seed in the infested field.
Proc., World's Grain Exhibit. Confer.
Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoioba) 1933, Ottawa, 2, pp. 562-564.
The termite species responsible for Karris, W. V. 1969. Termites as pests of
damage to guar are Microcerotermes crops and trees. 41 pp. Longon (Com-
baiuchistanicus, Odontotermes guptai and mon W. Inst. Ent.)
Microtermes obesi. They attack the crop
Kushwaha, K.S. 1972. 'Termite ·pests of
both at germination and fruiting stages.
fruit trees and grasses in India. pp.
The losses done by these species vary
58-61. In termite Problems in India.
between 12.3%-16.3%. Narayan, B.S. and Ratan Lal 1952 A
Castor (Ricinus communis) short review of r<!corded informations
It is attacked by Microtermes on the control of termites damaging
tnycophagus both at seedling and growth crops in India. Indian. J. Ent. 14:
stages of the plants. Termites nibble the 21-30.
tap root. The bark of the roots, in each Parihar, b.R. 1977. Notes on some termi-
case is found to be quite intact while the tes of Rajasthan desert. Geobios 4:
hard cores mostly tunnelled through. 173.
The larger galleries are occassionally filled - - - - 1978. Toxicity of some insecti-
with soil and excreted wood. cide~ to AcantllOlermes macrocephalus,
Cotton (Gossypium spp) Geohios 5: 92-93.
The following species are known to - - - - 1978. Field observations on
be the principal culprits (Butani, 1973, the nature and extent of damage by

209
 Indian desert termites and their cont-
rol. Ann. Arid Zone 17 (2): 192-199.
- - - - 1978. Termite problems in
desert plantations. Abstracts intern.
Sympos., Arid Zone Res. & Dev.
(Jodhpur p. 153).
- - - - , 1979. Seasonal incidence of
termite injury in the desert part of the
Rajasthan State. Geobios 6: 340-341.
- - - - , 1980a. Aspects of foraging eco-
logy of two subterranean termites in
desert grassland ecosystem of Rajas-
than Z. ang. Zool. (In press).
- - - - , 1980b. Termites problem in
desert plantations Ann. Arid Zone 19
(3): 329-334.
- - - - , 1980c. Some observations on
distribution and pest status of termites
attacking forestry plantation in the - - - - , and Verma, S.C. 1977. Re-
Rajasthan desert. Indian J. For. (in
Press.)
- - - - , 1981. Termites affecting Euca-
lyptus plantations and their control in Sankaran, T. 1962. Termites in relation
arid region of India Z. Ang. Ent. 29:
23-27.
Patel, R.M. 1962. Effect of BHC formu-
lation on the control of field termites
210
in Gujarat pp.219-221 In Termites ill
humid Tropics. Paris (UNESCO).
Roonwal, M.L. 1975. Field and other
observation on the harvester termites ,
Anacal1thotermes macrocephalus (Hod-
otermitidae) from the Indian desert.
Z. Angew. Ent. 78: 224-239.
- - - - , 1976. Field ecology and ecobi.
ogeography of Rajasthan Termites.
A study in desert environment. Zool.
Jb, (Syst.) 103: 455-504.
- - - - , 1979. Termite life and Termite
control in South Asia Jodhpur (Scienti-
fic Publishers), pp. 177
- - - - , and Bose G. 1962. Termite
fauna of Rajasthan, India Zoologica
40: I-58.
survey of the termite fauna of Rajas-
than, India and its Zoogeography. Rec.
Zool. Surv. India, Delhi 72: 425-480.
to plant protection. pp. 233-236. In
Termites in the humid tropics (Proc.
New Delhi Sympos. 1960) Paris.
(UNESCO)
 Role of birds in agro-forestry
B.D. Rana
M ucn. attention to increase the
production of foodgrains, limiting popula-
tion growth and minimising food losses
both in the sowing field and at maturity
stage before harvesting, is very urgently
needed for maintammg population
growth, food supply and other employ-
ment generating opportunities.
With the adoption of improved
farming techniques such as introduction
of high yielding varieties of cereals, oil
seeds and pulses have sho wn sig:nificant
promise in terms of self sufficiency in food
supply in our country. Likewise, Kaul
and Ganguli (1963), Muthana and
Shankarnarayan (1978) and Ghosh (1980)
described th~t silvi-pastoral practice
introduced in the past and being recently
adopted in India. Birds do considerable
damages right through sowing of cereal
grain to maturity of food crops, grasses
and forestry plantations. The agro-silvi-
pastoral system has now been adopted by
rural masses and therefore, its signific-
ance created interest among ornithologists
to study the problems posed by birds
with a view to establish an effective
technique for controlling them. Their
positive role in the Agro-forestry system
is an important aspect which should also
be studied and understand properly.
211
EXTENT OF DAMAGE
A. Agricultural crops
i) Cereal grains· House crows,
Corvus splendens and Ring doves, Strepto-
pe/ia decaocto dig out the freshly sown
seeds of maize (Zea-mays) crops. After
germination, house crows and babblers
of both the species, Turdoides caudatus
and T. stria/us start digging (20% of
seedlings) them out. The Corvus splendens
makes irregular hole with its beak on
one side of seedlings and expose the
grain for feeding, whereas, the babblers
make a comparatively smaller hole
around the seedlings. During earhead
formation, the grains are usually dama-
ged for Parakeets, P.littacula krameri,
Babblers, House crows and Common
mynas Acridotheres tristis. The parakeets
attack the cob from top downwards and
cut the husk into pieces to expose the
grains House crow removes the cob-
husk, whereas, the Babblers and mynas
damage the cobs. The extent of damage
caused by these birds is estimated to ,be
16 per cent. However, Ramzan and Toor
(1972) reported 20 per cent losses are
caused by parakeets. Beri et al. (1972)
observed that Psittacula krameri and
Passer domesticus were the two most
vigilant birds for mustard Brasska
campestris crops.
 The freshly sown Bajra grains are
usually taken out by Pigeons and Doves.
During earhead formation, 29 per cent
damages are caused by House sparrows,
Passer domestiells, White throated o1Unia,
Lonchura malabariea and Black-bellied
finch-lark, Eremopterix grisea (Chahal
et al., 1973). Rose-ringed parakeet,
Psittaeula kramer; either cut down or
pick up the whole earhcad in its beak
and thus causing severe damage to bajra
crop. The estimated loss of bajra due
to bird damage, mostly sparrows, Passer
domesticus, has been 8020 ± 21 kg/ha
for R.S.K and 144.03 ± 21.60 kgjha
for hybrid bajra (Jain and Prakash, 1974).
Thus total loss is about 8 to 10 per cent
to the bajra grains at maturity stage.
Among migratory birds, short toed lark
does damage to germinating bajra crop.
Verma and Rana (1977) reported
that white throated munia, Lonehura
malabarica posed a serious threat to the
cultivation of Panicllm miliaceum as a
promising minor millet crop grown in
western Rajasthan. Conus splendens
and Green beaeater, Merops orientalis
eat seedlings of wheat crop. During
ear-head formation at milky stage, House
sparrow, Passer damesticus, yellow thro-
ated ,sparrow, Ptronia xanthallis and
Psitacula krameri damage to wheat·
crops.
The common bird pests ofSorg/1lIm
vulgare are Corvus splendents, Columba
livia, Strepf()pelia decaoeta, Psittacllia
krameri, Passer domestieus and ·short-
toed larks, Rosy pastor, Sturn us roseus.
Lat~r two species are winter visitors.
ii) Pulses-Developing green pods of
moallg, Viglla radiatus and Soya bean are
212
damaged by Columba livia and PSiltaeula
krameri. Mehrotra and 'Bhatnagar (1979)
stated that cotyledons, leaves are cut,
thus do lot of damag,;s to pulse crops.
Among oil seed crops crows Usually
dig out the pods or groundnut (Arachis
hypogea) and feed upon their kernels.
During harvesting period, 10 per cent
damages is done by House crow, Parrot,
myna and babbler, Parrots are very
seriolls pests of sun flower, Brassica jUflcea
and mustard seeds. Ripe or unripe seeds
of Til, Sesamum indicum are destroyed
considerably by short toedlark.
iii) Orchards-Mango, Mangifera
indica fruits are usually damaged by
Parakeets. The birds cut the unripe
fruits from the branch and after eating
some pa rt discards the same (Chahal
et al., 1973).' Parakeets destroy both
unripe as well as ripe fruits, whereas,
Fed-vellted bul bul, Pycnonotus cafer,
koels, Eudynamys scalopaeea and the
black headed buntings, Emberiza melan-
ocephala eat ripe fruits of Date palm,
Phoenix sylveslris. The severe damage to
guava fruits by parakeets is done during
June to August and November to Janu-
ary periods. Pomegranate and ber,
Zizyp/zus mauritiana fruits are attacked
by parakeets and bulbuls and they eat
the polp of fruits. Bulbuls also cause
considerable damage to fruits of Grevia
asiatica plantation (Rana, 1976. Bulbuls
and Bank myna; Aeridatheres ginginianus
inflict considerable damage to viDe yards
(Chahal et af 1973).
Pycllonotus cafeI' eats pulp of
Zizyphus Illimmlilaria fruits (26.4 per cent)
and flowers of Calotropis procera, 10.7
per cent (Rana, 1973).

B. Vegetable gardens
Pea-fowl, Pavo cristatus, common
myna, Acridollzeres tristis damage to
tomato and' chillies fruits. Likewise,
bulbuls and sparrows cause considerable
harm to Pea, PiSlllll sa/ivunI, coriander,
meithi and palak.
C. Afforestation plantation
Besides agricultural crops, birds,
specially Parakeets cause damage to green
pods and buds of tr.ee species such as
Albizia lebbek, Pro50pis cineraria, Acacia
tortilis, Azadirachta indica and Delbergia
sissoo. The seeds of teak plantation
are damaged to great extent in Andhra
Pradesh (Krishnamurthy, 1973).
D. Grasses and fodder crops
Birds. specially doves, Streptopelia
decaocto, S. senegalensis and the common
rose finch. Cafpodacus erythrinus digout
the freshly sown seeds of CenLhrus
setigerlls, C. ciliaris, Lasiurus sindicus,
Panicum turgidum and Dichanthiul1l
anl/ulatum from the sowing bed of silvi-
pastoral system which are in practice to
get the good quality of forage for the
live stock. The grey partridge, Franco-
linus pondicerianlls. F. piClUS and the
grey quail, Co fur nix cott/rnix also feed on
seeds of grasses (Rana, 1973).
BIRD CONTROL STRATEGY
The control of birds does not imply
their eradication, but it includes every
effort for ecological management of
population which ultimately results in
minimising the losses of agricultural
produce. Three integrated techniques
may be suggested to control the bird
deprivation.
213
,
1. Preventive
2. Scaring
3. Chemical
1. Prelien!ive-These operations
prove more fruitful if followed properly
and enthusiastically.
aJ Nettil/g- This technique is being
utilized specially .to protect vine yards
from all sides with nylon nets made up
of 72 inch mesh or chicken wire screens.
The netting cost comes to about Rs. 3,
000 for nylon and Rs. 5, 000-6,000 for
chicken wire screen per ha (Chahal et al.,
1973 ).
b) Covering of fruits-Bird damage
to grapes, pomegranate and papaya can
be prevented by covering the individual
fruits with muslin or polythene bags.
2. Scaring-The most common
techniqe of bird control used in India is
scaring. Human scarers are either empl-
oyed or members of the farmer~ themsel-
ves to scare birds from their crop fields
at maturity period.
Shooting scaring may also be used.
Bird trapping is not so common in India,
whereas, it is being used ~uccessfully in
U.S.A. and other African countries. The
other scare measures are a) use of Pata-
khas (Aceytelcne exploder), b) Drumm-
ing. c) use of sling shots (Eopis), d)
Sona~ra phic and Broad cast calls, e)
Distress calls, f) Models of predatory
birds.
3. Chemical control-Bajra grains
treated with 0.3 per cent endrin (15 ml
endrlI1 20 EC) or 0.5 per cent carbofuran
are quite effective to control bird pests
of Agro-forestry. The poison bait should
 be placed in roosting sites of thetarget
bird spe<.:ies. [n U.S.A. Amino pyridine-4
(AVITROL R) is used as repellent for
controlling birds (Crabb, 1978 and Sch-
afer, 1978), Strychnine baiting is also
proved most effective to control most of
tha bi, d pests of cereals (Fitzwater and
Prakash. 1978) in India. Thallium sulph-
ate has been used as frightening agents
to reduce the population of birds (Fitz-
water and Pra kash, 1978).
PRECA UTiONS
I. The kids, pets and poultry birds
should be kept away from the poison
baits.
2. The dead birds should be
collected with utmost care and burried
deep in soil to avoid secondary poisoning.
3. The unconsumed bait should be
destroyed to avoid hazards non-target
fauna of environment,
4. The containers used for formul-
ation of poison bait should either be
destroyed or burried deep tn the soil.
5. The hands of operators should
be cleaned well with soap.
POSITiVE ROLE
Besides, destructive propensity, a
few species of birds do help in pollination
such as sun bird pollinates to Eucalyptus
camufdutensis plantation in forestry
ecosystem. House 'crows predate upon
Castor semilooper, Aehoeajanata (Sachan
and Rana, 1974). The chief insetivore
birds like Cuprimu/glls asiatieus, Upupa
epJps, Lanius exeubitor are predominantly
inhabiting this eco-system.
The black bellied finch lark, Eremop-'
1erix grisea survives chiefly upon white
ants, Microtermis obessii and Black ants,·
Fornuca indica. The house sparrow are
214
found 10 thrive upon termites, Odonta_
lermis obessus and Katra, Anisaeta moorei.
The black drongo, Dierurus adsimilis and
Indian rvbin, Saxieoloides fulieata play
useful role by predating upon white grubs,
Holotriehia eonsanquinea, spiders and
Katra catterpillers, A. moorei. The rufous
backed shrike, Lanius sehach feeds mainly
upon grasshoppers, Rieroglyphus higrore-
platlls and P!etocerus pictus. The grey
partridge also predates upon Odento
termis obessus. Thus these common bird
species are playing an important role ill
biological management of the harmful
insects to summer as well as winter crops
in Rajasthan.
IMPACT OF FOREST PLANTATION
ON BIRD POPULATIONS
Threshold level of the 'bird popu-
lation which in turns regulate the insect
population should be maintained by
providing them enough and appropriate
nesting and feeding sites by the way of
afforestation of suitable species of trees,
shrubs. etc.
REFERENCES
Ali, Salim and Futehally, Z. 1967.
Common birds. National Book Trust
India, New Delhi: 1-118.
Beri, Y.P., Raizada, M. and Bhatnagar,
R.K. 1972. Evolving resistant varieties
to bird damage. Entomologists NelVs-
letter 11(7) : 47.
Chahal, B.S., Simwat, G.S. and Brar, H.S.
1973. Bird pests of crops and their
control. PAU, Ludhiana, X(3) : 18-20.
Crabb, A.C. 1978. Bird damage Research
at the University of California, Davis.
Proc. 8th Vert. Pest. Conf Sacramonto,
California: 36-39.
Ghosh, R.C. 1980. Si!vi-pastoral systems.
The concepts old and new. Proc.
FA.O / DANIDA Training Course on
Sand Dune . Stabilization, Shelterbelt
and Afforestation in !he Dry Zones.
CAZRI, Jo.dhpur : 232-252.
Fitzwater, W.D. and Prakash, I. 1978.
Handbook of Vertebrate Pest Control.
ICAR, New Delhi (2nd Edn.) : 1-95.
Jain, M. B. and Prakash, I. 1974. Bird
damage in relatio.n to varietal diffe-
rence in Bajra cro.P. Ann. Arid Zone
13(2) : 139-144.
Kaul, R.N. and Ganguli, B.M. 1963.
Fo.dder Po.tential o.f Zizyphus to. the
shrub grazing lands o.f arid zo.nes.
Indian Forester. 89 : 623-630.
Krishnamurthy. A.V.R.G. 1973 Inter-
national seed symposium on seed
problems of developing countries, o.rga-
nised by I.U.F.R.O. at Berg~n.
Mehro.tra, K.N. and Bhatnagar, R. K.
1979. Status of economic ornithology
in India. leAR, New Delhi: 1-79.
215
Ramzan, M. a'nd TOOT, H.S. 1972. Studies
o.n damage to crops due to. RDseringed
Parakeet, Psittacula krameri at
Ludhiana (Punjab). Punjab Hort. J. 12
(2-3) : 145-146.
Rana, B.D. 1973. Fo.o.d and feeding habits
o.f the co.mmo.n Indian desert birds.
Indian Forester 99(11) : 669-673.
- - - - 1977. Dro.ught fDo.d o.f Pycno-
notus cafer and Psittacula krameri in
the Rajasthan desert. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 16(10) : 5-6.
Sachan, J.N. and Rana, B.D. 1974. House
crDW as predator o.f castor semilo.oper.
Entomologists Newsletter 4(5) : 32-33.
Schafer, E.W. 1978. Recent developmDnt
in bird damage control chemicals.
Proc. 8th Vert. Pest Conf. Sacramento,
Califo.rnia : 32-35.
Verma, S.K. and Rana, B.D. 1977. Obser-
vations on Lonchura malabarica. a
serious pest of Panicum miliaceum in
Rajasthan. Newsletter for Birdwatchers
27(8) : 9-10.
 Soil and water conservation in agricultural land
M.L. Kbybri

The two important resources for, cultivation practices.

crop production are soil and water. Due
to unscientific utilisation of land, consi-
derable amount of soil is lost by erosion.
It is estimated that 5000 to 6000 m.
tonnes of soil are displaced 'annually in
India due to erosion processes and with
this 2.5 m tonnes of nitrogen, 3.3 m
{onnes of phosphate and 2.6 m tonnes
of potash are lost annually. This results
in loss of fertility of soil at one place and
problems of sedimentation' and floods at
other. Out of 328 m ha of geographical
area in our country, about 150 m ha are
subject to serious problems of wind and
water erosin. The break up of different
types of erosion is given in Table 1.
The above Table shows broadly the
magnitude of the erosion problems in
India. These problems are faced, be-
sides in agricultural lands, in other land
uses also. In cultivated areas the prob.
lems have been aggravated by improper
Table 1. Extent bf erosion. problems in India
Depending upon the degree of ero.
sion hazards, agricultural lands are
treated with suitable soil conservation
measures to preserve the fertile top soil
and to maintain optimum yield produc-
tion.
Some of the important agronomical
practices needed for controlling erosion
are discussed below.
AGRONOMIC MEASURES OF ERO-
STON CONTROL IN CULTIVATED
FIELD
Contour farming
The up and down method of culti-
vation in many parts of the country is
one of the causes of man-made erosion.
On steep slopes, this practice enables
rain water to gain velocity, facilitating
runoff water to erode soil and cause, by
stages sheet, rill and gully erosions.
Thus, the upper layer of the fertile soil is
washed away and considerable quantity of

. Description Area (million ha)

Total geographical area 328
Total area subject to serious water and wind erosion 150
Area at critical stage of deterioration due to erosion 69
Area subject to wind erosion 32
Area affected by gullies and ravines 4
Area affected by shifting cultivation 3
(National Commission on Agriculture 1976)

216
 usable water is lost to the soil, resulting in
reduced yjelds. Contouring refers to the
tillage practices .of applying all treatments
along can tours in agriculture, pasture or
range lands. In regions of low rainfall
contour farming helps cpnservation of
rainfall and in humid areas this reduces
soil loss. The furrows between the ridges
developed by contour tillage operations
catch and hold the water or part .of it.
making it available to the soil and thus
helping a unifom distribution of moisture.
Since contour furrows store rain water at
or near the point where it falls, they have
a definite value in controlling floods in
small watersheds.
Mulching
Mulching refers to the use of crop
residues, manures, leaves and other litter
as well as any convenient manufactured
material like polythene as mulches with
or without shallow tillage for the purpose
of increasing soil productivity. This prac-
tice is not only useful for reducing soil
and water loss but is also useful for main-
taining high soil moisture in the field and
checking weed growth. Thus, mulching
can be used in high rainfall period/region
for reducing soil and water loss and in
low rainfall period/region for increasing
soil moisture. Organic mulches are also
useful in regulating soil temperature. Stu-
dies conducted at various places have
demonstrated that mulching increases
soil moisture and yield of c~ops.
In areas where wind erosion is a
serious problem, stubble mulch farming
is conside~ed as an effective tillage prac-
tice for reducing erosion in cultivated
lands. SUbsurface tillage is used in such
areas, which is accomplished with the
217
help of sweep cultivator or blade haIrow.
This type of tillage helps in keeping the
mulch on the surface.
Vertical mulching has been found
to be useful in conserving water and in-
creasing crop yield in Bellary. Sorghum
stubbles, packed in trenches of 30 em x
15 em protruding 10 cm above ground
at 4m interval across the slope, conserved
more moisture and gave ·extra grain and
straw yield of sorghum to the extent of
400 to 1069 kg/ha in drought years and
161 to 709 kg/ha in wet years (CS&WC-
R&TI Research Station, Bellary, Broch-
ure 1980).
Use of cover crops
Erosion from cultivated fields can
be reduced if the land has enough crop
canopy during the peak rainy season.
Good ground cover canopy gives protec-
tion to the land like an umbrella. Studies
conducted on canopy produced by crops
arad splash erosion have shown that
there is significant correlation between
these two parameters-higher the canopy,
lesser the splash Thus, with good ground
cover, erosion is minimised. It is gener-
ally believed that legumes provide better
cover and better protection to land against
erosion as compared to open-tilled crops.
This has also been observed in the studies
at various places. Among the legumes
cowpea has been found to produce maxi-
mum canopy, followed by moong. urad
and Dhaincha at Dehra Dun. Maximum
root development was observed with
Dhaincha.
Sowing of crops needs to be done
as early as possible during Kllarif season.
Little delay in sowing has adverse effect
on crop growth and canopy development
 which _is refiected in splash erosion. For
example, in Dehra Dun, maize sown at
different dates, namely, June 25, July 01
and July 07, produced 48%, 20% and 15
% canopy, respectively, by 30th July. By
this period respective splash produced,
was 14.5 gm, 18.4 gm and 20.5 gm.
Strip cropping and mixed cropping
As discussed earlier, crops behave
differently in their capacities to produce
vegetative cover and root development
and consequently affect splash erosion,
runoff and soil loss, Legumes, in general,
as they produce good cover, resist erosion,
whereas open-tilled crops like maize,
bajra, cotton permit erosion. Nevertheless
farmers do grow and rightly so, cash
crops and other open-tilled crops. In
order to produce minimum erosion from
the field, farmers need to be given systems
of cropping which can satisfy his food
requirements and at the same time result
mll11mUm erosion. Strip cropping and
mixed cropping are the systems which
n{eet such requirements.
Strip cropping is a system under
which ordinary farm crops are planted
in relatively narrow strips, across the
slope of the land, and so arranged that
the strips of erosion-permitting crops
are always ,separated by strips of close
growing or erosion-resisting crops. There
are four type of strips croppings :
(i) contour strip cropping; (ii)
field strips cropping; (iii) buffer strip
cropping, and (iv) wind strip cropping.
In contour strip cropping, the strips are
laid along the contour, at right angles to
the natur~l direction of slope. Where land
is' undulating with no definite defined
218
slopes, it becomes difficult to lay ti
. e
stnps exactly on contour. In such ca
" ses
the strIps are laId across the general
slopes but not necessarily along the exact
contour. This is referred to as field stri
cropping. In buffer strip cropping, stTjp~
of permanent sod crops are used and are
located on steep, badly eroded areas that
do not fit into a regular rotation. Wind
strip cropping is adopted for control of
wind erosion. Here the strips are laid at
right angle to the direction of the prevai-
ling winds.
Strip cropping is simple, cheap and
effective soil conservation practice and
can be adopted by farmers having large
holdings. Mixed cropping is a better
substitute for strip cropping for small
holdings.
Mixed cropping is a practice of
growing more than one crop in the field
simultaneously. In mixed cropping, there
is one main crop and one or two subsidiary
crops. Generally, legume is used as one
of the crops. This system of cropping is
very extensively adopted by the farmers in
India. Mixed cropping gives better cover
of land, good protection from beating
action of rain, protection from soil erosion
and assurance of one or more crops to
the farmers. The roots of the various crop
species in mixed cropping make use of soil
moisture and nutrients at different depthS
in the soil. In mixed cropping, different
crops can be more efficiently sown in alter-
nate lines, instead of mixing the seeds,
which is also referred to as intercropping.
Studies have shown that mixed
cropping/inter-cropping allows less runoff
and soil loss. as can be seen from table 2.
 Table 2. Runoff and soil loss under intercropping (Deochanda)

Runoff Soil loss

of rainfall%
Treatments
38.4
Maize alone
13.1
Maize and arhar
(Quoted by Rama Rao, 1974)
Crop geometry.
Row crops that are widely spaced,
are generally erosion-permitting. To
reduce the erosion the plants should
be spaced in such a way as to obstruct
the flow of water downhill by the crop
itself. For example, normal spacing
for maize recommended in Dehra Dun
is 60 cm between rows and 30 cm
between plants. This gives a plant popu-
lation of about 55,000 per hectare. It has
been seen that keeping the plant popula-
tion constant and increasing the row
spacing from 60 cm to 90 cm and decrea-
sing the piant spacing within the row from
30 cm to 20 cm, there is no effect on the
yield of crop. However, when the roWS
were laid across the slope, decrease in the
soil loss from 18 tonnes/ha to 12 tonnes/
ha and runoff from 34% of rainfall to
29% of rainfall, was obtained by giving
plant spacing of 90 em between rows and
20 em between plants.
These findings show that agronomi-
cal practices, when applied in a proper
way, go a long way in reducing soil and
water loss from the cuitivated fields. Suit-
able practices are to be adopted in the
field as per needs of the crops and.prob-
lems of erosion faced in a given location.
There are, however, certain situa-
tions such as steep slopes, where the
agronomic practices are to be supplemen-
ted by mechanical measures for effective
(tonnes/ha)
17.5
5.3
control of erosion. Mechanical measures
required in such situation are discussed
briefly.
MECHANICAL MEASURES OF ERO-
SION CONTROL IN CULTIVATED
FIELDS
Contour bunding
It is an important soil and water
conservation measure in areas receiving
rainfall less than 800 mm and with absor-
bent type of soils. It is commonly adopted
on agricultural land upto the slope
of about 6%. In such areas, contour
bunding helps rainfall to infiltrate into
the soil and check run off. Thus, the
moisture regime of the soil profile is
increased, with consequent increase in
crop yields.
As regards spacing between the
bunds, it should not exceed 1.5 m vertical
drop or 67 m horizontal spacing which-
ever is less. The following standard (table
3), which is used in Maharashtra, can be
used as a fair guide.
Table 3. Vertical interval for lands of
varying slopes
Slope (%) Vertical interval ~m)
0-1 1.05
1.20
1-1.5.
1.35
I 5-2
1.50
2-3

219
 Graded bunding 0.5% channel grade were found suitable
Graded bunding is adopted in areas for clay loam soils.
having annual rainfall of 800 mm or more. Graded bunding requires a safe
Observations and experiments at Sholapur, water disposal system. A grassed water-
Bellary and Kota have shown that even way, parabolic in shape, is provided at
in semi-arid climate, having rainfall less the end of graded bund to dispose of
than 800 mm, contour bunding in deep excess runoff safely into the drainage
black soils is not suitable. The low rates system. This excess runoff can also be
of permeability in these soils cause pro- collected in a pond for reuse.
longed impounding of water in the fields, Conservation ditches
whkh damage the crops. In such cases Management of watershed with the
also graded bunding is recommended. help of conservation ditches has been
Graded bunds may be narrow-based or found to be quite advantageous at Bell-
broad-based. Broad base graded bund ary. These have advantages over graded
consists of a wide low embankment, bund in that ditches store excess runoff
constructed on the lower edge of the water and can be used for supplemental
channel, from which the soil is excavated. irrigation which cannot be stored in
The channel is excavated at suitable graded bunds. The ditches, 30 m long
interval on a falling contour with suitable with cross sectional area of 1.583 m 2
longitudinal grade. Experience at Dehra (base width 0.61 m; side slope upstream
Dun has shown that graded bunds with 5:1, downstream 1.5:1 and depth 0.61 m),
V.1. of 0.3 (Sj2+3) can be safely adopted. were designed for storing 20% of a 10
Moreover broad base and narrow base year 24 hour rainfall. Side slopes of the
cross sections function well, without any ditches were planted with Dichanthium
maintenance, by adopting contour culti- annu/atum grass for protection against
vation. For the maintenance of broad- securing and caving in of the ditches. The
based bunds, adoption of contour culti- grass so planted gave 5 & 15 tonnesjha of
vation is a must and this can be accom- green grass in 1977 and 1978 respectively.
plished when improved implements of The ditch stored 87% of runoff water in
plo'Jghing, such as mould board plough 1978. The water so stored was utilised
or disc pJough, are used. for supplemental irrigation with simple
Studies pn broad-baseq channel Jjlothi hant} pump (Patnaik et al., 1978).
terraces, constructed on black soils (land Bench terracing
slo'pe 1%) in semi-arid climate at Bellary,
On steeply sloping undulating land,
showed that V.l. of 0.6 m was better
intensive farming can be practised only
than that of 0.75 m; that channel terraces
with bench terracing. Initial cost of
with variable grade recorded less runoff
bench terracing is more than bunding.
and soil loss than the channel terraces'
However, bench terracing helps in better
with uniform grade.
retention of soil moisture, manure and
At Kota, graded bunds with 0.7 to fertilizer and facilitates the application
1.0 sq. m. cross-section and with 0.1 to of irrigation, if available. In rain fed

220
 areas terracing is usually practised on
slopes ran~ing from 6% to 33%. It may
be used on gentle slopes as well, if
irrigation is to he applied to crops.
In Puertorican type of terraces,
bunds are formed gradually by inducing
erosion on the sloping field and arresting
the soil by creating vegetative barrier on
contour on the lower side of the field.
In this case, cost of construction of ben-
ches is reduced and the decrease in yidd
in early period of terracing observed in
regular bench terracing is minimised.
Khadins
Khadins are extensively used in
Rajasthan's arid and semi-arid regions.
These are constructed on low lying lands
where crops are raised by conserving
rain water from the rocky catchments.
Cultivation in khadins is done by retain-
ing runoff water over low-lying areas
through construction of bunds across the
slope on the lower boundary line of
Khadin land. Cross-section of the bund
depends upon the soil type, area of
Khadins and discharge from catchments.
It generally varies from 2 sq m. to 24
sq. m. Crops are grown in kharifand
rabi,depending upon the rainfall and
runoff received in the Khadins.
RUNOFF WATER HARVESTING,
STORAGE AND RECYCLING
It is estimated that annually On an
average 400 m ha m of precipitation is
received in India. The present utilisation
through water resource development
is 38 m ha m and another 110 m ha m is
22l
directly utilised through transplfajion.
This shows that 262 m ha m of water is
still not utilised. Most of this water goes
as runoff into the ocean through the
river systems. Thus there is great poten-
tial of harvesting this water for agricul-
tural production. Harvesting of runoff
water and storing in small ponds located
at suitable sites has been found quite
feasible. It serves two purposes. On the
one hand it helps in reducing peak floods
and on the other the water stored is
utilised for supplemental IrrIgation
during lean periods. It has been amply
demonstrated that even with one or two
supplemental irrigation there is consider-
able increase in the yield. In some
cases crop yields have more than doubled
with the use of this supplemental water.
REFERENCES
Anonymous 1980. Brochure of cs &
WCR & TI Research Centre, Bellary.
National Commission on Agriculture
1976. Report of the Natiollal Comm-
ission on Agriculture, Min. of Agricul-
ture and Irrigation, Govt. of India,
Part V.
Patnaik, U. S., Padmanabhan, M. V.,
Chittaranjan, S., Ramnath, B.,
Hanumanthappa, B., and Subbayyan,
R. 1978. Conservation ditching for
soil and water conservation in deep
black soils . . Annual, Report, CS &
WCR & IT. Dehra Dun.
Rama Rao, M.S.V. 1974. Soil Conserv-
ation in India. Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
 Conservation farrning in arid areas
K.C. Singh
The problems of farming in arid
lands need to be examined towards
conservation of soil and water resources,
which constitute major constrains for any
gainful utilization of arid areas. The
primary need, therefore, is the develop-
ment of techniques which combine the
dual role of conservation of soil and
water resources and optimised/stabilised
production.
SOIL CONSERV A nON-CONTROL
OF WIND EROSION
S.:>il erosion by wind is one of the
foremost problems of Indian arid zone.
The following practices have been deve-
loped and found useful for the reduction
of wind erosion hazard.
I. Vegetative cover-grassland develop-
ment
2. Wind strip cropping
3. Stubble mulching
4. Afforestation-shelterbelts and wind
breaks
5. Tillage-
(a) Minimum tillage
(b) Emergency tillage
(c) Set-row ~ultivation
Vegetation like grasses help in stabi-
lizing the soil in the long run due to the
binding action of their root net-work.
Application of F Y.M., pond sediments
and various soil conditioners also help in
222
reducing wind erosion hazard in the long
run.
1. Vegetative cover
The establishment of proper and
permanent vegetative cover, particularly
on marginal and sub-marginal lands, is
undoubtedly most effective for efficient
wind erosion control. The land not suit-
able for crop production may be used for
tree plantation and grassland develop-
ment.
2. Wind strip cropping
Wind strip cropping is a method of
farming where perennial grass or other
plants are established in the field at right
angle to the prevailing wind direction
and crops are grown in between these
strips.
Plants suitable for wind strip cropping.
Under this sys·em, plants should be
able to establish under low soil moisture
and fertility regimes which are often
associated with dry regions. Grasses like
Lasiurus sindicus and Cenchrus ciliaris
serv~ as useful materials for planting
perennial grass strips. However, Saccha-
rum benghalensis (Munj), Panicum antido.
tale (Graman a) and Panicum turgidum
( Murat), if grown, can also serve the
purpose effectively. The perennial grass
strips should be planted in rows, at right
angle to the direction of prevailing wind.
 Zizyp!zus nummularia may also be planted higher (O.S to 1.5 per cent) than, in the
in strips for controlling wind erosion unprotected land (Misra, 1964).
where conditions are favourable for its
3. Stubble mulching
establishment. Z. nlimmlilaria, locally
known as Pula, is one of the most signifi- Stubble mulch farming is practised
cant flora of the arid eco-system. Once in dryland condition where soil blowing
established it remains alive for an indefi- is a serious problem. Tn a study on stub-
nitely long period, unless cut dead in the ble mulching with crop residue of bajra,
soil or uprooted. In so far as the forage carried out at CAZRl, Jodhpur, the effect
value is concerned this has an advantage of crop stubble of different sizes (15,30,45
over gras~es which need to be re-establi- cm) and whole stubble was monitored.
shed after every 8-10 years. Regeneration The minimum soil loss due to wind ero-
of Pala is less affected under grazing sion in case of whole stubble was 761.1
stress as compared to grasses. Pala is a kg/ha, followed by 45 cm stubble (949.9
deep feeder and takes its quota of kg/ha). The soil loss of 116.5 and 149l.3
moisture and nutrients essentially from kg/ha was in 30 and 15 cm stubble plots
the 'l1lurrum' layer. The competition respectively. Maximum amount of soil
with growing plants is, hence, bare mini- (2087.8 kg/ha) was blown from control
mum. Unlike grasses which the farmers plot. The crop residue of 45 cm proved
at times are non-willing to adopt due to effective in preventing soil loss and in
various reasons, it is expected that a increasing grain yields by 5.7 per cent
programme in which Pala.is one of the (Mi~ra, 1Y64).
components would be readily acceptable
4. AJforestation-Shelterbelts and wind
to them. Pala 1las been disappearing
breaks
from farmer"fields due to use of imple-
ments like disc plough. Tlierefore, to The terms shelterbelts and wind
conserve Pala in farmers field strip breaks are ofren used interchangeably but
cropping system with Pala and important a distinction can be made. A shelter belt
crops of the region may be useful. is a long belt of shrubs and trees for
protecting fields whereas wind break is a
In a study on wind strip cropping
protective planting around farm. orchard
carried out at the CAZRI, Jodhpur, the
or a building. The action of these planta-
average yields of Vigna r'ldwta (Mung)and
tions is to create a mechanical obstacle to
Vigna aconitifolia (Moth) were 272 and
the free sweep of wind and to reduce its
257 kg/ha respectively, obtained under
velocity, which ultimately helps in contro-
unprotected plots. The yields increased
lling erosion.
to 484 and 372 kg/ha respectively, when
the cropped strips were protected by The practice of growing scattered
perennial protective strips of Lasiurus trees on cultivated land is quite common
sindicus and Ricinus communis, established in desert areas. Tree species like Prosopis
at right angles to the general direction of cineraria (Khejri) and other light crowned
the prevailing wind. Soil moisture in the trees do not compete with the agricultural
protected cropped land was found to be crops.

223
 5. Tillage
Tillage has to be minimum in desert
soil-climatic conditions. Howe~er, proper
root bed is a requirement and hence
tillage can not be given up completely.
Sct-row cultivation is one of the alterna-
tives. Under this system, crops are planted
in pairs in the set-rows (30-40 cm) alter-
nated by inter-pair spaces (60-70 cm).
Tillage is performed year after year in
the set rows only and inter-pair spaces
are left permanently untilled. The tillage
component is thus reduced by 60-70%
(Singh, 1980).
DRY FARMING
Dry farming is an important con-
servation farming in arid areas to stabilise
crop production and in reducing the
pressure of cultivation on marginal and
sub-marginal lands which are not suita-
ble for arable farming. Crop production
in al id areas can be adopted with consi-
derable success provided adequate steps
are taken to hold water where it falls, to
hold- it in the soil and to use it as soon
as possible through suitable techniques.
Some of the pertinent measures and
practices developed at CAZRJ, Jodhpur
are discussed below.
1. Efficient crops and varieties ill utilizing
rainfall and stored moisture.
The crops like moth and guar, being
hardy, are cultivated in desert areas.
Varieties of dryland crops that are most
efficient with regard to utilization _ of
rainfall and stored soil moisture have.
been identified as the S-8 of mung,
Aruna of C~stor, TJ8 of moth, 2470 (12)
of gllar and T 13 of til. Besides giving
higher productivity per unit area, these
224
are efficient utilizers o(rainfall and stored
moisture.
2. Planting system
Pair<::d row system of planting pearl
millet proved to be more efficient for the
utilization of moisture from deeper layers
of the soil profile than the conventional
system. This system of planting also
produced 9.1 % more pearl millet over
uniform row planting (Singh et al~ 1978).
3. Use of surface mulches
Studies on the efficiency of different
surface mulches, viz., dust, wheat straw
(6 tons/ha), bajra husk (4 tODs/ha) and
polyethylene, carried out for two years
(1972, 73), indicated that application of
bajra husk or polyethylene mulch after
the saturation of the soil profile resulted
in significantly higher grain yield of bajra
(25%) than no-mulch treatment in low
rainfall year (1972). Surface mulch also
reduced the surface temperature (after-
noon) of soil by 3° to 4°C. Crop grown
in the mUlched plots exhibited higher
I
MUE over the unmulched plots. Bajra
husk in general, was found to be the
cheapest (Daulay et al., 1979). A pplica-
tion of mulches did not confer any
advantage in good rainfall years.
4. Wate~ harvesting
Inter row water-harvesting system,
proved to be mos~ promising for dryland
crops. The technique is simple and can
be implemented mechanically with the
help of a ridger seeder. Ridger seeder
developed at H.A.U., Hissar is tractor
driven and has three bottoms. It forms
ridges and furrows and sowing of crops
in one operation. Studies on runoff
collection from a bare catchment revealed
the possibilities of collection of run-off
water in farm pOhd and its recycling in
the event of drought as life saving irriga-
tion to Kharif crops or as presowing
irrigation to take crops like raya in rabi.
Plantation of suitable tree species on the
bare catchment is useful.
5. Bentonite as subsurface mois/ure
barrier
Bentonite clay is a natural resource
of western Rajasthan. As subsurface
moisture barrier it has been found to
reduce deep percolation of moisture from
root zone.
Incorporation of Bentonite clay as
subsurface moisture barrier at 75 cm
depth in pits or trenches, combined with
run-off concentration, resulted in 60 to
100% higher yield of linda over conven-
tional planting under dryland conditions.
It also reduced the deep percolation of
moisture by 40 to 60% (Singh et 01, 1975,
1979). The highest yield of linda was
obtained from the treatment having
bentonite barrier along with the husk of
pearl millet as subsurface mulch and run-
off concentration (Table 1). All the
treatments gave much higher yields under
run-off concentration than under flat
Table 1. Yield of round gourd (gjlza) as influenced by different treatments
Treatment With micro catchment
Barrier 43.1
Barrier with mulch 45.1
Mulch only 22.1
Control 18.2
Mean 32.1
planting in a year of drought (1974).
This technique has also proved useful
for the initial establishment of tree plant-
ation.
~25
6. Use 0/ organic manures
In a continuous bajra-bajra sequ-
ence trial at CAZRI, Jodhpur, applica-
tion of 40 t F.Y.M. once in two years
resulted in consistently higher grain yield
and MUE than with control and inorg-
anic nitrogen. Application of F.Y.M
also increased the soil organic carbon and
availability of soil phosphorus consider-
ably (Singh et 01., 1981).
7. Weed control
Conservation of moisture in the
standing crop is very important. This
can bes.t be done by keeping the. field
well inter-cultivated and weed-free as far
as possible. Crops of moth and guar, when
kept weed-free till maturity, produced
higher seed yield. The weed infestation
after 30 and 40 days of sowing, resulted
in significant reduction in yield.
In drought years, complete crop
failure can be avoided by irrigation from
harvested water, removal of susceptible
component and allowing the resistant
component in inter-cropping system,
removing lower leaves of the plants and
sowing of rabi crops like mustard (T 59)
on conserved moisture, if rains are very
late.
Flat Mean
19.7 31.4
23.8 .34.4
14.2 18.1
13.4 15.8
17.8
REFERENCES
Dauiay, H.S., Singh, H.P., Singh, R.P.
and Singh, K.C. 1979. Effect of
different mulches on yield and mois-
 ture use of pearl-millet. Ann. Arid
Zone 18 (1&2): 108-15.
Misra, D.K. 1964. Agronomic investiga-
tions in arid zone. Proc. Symp.
Problems of Indian Arid Zone. Jadhpur
(Nov. 23. Dec. 2 1964). Ministry of
Education, Govt. of India, New
Delhi, pp. 165-169.
Singh, HP., Singh, R.P. and Singh. K.C.
1979. Effect of bentonite sub-surface
moisture barrier and run-off concent-
ration on soil moisture storage and
yields of round gourd grown in sandy
soil. Ind. J. agric. Sci. 49 (11): 382-388.
Singh, H.P. 1980. Soil Management in
regions prone to wind erosion. Proc.
l.C.A.R. Summer Institute on Mana-
gement of Arid Zones of India, Vol.
VIII. May 12-June 10, C.A.Z.R.I.,
Jodhpur.
226
Singh, R.P., Singh. H.P. and Singh, K.C.
1975. Use of bentonite clay as a soil
moisture barrier for vegetable produc_
tion on dry lands of Rajasthan. Ann.
Arid Zone, 14 (1): 63-66.
Singh, R.P., Singh, K.C. and Ramakri_
shna, Y.S. 1978. Effect of systems of
planting pearl millet on the yield,
total productivity, moisture use and
monetary returns. Ind. J. agric. Sci.
48 (3): 138-42.
Singh, R.P., Singh, H.P., Daulay, H.S.,
and Singh, K.C. 1981. Studies on
soil fertility management under con.
tinuous cropping of pearl millet.
Effect of periodical application of
nitrogen in organic and inorganic
form on the yield of rainfed pearl
millet. Ind. J. agric. Sci: (In press).
 Op:timu~ use of scarce ,water in arid agriculture
Y.V. Singh

Scarcity of water is the principal ally improves the forage yield and
constrai~'t 'ifmiting agricultural' produc- increases shil rilOisture'status as compared
!'''.I:,...
tion in the arid and semi-arid regions. to c~~trol or bundin'g 'or ftirrowlng.
t'

" ,
Li~ited rainfall, high eveporation co~b­ 2. Moisture conservatIon in sandy soils
ined with runoff and low r·'tention of by . sub-surface barrier and use of
mqisture in th'e s~fI . 6"ft~n cau'.se serious a';endments '
problem for. rainted cr~ps wliile limited
ground water' resource does not permit Placement of a barrier at a depth
large-scale irrigated agricuI'ture. Hence, in the isoil is 'a f'~tion~l' measure 'for'
the~e is need for utilizing' scarce w~ter . arresting the high perc6lati'on losses in
resources rdore; effici~ntJy thf~ugh tIle sand'y soil~. 'Experiments underlaken by f r
adoption of improved technologies'.. Gupta .and Aggarwal (1978) iridicatedi ,
! j'
that' impro"vements bf soil moistute'
TECHNOLOGIES FOR ST ABILIZ[NG
brought about by "tbe:' placement 'o'f'
CF.OP YIELDS , UNDER
. RA~:NFED'.
suitable barrier of asphalt (ca. 2 nlm thick
AGR~CYLTURE ' ..
at 60 cm depth) brings about' high'er
Various attempts have been made mineralization of nitrogen and an increase
in th.e Indian'
l '
arid zone,
•
as' else~'her'e,'to' in the uptake o'f nitrogen 'by oajra plant."
improve. plant , water use ind produc- Tl).~ Use of p~nd silt or exfoliated verm-'
tivity of ra'infed crops by the adoption iculite in sendy soil does also help in im- -
of different" 'technol'ogies. TIlt; followin'g proving the yield and water' use efficiency .
methods are worth ~e~tioning. ' , of bajra cr~p. ',' . . ,.
• . I '

I, Contour furrow and bundiryg;. 3. Use of sll~face mulc~Jes:

AJthough specific data on water use is
Conservation of soil moisture by
not available. studies undertaken in the
range lands of the CAZRI located at mulching has a direct relevance 'to th~
Jqj~almer (178.5: mm avg. rainfall), optimization of water use. The evapora-
BhopaJg~rh (3] 6:8 mm), Palsana (468.6 tion losses can be restricted' by the use
~m) and Jada,n (4]1.0 mm). indicated
of mulches. "
that contour' bunding of 75 em height' Experiments undertaken at the
a~d 80 c~ ~ertic~i spacing. combined' CAZRi indicated that bajra husk mulch, L

'Yith contour furov.:ing or' 10-15 cm depth wne3t straw and 'grass mulch help to
a,nd,lOq-i25
-
m~ verti.c~l spacing: gener- .
II" ! ! f, Ii. _
maintain a high moisture regime in the

227
,
 soil profile and contribute towards the
yield improvements of moong and bajra.
Gupta & Aggarwal (1978) also noted
that polythelene and bajra husk mulches
significantly improve the grain and straw
yield of bajra.
4. Micro catchment water harvesting
In this system, rainwater can be
catched in the cropped area from the
sealed catchment (with asphalt spray or
tank silt) area. Among the various ratios
of catchment to cultivated areas (viz. 0.5,
1.0 and 1.33), 0.5 ratio has appeared to
be more promising. It has been observed
from trials with various crops like bajra,
muong, guar, cowpea, til and sunflower
that such method improves the soil-water
condition, minimizes the risk of crop
failures in a drought year, generally incre-
ases and stabilizes the yield and improves
the water use efficiency.
5. Runoff collectiorl, storage and recy-
cling.
Runoff collection from a bare
catchment to a smaIl tank for providing
supplemental irrigation at critical stages
of crop growth is suitable for arid and
semi-arid areas, as discussed elsewhere in
this volume.
6. Wa(er harvesting from natural catch-
ment
In the sub-stations of the CAZRI
located in the desert areas (200 mm or
less rainfall) rainwater is being harvested
since early six tics from natural slopes
(3-6%) and collected in cement tanks, each
having a capacity of about 2 lakh Iitres
(Prajapati et al., 1973). Presently, this
water is being utilized for human and
lives~ock consumtpion in the absence of
228
other water sources in thes~ areas. There
is ample prospect of recycling this water
for cultivation.
7. Choice of crops
In the arid zone, crops with low
water requirement and high yield poten-
tial are most suitable. As noted earlier
crops and their varieties which are drought-
resistant are being identified and bajra,
moong, guar and castor are most suitable
in this region.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR OPTIMIZING
YIELD WITH LIMITED
IRRIGATION WATER
1. Optimization of nitrogen and seeding
rate with limited water supply
The application of irrigation water
in quantity lesser than the seasonal
evapotranspiration should be accomp-
anied by agronomic practices, particularly
nitrogen application and seeding rate
(Shmueli, 1973; Stewart, et al., 1975).
Studies on wheat (Singh, 1979)
revealed that an increase in yield was
followed by a steady decrease with
application of more than 150 kgjha of N
and 125 kgjha of seed. The maximum
ET was recorded where maximum water
was app1ied and minimum where less
water was applied. Attainment of higher
crop yields may not be possible unless
water use is combined optimally with
other factors of production (fertilizer N
and seed rate). By reducing 50% water
with a modest adjustment in fertilizer N
and seed rate, area under wheat can be
extended besides improving yield per
unit application of finite water supply.
2. Irrigatioll scheduling
Iri accordance with the 'critical
growth stage: concept, the three growth
periods of wheat crop could be rated, in
order of decreasing sensitivity, as boot-
ing/heading, flowering and grain develop-
ment-vegetative stage. It has been obser-
ved in the case of wheat that medium
irrigation (40 cm) reduced 52% of water
use but total yield was reduced by only
l3'7{, compared to yield from maximum
irrigation. Based on this, sensItive
stages of irrigation and growth have been
identified as booting/heading and active
tillering and flowering to grain develop-
ment for wheat in this region. Similarly
in Israel, booting/heading and tillering
stage was observed as most sensitive.
NEW IRRIGATION TECHNOLOGY
Recently different methods of supp·
lying water from· point sources have been
developed (sprinkler and drip). They
may give good results under specific
conditions like shallow soils, very steep
slopes, gravely soils and highly saline
water.
Table 1. Production for a given water quantity used over different areas. (After
Singh, 1976)
Crop Water used
(cm)
Wheat 84
Hyb. Bajra 25
Mustard 25
Sorghum 28
229
Extensive irrigation through sprink ?or
Adjusting irrigation to production
would in severa! cases lead to the possi-
bility of extension of the irrigated areas.
Although under such circumstances, crop
yield per unit area may decrease, but the
lotal produdion from a project area may
increase. The data (Table 1) provided by
Singh (1976) indicated that a marked
increase in total productivity of different
crops may be possible by using a given
amount of. water over a large area.
Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation maximizes produc-
tion per unit application of scarce water
and per unit use of better seeds and
fertilizers.
Singh, (1974) indicated (Table 2)
that the yield and efficiency of water use
of a number of crops like bottle-gourd,
ridge-grourd, round-grourd and water
melon could be increased to different
degrees by the adoption of trickle irriga-
tion method as compared to those
obtained under furrow and sprinkler
irrigations.
Area Production
(ha) (kg)
5500
3 9100
1 4200
4 10300
1100
. 1.5 2000
1 4400
2.5 6400
 Tab'Ie 2. Yiel~ and water use efficiency 'of vegetable crops under various methods of
irrigation (After Singh, 1974)
Crop Irrigation method, j
Water use Yield (tonnes) Yield of
(cm) ha) water use
(q/cm)
Furrow 84 38.01 4.5
Bottle-gourd Sprinkler 84 38.60 4.6
Trickle 74 55.79 7.5
Furrow 84, . 10.74 l.3
Ridge-gourd Sprinkler 84 9.96. . 1.2
,
Trickle 74 - 12.03. 1.6, ..
.-
Furrow 80 29.47 I 3.7,
Round-gourd " Sprinkler· daily 80 . 30.84, 3.8,
Sprinkler per
5~daY'cycle 80: 40.62 4.2
Trickle 80, 40.62. 5.1
Furrow" 80 ' 67.24 , 8.4
W~ter-mdon Sprinkler daily" V 80, .. 68.76 \ 8.t? ,
Sprinkler 'per
5.day cycle 80,' 74;64, ~ 9.3 .
Trickle 80,\.· 82.33, 10.3
Whler economY'imd use' of saline water' : trickle irriga,tion without, reducing crop
yields. The yield, of p~tato was reduced
In'arid 'region 'wh'ere water is scarce: drastically "after using water of 1O,000u
and bntckish, .the 'efficient use of water by' mhos conductivity. - Ample scope exists,
mea'n~' of drip has I become a neeessityl., for utilizing the' brackish' water mix"d '
Singli (1976) inditated (Table 3) that the with sweet water thr.ough drip irrigation"
poor 'qualityl wa'ter 'canl be used'through ' (Ta:ble 3) ..
Table 3. Yield of potatoes and tomatoes under drip and furrow ,irrigation with good,
and poor quality water. (After Singh, 1976). -
Irrigation method - m
Water use 3jha (Y ield metrle ~
Potatoes tons/ha)
,
Drip ETIOO' 3260 31
Drip ET75 2440 ' 24.
Drip ET50 . 1630,; 18 ..
DrIp ET100 (s) 3 thou. ',u mhos" -3260 ' 26
Drip ET100 (s) 10 thou. ,u'mhos 2860" 14 '
Furrow 3530 19 ;
Tomatoes
Drip ET 100 6860 59
Drip ETs 1 \,000 ,u mhos- 6860 44-

230
Planting geometry influences water use
and economics of'drip system
In comparision to conventional
system i.e. rectangular planting (60 x 25
cm), square or equilateral (25 x 25 cm),
i.e. one lateral in between two rows, plan-
ting bas proved beneficial through saving
of about 50% water 50% installation
cost and through considerable yield of
tomato, cauliflower, cabbage and turinp.
Thus, the agricultural production
under scarce watre supply can be increa-
sed many folds through the adoption
of technologies developed on rainfed and
irrigated agriculture.
REFERENCES
Gupta, J.P. and Aggarwal, R.K. 1978.
Effect of asphalt sub-surface moisture
barrj~r on water characteristics and
productivity of sand soil. Symp-. on
"Arid Zone Research and Development"
held at CAZRI. Jodhpur, Feb. 14-18.
- - - - , 1978. Effects of mulches and
moisture and thermal regimes of soil
and yield of pearimillet. Ann. Arid
Zone (In press).
231
Prajapati, 1\{C. Vangani, N.S. and Ahuja,
1.0. 1973. In the dry range lands of
Western Rajasthan 'Tanka' can be
answer, Indian Farming 22: 27-32.
ShmueIi, E. 1973. Efficient utilization of
water in irrigation. In B. Yaron et aT.
(Eds) Arid Zone Irrigation. Ecological
Studies 5: 241 Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Singh, S.D. 1978. Effect of planting con-
figuration on water use and economy
of rlrip irrigation system, Agron J.:
951-954.
----and P. Singh 1978. Value of drip
irrigation compared with conventional
irrigation for vegetables. Agron. J. 70.
945-947.
Singh, S. D., J. P. Gupta and Punjab
Singh 1978. Water economy and
saline water use by drip irrigation.
Agron. J. 70 : 948-951.
Stewart, J.I., Misra, R.D., Pruitt W.D.
and Haggan, R.M. 1975. Irrigating
corn and grain sorghum a deficient
water supply. ASAE Transactionc, 18:
270-280.
 Saline water use in agroforestry
B.L. Jain

Adverse climatic conditions, low by U.S.S.L. Staff (1954), Durand (1955).

and erratic rainfall, limited ground water Taking into_ consideration the soil char-
resources (sometimes highly saline in acteristies and plant tolerance to salinity
nature) are the major factors responsible the following water quality ratings (Table
for low vegetation cover in the arid areas, 1) have been proposed by Bhumbla and
thus resul ting in severe problem of wind Abrol (1972).
erosion and scarce availability of fuel Effect of irrigation water on soils
'and fodder. Under such circumstances High salinity of irrigation water
it is essential to use the saline ground results in accumulation of soluble salts
water for crop production as well as for in soils and adversely affects plant gro-
establishment of tree plantation and wth. High values of SAR and RSC in
shelter belts around irrigated farm irrigation water result in development of
boundaries and wells. alkali soil condition after leaching of
Some of the problems associated soluble salts. Higher values of exchange-
with the use of saline water for crop able sodium percentage in in soil results
production, tree plantation and use of in poor soil physical condition. Hi~h
suitable plant species for saline condi- boron concentration has toxic effect on
tions are discussed below. sensitive plants.
During natural process of irrigation
Quality of ground water
salts accumulate in soil profile and are
-Water quality for irrigation pur- leached down during rainy season. Thus,
poses can be judged on the following a cyclic change in salt build up and
criteria. removal takes place every year. Amount
1. Total soluble salts expressed as' of salt "accumulated in the profile depends
mmhos/micromhos. upon the quality of irrigation water,
2. Proportion of soluble sodium expre- number and depth of irrigation and
ssed as S.A.R. (Sodium adsorption amount of leaching provided. Leaching
ratio). or removal of soluble salts are predom-
inantlyaffected by the amount of rainfall
3. R,S.C. (Residual sodium carbonate)
and soil characteristics. Studies conduc-
4. Boron. ted by Dhir (1977) and Jain (1981) have
Water quality criteria and suitabi- shown cyclic changes in soil under saline
lity classe,s for crops have been proposed irrigation system.

232
 Table 1. Water quality ratings (Bhumbla and Abrol, 1972)

Upper permissible limit of E.C.

Nature of the soil in micromhDs of water for the
safe use for irrigation of crop
Semi-tolerant TDlerant
I. Deep black soils and alluvial sDils, having 1,500 2,000
a clay cDntent mare than 30 per cent.
Sails that are fairly ta moderately well
drained.
2. Heavy-textured sails, having a clay 2,000 4,000
content .of 20-30%. Soils that are well
drained internally and have a gaad sur-
face-drainage system.
3. Medium-textured sails, having clay cont- 6,000 6,000
ent .of 10-20%. Soils that are well drained
internally and have a good surface-drain-
age system.
4. Light textured sails, having a clay content 6,003 8,000
.of less than 10% sails that have excellent
internal and surface drainage.

NB-Far the above-proposed limits, satisfactory internal drainage and water-table

belDw 1.5 metres at the site, with the soluble sodium percentage of irrigation
water below 70 per cent, are assumed.

Management of saline water irrigation fraction as leaching, helps in main-

Studies conducted at the CAZRI
have shown that with .optimum use .of
saline water adoption of the fDllDwing
practices help in .obtaining higher yields
and sustained crop praductian.
1. Under saline condition restricted
water availability is O11e .of the majar
factors affecting crop grawth. Freq-
uent shallaw irrigatian helps in
avercaming the harmful effects .of
high salinity. Frequent irrigatian
also helps in maintaining low salinity
in root zone.
2. Irrigation, praviding 0.2 to 0.33
taining low salinity in raDt zone.
3. Furrow irrigatiDn helps in maintain-
ing law salinity in rDDt ZDne and helps
salts accumulate at the tap .of ridges.
Drip irrigatian also helps in main-
taining IDW salinity in raat zone.
4. Unlike good quality irrigation water,
saline water system respon~s to
imprDved management practices. Use
of .optimum level .of fertilizer imprDves
yield and lDwers the deleterious
effects .of high salinity.
5. Better system .of crapping during
kharif and use of amendment fDr

233
 temporary amelioration of surface
alkali condition during leaching phase
have been found to be effective in
improving soil condition and help in
increased crop production.
6. Selection of suitable crops and their
varieties will also be helpful. Certain
crop varieties are relatively more
tolerant to saline and alkali condi-
tions. Wheat (WL 711, HD 2009,
Kharchia 65, Kalyan sona, Sonalika),
Raya (KB 2, TM-T2, M-4), Sorghum
(CSH-l, CSH-6, SPV-96), Bajra (BI
104, Long panicle), Sugar beet, Sun-
flower and Cotton are relatively
tolerant crops can be successfully
adopted in saline soils.
Use of saline water for tree plantation
Although suitable techniques and
methods have been developed for produc_
tion of agricultural crops on saline-alkali
ne soils and also for use of saline water
for crop production, timited work has
been done on field-scale on the utilization
of salt affected soils and saline water U~e
for afforestation. Some studies conducted
by Forest Research Institute, Central
Soil Salinity Research Institute, and
Central Arid Zone Research Institute in
those direction have. however, made it
possible to plan afforestation in salt-
affected soils and saline-water irrigation.
Saline and alkali-tolerant forest species
Based on the studies conducted in
India, Israel, Kuwait. Australia, Sudan
and Sahara tree species can be grouped
into the following categories" depending
upto their tolerance of salinity (Table 2).

Table 2. Relative tolerance of salinity by different tree species.

Tolerant Moderate Sensitive

Eucalyptus camaldulensis Eucalyptus hybrid Azadirachta indica

Cas!larina toru/osa Pinus thumburgiana B'lIea monosperma
Cupersus semepervirons Ciama crops humilis Dalbergia sissoo
Tamarix articulata Raphio/ephis indica Pengania pinnata
Tamarix sp. Leucaena ieucocephala Terminalia arjuna
Prosopis julifiora Colophospermum l1lopane Albizzia lebbek
Capparis ap!Jy/la Lawsonia glausca
Atrip/ex' vesicaria Acacia aneura
Acacia nilotica Delonix rigia
A. repens Cassia siamea
Pinus halepensis
Leucop/zyUul1l frlltecans
Salix purpurea
Ai/anthlls altissimen
Acacia ebl/rnia
Acacia tortilis
Chenopodium species

234
 Tolerance of forest species to saline water
at germination
Eucalyptus camaldlliensis, Acacia
eburnica. Casuarj'1a torulosa, CUP('rtlS
semepervirons and Tamarix have been
found to perform better under saline
irrigation. Studies conducted at Central
Soil Salinity Research Institute, Kamal,
with nine different forest species have
shown that germination was adversely
affected with increasing E.C., S.A.R. and
R.S.C. of water. Increasing salinity
caused more pronounced decrease in the
germination percentage as compared to
RSC. The RSC affected the germination
less adversely th~n SAR. Acacia torti/is
and Prosopis juliflora were most tolerant
and Lawsonia glauca was the least
tolerant to saline water at germination
stage. At seedling stage Albizzia lebbek
was relatively more sensitIve than
E. hybrid to saline irrigation water.
Studies conducted at CAZRl have
indicated that E. hybrid, Cassia siamea,
Acacia aneura and Delonix rigia were
most sensitive to salinity and failed to
germinate even with 2.7 mmhos water.
Prosopis juliflora and Colophospermum
mopane were quite tolerant at germina-
tion stage even to 9.0 mmhos salinity
water.
Survival and performance of differ-
ent tree species to saline water irrigation
have shown that survival of Pro sop is
juliflora and Tumarix articulata was
almost 100 per cent, even with 9.0 mmhos
salinity water. Seedlings of Eucalyptus
hybrid and Colophospermum mhpane were
sen",itive at high salinity levels. Increase
in the salinity of irrigation water reduced
235
the growth or" plants which was most
conspicuous in Eucalyptus hybrid.
Studies at CAZRI have shown the
possibilities of use of saline water for
jrrigation at initial stage of establishment
of different tree species studied. However,
variable effects on growth pattern have
been observed due to the genetic character
of tree species and salinity levels of
irrigation water Eucalyptus hybrid and
Prosopis juliflora have shown relatively
higher tolerance to salinity and registered
higher rate of growth in height and collar
diameter as compared to other species.
High salinity in irrigation water retarded
the growth of Acacia aneura, Tamarix
articulata and Dichroslachys glomerata
Changes in salinity level of soil due
to saline water irrigation varied with
different tree species. Salinity levies were
relatively higher in soils under Chinllopo-
diunJ species, and D. glomera/G. Salinity
was minimum in soils under Acacia
aneura and Lellcaena lel/cocephala.
Performance studies of different
tree species in naturally occurring saline
soils of Jadan have shown that P. juliflora
and T. articulata are tolerant of high
salinity in soil (EC above 16 mmhos),
whereas A zadirachta indica and Eucalyp-
tus camuldulensis have failed to survive at
such high salinity levels. Except P.
jll/iflora all other species han shown
retardation in growth at high salinity.
Therefore. Prosopis juliflora and Tamarix
articulata can be safely recommended for
high salin ity cond itions of 8-16 mmhos.
Ameliorative effect of tree growth on salt
affected soils
Tree growth is reported to exert
ameliorative effect by improving physical,
 chemical and biological properties of soil.
Deposition of salt in upper surface is
minimized due to high transpiration
rathes than evaporation from surface,
thus reducing upward movement of
water. Tn high water table areas the water
table is lowered due to water use by trees.
Plantation of trees with deep, sturdy
root system open up the soil and improve
water penetration capacity thereby facili-
tating leaching of salts. Incorporation
of organic matter in lhe form of foliage
bring about favourable changes in physi-
cal condition of the soil.
Tree growth in saline soil increases
water permeability substantially and
reduces the salt content due. to efficient
leaching. Yadav and Singh (1970) obser-
ved decrease in pH values and soluble salt
content in so_il under Prosopis jllliflora.
Tamarix artic'ulala is also reported to
have beneficial effect in term of lowering
salinity.
Some plant species are reported to
absorb and extrude large amount of salts
from 'the soil and thus provide a scope
for mitigating the problem of salt affected
soils. CalQtropis, Mochia brevi/alia, Arti-
plex Lycium sp., Chenopodium sp. and
Creessa cretica have been reported to
absorb large quantities of salts from soil.
Crystals of salt~ are seen on th\!ir leaves
in winter.
Planting technique
For successful tree plantation on
the salt affected soils, selection of proper
method of soil working is of utmost
importance. The soil working techniques
should be such that the rain water is
utilized to the maximum possible extent
236
and the salt concentration in the ~ictiv~
root Zone of young plants IJ kept at ~
minimum level through leaching. Somf.
of the principal requisites of good soi;
working are: (i) production of a loose
soil for rapid prolification of the root
system, (ii) proper micro-relief of the soil
mass to facilitate leaching of soluble
salts, (iii) capacity of the soil to retain
maximum amount of moisture, particu-
larly during the period of stress, (iV)
maintenance of fertility status in soil
mass through fertilizers and organjc
manures, (v) perforation of Kankar pan
in the subsoil by means of deep plough-
ing, etc.
In the salt-affected soils pits are
dug in patches where good soil occurs,
but sometimes the pits are ei~her filled
with good imported soil, or the origmal
soil of the pit is treated with amendments
to provide a favourable medium for
initial growth during the establishment
period.
Planting of trees on ridges or raised
mounds has been found to facilitate
establishment of plants in coastal saline
soils. Ridge provides a relatively salt-free
condition and also a favourable mass for
root prolification.
Plantation ·techniques
Deep. pits having good soil with
adr'ition of gypsum and FYM give better
results in alkali soils. Leucaena leucoce-
phala (varieties K 8 and Fiji) has shown
good growth in moderate to heavy usar
soils. Acacia nilotica, Prosopis spicigera
. and Tamarix articulata have been found
promising in alkali soils.
In Haryana experiments in alkali
soils have shown that treating the soils
 of pits with 5 kg gypsum + -20 kg FYM
increased the survival Tate of Eucalyptus
hybrid and Acacia lIi/otica to 63% while
Albizzia lebbek sho-wed only 16% survival:
Replacement o( original alkali soil with
normal soil as well as gypsum apglication
resulted better survival rates of Prosopis
jlllifiora and Acacia ni/otica, Acacia
senegal. Pros()pis spicigera, Cassia auricll-
lata, Tamarix articulata and Parkinsonia
have been tried in salt·affected soils in
Rajasthan. In salt-affected soils of M.P.
Acacia nitotica, Azadirac/zla indica and
Prosopis juliflora were found suitable for
afforestation. In the coastal areas of
Gujarat Casurina souisatifalis and Prosopis
chUet/sis have been planted. Eucalyptus
microtheca, E. camaldulensis and Tamarix
ap!JyUa have been found to grow success-
fully on saline soils.
Tree species like Prosopis juliflora,
Elicalyptlls camaldulensis, Tamarix articu-
lata, Acacia ni/otica have been found to
be suitable under saline-alkali soil condi-
tions as well as irrigation with saline
waters. Adoption of these species for
plantation around farm boundaries and
wells will help in creating shelterbelts
and improve the micro-environmental
237
conditions for better crop growth. Tree
species so planted, can derive water fro!J1
lower strata of soil. Nutrients leached
down from crQp zone will also be utilized
by trees. Thus, a system of agroforestry
with suitable tree species for saline condi-
tions can go a long way in meeting needs
of rural community.
REFERENCES
Bhumbla, D.R. and Abrol K.P. 1972. Is
your water suitable for irrigation?
Get it tested. Indian Farming 21 (4):
15-16.
Dhir, R.P. 1977. Saline water potentialities
for irrigation. In Desertification and its
Control, lCAR.
Durand, 1955. The quality of irrigation
water. African Soils 66: 175-20 l.
Jain, B.L. 1981. Salt balance studies in
sal ine water irrigated soils. 1. Indian
Society of Soil Sci. (Accepted).
U.S.S.L. Staff 1954. Diagnosis and Impro-
vement of Saline Alkali Soils. U.S.D A.
Hand Book 60.
Yadav, J.S.P. and Singh, K. 1970. Toler-
ance of certain forest species to
varying degree of salinity and alkali.
Indian Farming 96: 587·99.
 The problems of fuel wood ill arid and SemI
.
arid regions of Rajasthan
R.C. Soni

Wood was probably man's first
fuel. In India even today it continues
to be a major fuel for cooking. With
high rate of increase in population (both
human and cattle), at which we are good,
and depleting forest, at which we are not
bad either, we face a major problem of
fuel wood shortage more so in western
Rajasthan which is arid and semi arid.
Our problem of fuel wood is [ike the
problem faced by a lethargic, ignorant
and spilt son who gets a fat bank balance
in legacy from his father and whose sole
source of income is the interest he gets
on this capital. With his expenditure
being, more than the interest, his capital
keeps getting thinner thus steadily reduc-
ing his interest also. In fact the fuel
wood problem is even worse because the
expenditure is also steadily increasing due
to increa~ing popUlation.
We will ~e able to appreciate the
enormity of the problem better jf we
have a rough idea of some facts about
the sources and production of fuel wood
and its demand.
Facts
Total geographical area of Rajas-
than is approximatey 342,000 sq km out
of which approximately 208,747 sq km of .
11 Western districts is arid and semi-arid
region. In this area mean annual rain-
fall varies from 164 mm in laisalmer
district to 456 mm in Sikar. However,
even this scantly rainfall is very erratic
making conditions more difficult. This
results in very low vegetative production.
As it is this region also has a very low
per cent of forest area. Out of total 2.1
lac sq km only 0.032 lac sq kip (1.2%)
area is under forests. 'In the whole state
percentage of forest area is 10.5 where-
as for the country it is 22, According to
National Forest Policy our aim is to
have 33% area under forest. From these
figures we can assess the magnitude of
work to be done.
As far as Western Rajasthan is
concerned, the top priority among forest
produce is for fuel wood. We should
not hope to produce sizeable quantities
of quality timber from forests in this
region. T-herefore, we shOUld try to
produce fuel wood only.
Pattern of use of various types of
fuel in the State is as under:
Fire wood 70%
Dung 24%
Charcoal 0 1%
Vegetable waste 4%
Soft coke, etc. 1%
Kerosene 0.9%

238
 According to the survey conducted
by the Energy Survey of India Committee
1965, daily fire wood consumption per
head in urban and rural areas is 0.41 ~nd
0.58 kg, respectively. With this as a guide-
line present requirement of fuel wood in
this region for a population of approx-
imately. 1.3 crores is 23.5 lac tonnes. For
the entire state the recorded production
of fuel wood accounts for only 2.510 the
req uirement. This roughly indicat(s the
quantity of fuel wood which should be
extracted from forests if they were to be
technically exploited and capital resource
was not be encroached upon. However,
this figure of 2.5% does not include
unrecorded extraction of fuel wood by
headlonds or ilIicity, which may be many
times more. All this extra extraction is
over and above the interest (increment)
and is a net reduction in the capital
itself. In Western Rajasthan most of the
fuel wood comes from Goachars, waste
lands, revenue lands and private ·holdings.
In this case also same phenomenon of
eating away the capital itself is taking
place at a fast rate resulting in deforesta-
tion and desertification. The pressure
On forests and trees outside will keep
increasing in geometric proportions with
ever increasing population. And if
appropriate steps are not taken without
further loss of time, the day is not very
far when the cost of heating the cooking
pot will be higher than that of filling it.
Soilition fa the problem
We have seen that we are confron-
ted with an ever increasing wide gap bet-
Ween demand and supply of fuel wood.
To bridge this gap we will have to take
measures, which will ensure reduction of
239
the gap from both sides. That is we will
have to aim at;
I. Reducing the demand of fuel
wood.
>
2. Increasing the production of
fuel wood.
Reducing the demand of fuel wood
We will have to encourage people
to use alternative sources of fuel. Follo-
wing are some of the important steps
we will have to take to reduce the
demand.
1. More use 0.( soft coke
At present quota allotted to the
state is almost negligible (roughly 1 lac
tonnes) and we have difficulties in even
lifting it due to the vicious circle; shor-
tage of coal leading to lack of transpor-
tation leading to shortage of coal. How-
ever, due to importance of trees we must
aim at increasing the allotment and then
lifting it also. Use of fuel wood should
be banned in all industries and soft coke
should be made available as an alterna-
tive fuel.
2. More lise of kerosene oil
Though we have had acute short-
age of this commodity in recent past but
now the situation has improved. We
face the same problem of having less
allotment (roughly 7000 tonnes (for state)
and not being able to lift even· that.
Kerosene oil stoves of higher efficiency
should be manufactured in bulk which
will ultimately encourage people to taking
to its use as fuel for cooking. We should
also modify our conventional Chulhas to
get better efficiency so that fuel wastage
is reduced.
 3. Liquified petroleum gas atleast 10,000 sq km of good plantation
We see a silver lining in the cloudy area as against our total forest areas
sky now in this regard. Approximately of only 3000 sq km of which also more
5 lac connections are going to be rele- portion is already denuded and rocky.
ased within next 2 years or so. Some Therefore we have to undertake planting
connections should be reserved for rural on every piece of un utilised land whether
areas also so that it becomes popular within forest department or outside such
there too. as railsides, roadsides, Panchayat lands,
scroob, Government buildings, etc. Also
4. Solar energy
what is more important is to integrate
I will not hazard my comments on the land use for agriculture and forestry
this because CAZRI must have already so that the agricultural fields provide to
made you experts. However, we eagerly the people both food and wood. This
look forward to bulk supply of efficient system of integration is called Agro-
solar Chulhas in near future. This forestry and is of utmost importance to
source of energy will prove to be much us today.
belter in this region than anywhere else.
What is Forest Department doing about it
5. Gobar gas plants
For the 11 districts of Western
Encouraging gobar gas plants by Rajasthan the Directorate' . of Desert
way of subsidies, etc., will reduce consid- Afforestation and Pasture Development
erable pressure on forests for fuel wood. was established in 1978 under the Desert
Not only that we have atleast 25% extra Development Programme. Efforts of
heat generated from Gobar by this this organisation are directed towards
method we can also use the residue as a planting and pasture development, on
good manure of which also fertiliser so far almost unutilised lands. Also,
value is increased by 45'}{,. there is a scheme called Farm Forestry
6. Regulations of trade to be modified scheme which aims at integrated use of
land for agriculture and forestry. Brief
Regulations of trade in fuel wood
details of various schemes in force are as
and charcoal should be so modified that
under:
it curbs illicit extraction and also prices
can be controlled by the government so 1. Farm forestry
that people finping it costlier. automati- This scheme has been started to
cally switch over to above laternative motivate farmers to plant trees on their
sources of fuel. farms so that fuel wood and fodder
Increasing the production offuel wood is produced, fertile soil is protected from
If we were to maintain a sustained wind erosion and the crop is protected
su pply of fuel wood in this region 'we, from damaging hot and cold winds. The
would need to plant approximotely 1000 incentive given to the farmer for planting
sq km of fuel wood plantations every year is as under:
and exploit them at a rotation of approx- . (a) Free supply of plants on the
imately 10 years thus needing a total of field alongwith pesticides.

240
 (b) Payment of Rs. 1/- per plant
planted.
(c) Payment of Re. 1/- per surviv-
ing plant per year for 3 years.
Species: Ber, Gonda, A. tortilis, Anar,
Sheesham, Eucalyptus, etc.
2. Village fllel wood and fodder plantation
This is done mostly on village
gochars on small areas from 4 to 15 ha.
Half of the area is planted at 3 m x 3 m
spacing with fuel wood and fodder
-species and other half is disc ploughed
-and sown with Cenchrus or Lasiurus
grass seetjs. Controlled grazing is allowed
in the grass area from second seedfaJi.
The entire area is handed over back to
the Panchayat after 5 years This will
also act as a demonstration plot to the
Panchayats for taking up similar planta-
tions on their own.
Species planted are-A. tortilis, Ber, P.
juliflora, Neem, Sir is, etc. In my
opinIOn looking at the manner in
which Panchayats are likely to manage
these plantations, the best species for
such platantions is P. juliflora followed
by A. tortilis.
3. Silvi pastoral plantation
These plantations are taken up on
Revenue, Forest or Panchayat lands, of
comparatively larger area say 50 ha or
above. Area is fenced and divided into
3 parts (t + t + i)· In the 2/3rd
area, which is flanked on either side by
1/6th areas, disc furrows are made at
1.25 m along contours and Dhamanl
Sevan grass seeds are sown at the rate of
4 kgJha. In the two flanks of 1/6th area
241
each seedlings 'of fuel and fooder spp are
planted at 5m x 5m interval. Species
preferred are A. tortilis, Z. mauritiana.
Neem, Ardu, Dichrostachys nutane, Khejri,
etc. The grass area is opened for cont-
rolled grazing after second seed fall. The
entire area is opened to controlled gra-
zing after 5 years. These plantations are
also going to supplement fuel wood
supply when they are harvested say after
15 years or so.
4. Sand dune stabilisation plantations
There are large chunks of active
sand dunes in this region both under
private and Government holdings. These
sand dunes have great capacity to retain
moisture throughout the year So far these
areas are lying unutilised despite the fact
that many of above plants put on the
best growth on these dunes. All farmers
with ownership sand dunes will be
greatly benefitted if they plant A. tortiUs
and Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) on these
dunes and also take their Klwrif crop.
Forest department is taking up planta-
tions at 5 m x 5 m. Seven grass seeds
are also sown along mulch lines which
are laid perpendicular to the wind direc-
tion to create mini wind breaks. Plants
put on a very fast growth as you would
see when you visit some of the sand dune
stabilisation works. 200 grass seedlings
are also planted per hectare.
5. Shelter belt plantations
These plantations are being taken
up on either side of roads. Three rows of
plants are being p!anted on either side
at a spacing of 3 m between rows and 5
m between plants within a row. The
plants are staggered between the rowns.
Nee:r, Sir is, Peepa/, Eucalyptus, etc.,
which grQw tall are planted the first row.
Second and third row is planted with A.
tortilis, Shesham, Karanj, Parkinsonia
acuieata, P. juliflora, etc. Due to very
high cost of barbed wire and angle iron
very small stretches are covered every
year. For example this year only 16 km
of roads are being planted in Jodhpur
district under this scheme. Panchayats
should take up these plantations along
village roads to utilise these areas for
production of fuel wood. P. juliflora
and A. torti/is will be good species to
plant on such sites.
CONCLUSION
In the arid and semi arid region
forest areas are almost negligible. There
242
is a very wide gap between demand and
supply of fuel wood in this region. To
bridge this gap we will have to reduce
use of fuel wood and increase Use of
alternative fuels like soft coke, Kerosene.
gas, go bar gas, etc. Also we will have
to increase production of fuel wood by
taking up fuel wood plantations on
massive scale on all unutilised lands.
Because of the. large areas of agriculture
fields agro-forestry is going to play the
most significant role in this field. And
it is here that you all, from agriculture
field, have a very important part to play-
I hope you realise the urgency to impl-
ement agro-forestry and will do your
best to solve the fuel wood problem of
this region.
 Selection of speci~s for fuel wood plantation
in arid and semi-arid areas
K.D. Muthana
Arid and semi-arid zones are
mostly areas having extremely arid
climate, temperature ranging from O°C
to 4SoC, annual precipitation ranging
from less than 100 mm upto 250 mm,
baving excessive evaporation with dried,
deep or intermittent streams, with saline
soils having sulfate and chloride crust
formation. In such areas, flora and fauna
are very scanty and negligible. In these
areas agriculture is a gamble but to certa-
in extent possible wherever irrigation
facilities are available. However, in such
areas there is more scepe for animal
husbandry with tree and grassland deve-
lopment.
In India, desert area is about II
per cent of the total land area of which
90 per cent is confined mainly to the
North-Western portion. Rajasthan alone
has about 60 per cent of the arid zone
which needs greater emphasis and impor-
tance on afforestation activities combined
with grassland development. Here the
climatic conditions are very harsh, rain-
fall is very much limited and erratic, wind
velocity is high having high rate of
evapotranspiration, low relative humidity
and deep water table.
Soils in these areas are generally
coarse in texture, low in water holding
243
capacity and low in nutrient status.
Moisture deficiency is the chief limiting
factor for the establishment of tree species
in these areas. Vegetation is very sparse
with scattered thorny trees, shrubs and
grasses comprising of about I to 2 per
cent of forest cover and remains ineffec-
tive from soil and water conservation
point of view. Considering the poor repre-
sentation of the forest cover, the Planning
Commissiol) and Forestry Commission
have emphasised for development of all
waste lands, marginal agricultural lands,
lands unfit for agricultural operations, shi-
fting sand dunes, marginal lands of high-
ways, railway lines, canals, etc., under
trees and grasses.
Indian desert is one of the most
thickly populated deserts in the world
having about 10.2 million human and
about 20 million livestock. The density of
human population in the Indian desert
is about 60 per sq/km whereas it is about
3 per .sq/km in most of the other deserts
of the world. Livestock density is about
735 per sq/km. The impact of these on
the natural resources is so great that they
have been responsible for gradual dis-
appearance of the vegetative cover thereby
accentuating soil and water erosion
contributing for the desertification. This
 has also brought an imbalance between
human and livestock on the one hand and
the plant, water and resources on the
other. Once forest resources are depleted
and become scarce, rural population start
burning the most valuable cattle dung,
crop residues and thus drprive the soil
from the vital fertilizer and soil condi-
tioner. In India, it has been estimated
that about 80 million tonnes of cowdung
ar!! being burnt annually by the rural and
urban people.
A tonne of cowdung burnt means the
loss of as much as 50 kg of food grains.
Therefore, all efforts are to be concentra-
ted to restore the forest wealth so that
large scale cowdung burning is checked
and diverted to the agricultural crops.
It is now time for forestry activities
to establish self sufficiency in small timber
fuel, manure, leaf, fodder production to
meet the requirement of every farmer.
This can only be achieved by intensive
afforestation practices on farm lands, on
comrpunity lands, wastelands, marginal
lands, on shifting sand dunes, etc., but
their success depends mainly on the
cooperation and support from the villag-
ers, social workers, forest and agricultural
experts, politicians, planners, administra-
tors and 'economists.
In the desert areas, forestry practices
are' advocated because forests regulate
the temperature of the surrounding area,
serve as wind breaks, prevent hot winds
of summer from dessiceation, checks the
shifting sand dunes which also engulf the
adjoining farm lands, highways, railway
lines, buildings, canals, etc. Forest trees
provide shade fer the grazing animals
which'in turn reduce their water intake
244
andalso enrich the soil from the leaf
litter.
The main problems encountered for
any developmental work in checking the
desertification are the increasing human
and livestock population, the increasing
trend of cropped areas, cultivation of
unproductive wastelands, sand dunes,
and enormous damage being caused by
termites, rodents, wild life, etc. In addi-
tion to the above, vast unutilised areas of
barren lands though found all over the
desert are not accessible for afforesta~ion
programme mainly because they are under
private ownership. These private owners
feel scared to get their lands developed
through any Government agencies mainly
for the false notion of loo,sing their
ownership.
The fuel policy committee estimated
the fuel demand on all India basis for
domestic sector for the year 1978·79 and
1990-91 as in Table 1.
In the rural areas, in the absence
of regular source of fuel wood, all
available cQwdung, crop waste and
other fire wood are burnt. The villagers
are fully aware of the importance of
cowdung and crop waste as good manure
for their fields but they are helpless due
to' non-availability of alternative sources.
Economists have worked out that rupee
spent in replacement of cowdung or crop
waste can earn indirectly Rs. 5/- to Rs.
10/- if applied in the fields to boost their
agricultural crops. The use of cowdung
and crop waste for burning has created
importance for raising tree crops on
. waste lands, morginal lands, road sides.
railway lines, canal banks, sand dunes,
etc. The acute shortage of fuel wood is
Table t. Estimated fuel consumption

Estimated consumption
Fuel in coal replaced
(million tonnes)
1978-79 1990-91 1978-79 1990-91
Commerciai
I. Sofe coke 5 mt. 20 mt.· 7:5 30.0
2. Kerosene 3.5 mt. 6 mt. 29.05 49.80
3. LPG 0.4 mt. 2 mt. 3.32 16.61
4. Electricity 8 bkw 25 bkw 8.0 25.0
Non-commercial
5. Fuelwood and wood 132 mt. 122 mt. 125.4 115.9
for charcoal
6. Dung cake 65 mt. 53 mt. 26.0 21.1
7. Crop waste 46 mt. 46 mt. 43.7 43.7

After B.P. Srivastava and M.M. Pant, 1979.

more conspicuous in the desert areas due
to limited resources thus people are diver-
ted to exploit the existing degraded
natural vegetation and burn all the avai·
lable dung cakes depriving the fertilizer
to the agricultural crop lands.
Faulty land use pattern is very
common in the desert areas and this has
got to be checked and improved on top
priority. All lands unfit for agriculture
should not be forced under plough as this
would lead to further deterioration.
Generally, efforts are being made on un-
productive, barren waste lands adjoining
to villages to develop under afforestation
programmes by fencing to prevent the
cattle entry but the villagers force their
cattle inside the enclosures and thus ruin
the purpose. Unless we gain confidence.
cooperation and willing participation
from the villagers supported by politicians,
no developmental work will progress in
the right direction.
For suitable approach on the
application of the forestry programmes,
it is essential to have land use capability
classification. From such data, if the areas
are earmarked for pasture development
only, there is no harm in incorporating
forestry programmes to a limited extent
to enhance fodder production by way of
pods and leaves for stall feeding in lean
periods. The indigenous tree species of
the arid zones are few in number and also
very slow growing hence it is necessary
to investigate and introduce fast growing
tree species resistant to drought and frost
from different isoclimatic regions of the
world. It should be kept in view while
large scale afforestation programmes are
envisaged in arid areas, the species grown
should have mUltipurpose utility such as
nutriti~e fodder, fuel of high calorific
value, small timber, their usefulness for
soil conservation, etc. Preference may
also be given to species which can produce

245
 high quality charcoal, which could also
be used to run the buses and trucks.
During the second world war, in India
most of the buses and trucks were run on
charcoal. This would also ease our
energy crisis to a greater extent. Further
the requirement of the local people for
their cottage industries like basket making
with twigs, rope making from fibre yield-
ing plants, tanning materials for local
leather industries, etc., may also be given
due considerations.
The approach also demands detailed
studies on 0) s~lection of exotic' and
indigenous species for different habitats,
Oi) production of nursery seedlings, (iii)
Silvicultural characteristics of selected
tree and shrub species, (iv) soil working
techniques and cultural operations befitt-
ing to the erratic rainfall pattern, and (v)
protection against diseases and pests.
a pit in layers alternating with layers of
dried leaves and kept moist for 12 hours.
They are removed and dried in sun for
24 to 48 hours and again placed in layers
in the pit. This process is continued for
a week and the seeds are sown. This
method is mainly followed in caSe of teak
seeds.
Scarification is also recommended
for hard coated seeds. The seeds are
mixed in coarse sand and gently pounded
together to give some scratches to the
seed coat. These scratches facilitate
absorption of moisture when soaked in
water to give quick germination.
Another simplest method adopted
for Acacia and Prosopis species is to feed
the pods to goats and sheep ihside their
pens and the droppings are collected and
sown in the field. This melhod gives very
good germination.

There are certain pre-requisites for For the other types of seeds not
raising tree seedlings. Some seeds have ha ving hard seed coat, it is desira ble to
hard. seed coat and unless they are given soak the seeds for 24 hours in water
some pre-treatment, there will be lot of before sowing.
delay in their germination. In the case Eucalyptus seeds are very minute
of Acacia species, the seeds have very and are sown direct without any-pre-
hard seed coats and to facilitate quick treatment taking care to spread a very
germination, they are to be treated with thin layer of loose soil over the seeds
50 per cent sulphuric acid (commercial just enough to cover them.
grade) for 30 minutes in summer and
40 minutes in winter. After stirring the Raising tree seedlings in the nurse-
ries is another priority for any planned
seeds in the acid solution, they are was-
afforestation programmes. The site for
hed in running water. Another method
is to boil water and stir the seeds for 3 nurseries should have regular water
supply, the site should be free from
minutes in boiling water, dried under.
inundation, should have proper drainage
shade and sown to get quick germina-
and with good sandy loam soils. Tempo-
tion.
rary nurseries are always laid near the
Stratification is another method of plantation site having the above require-
pre-treatment. Here seeds are placed in ments; whereas permanent nurseries may

246
be located at convenient places which
should be. able to cater the needs of
surrounding sites, easily accessible to the
inspecting officials, having permanent
water source, storage facilities, etc.
Various containers are used for
raising seedlings, i.e., earthen pots, poly-
thene bag~, galvanised iron tubes, sun
dried earthen bricks, etc.
Earthen pots have been disc~rded
and discouraged as there is every chance
for the roots coiling inside the pots
resulting in failure of the plantations
unless care is taken to straighten the tap
roots at the time of planting.
Polythene bags with perforation
have been giving good results and they
are easy for transportation to distant
places except that the polythene bags
cannot be used subsequently.
G.T. containers have also given very
good results when placed in sunken cem-
ented beds. The water requirement of
seedlings in this case is 25 per cent less
when compared to other types of contai-
ners. Seedlings raised in such containers
are easily transportable to distant places
without causing damage, easy access for
monthly clipping of roots which would
give scope for development of sturdy and
straight tap roots. Further, though these
GJ. containers are costly in the initial
stage can be used for number of years.
Sun dried earthen bricks made of
equal proporation of clay, sand and farm
yard manure are very advantageous for
afforestation and sand dune stabilization
works. In this case, the nursery site should
be close to the plantation sites to save
transportation cost and breakages while
trans-shipment. These sun dried bricks
247
have proved a boon in afforestation "Yorks
where watering the plants after transplan-
ting is not feasible due to inaccessibility
and immobility of the terrains. These
bricks can retian moisture for number of
days due to clay contents present in them
and also due to their weight they provide
anchorage for the plants even if the sand
particles are blown away from the plan-
ting pit. Afforestation by stump planting
and planting cuttings are not practicable
and successful in arid regions due to
uncertainty and lack of moisture in these
areas. Even seedlings pulled out from
the nursery beds and transplanted with
their root system intact have not given
appreciable success in these dry regions.
Guidelines for afforestation in arid and
semi-arid region
Time of planting: Tree plantation
should be done in these regions after the
onset of a good soaking shower. All
planting programmes are to be completed
within the shortest period as soil moisture
is the main limiting factor for the success
of the plantation. This would also facili-
tate the seedlings planted to take advan
tage of the subsequent rainfall. Even the
replacement of the casualties ~hould be
completed in the same season lest the
plants loose one year of growing period
and suffer from root and moisture com-
petition.
Preconditions for planting
i) The seedlings should have long
and well developed tap roots.
ii) Coiled roots should be straight-
. ened at the time of planting.
iii) Care should be taken to see that
the collar zone of the plants is
 Table 2. Comparative calorific values of some desert tree and shrub species
Name of species Calorific value
(BTU/lbs)
Acacia tor/iUs 7800
Acacia nilo/ica (sub sp. indica) 7680
Prosopis juliflora 8050
Prosopis cineraria 7640
Capparis decidua 7810
Anogeissus corunta 7660
Albizzia lebbek 7530
Eucalyptus camaldulensis ·7730
Salvadora oleoides 6770
Butea mOllosperma 7340
Calligonllm polygonoides 7590
Euphorbia nerifolia 7790
Zizyphus nllmmularia 7900

completely covered by the soil Selection from exotic species from

and not exposed. homo-climatic regions should· be given
due considerations as most of the exotics
iv) Depth of the pit should be
perform better than the indigenous
slightly more than the root por-
species is growth and establishment.
tion of the seedlings.
All exotics should he tested tMrou-
v) After planting the seedlings in the ghly for their growth and utility with
pits, the soil around the plant regards to wood, leaves, pods, etc., over
should he pressed firmly. indigenous species. They should be
tested to suit the soil and climatic condi-
vi) After planting, a saucer shaped tions of various localities.
depression around the plant They should be easy to establish,
having 15 cm deep and 1 m reproduce and yield good viable seeds for
<;Jiameter may be provided in further propagation.
plain areas and a crescent shaped
Preference for species which repro-
ridge 'of 15 cm high may be
dU,ce coppice shoots should also be consi-
provided on slopy lands to coll-
dered to save additional expenditure on
ect and store the rain water.
replanting the area after the felling.
Choice of species is an important Optimum espacement may be given
factor to be considered before plannjng. for the seedlings in order to combine
any plantation programmes. Drought Agro-forestry of Silvi-pastoral progr-
hardy and fast growing species with ammes for proper utilization of the land.
quick returns are to be given priority The area after planting has to be
over others. ' properly protected from biotic interference

248
 either by fencing or by engaging watch out in Ukrain (USSR) in 1950's indicated
and :ward staff. that the agricultural crop losses due to
During summer seasons, all precau- trees 'were offset in 2 years in case of
tions to be taken to protect the planta- Oak plantations ultimately resulting in
tions from accidental fire incidences. an increase in herbage and gain yield of
In case of failure of rains, supplem- wheat. However a mutual adjustment of
ental watering at 9 litres per plant should spacing of trees and selection of trees
be provided for the survival of the would tide over tlie situation.
plants. As regards depletion or undergro-
Two weeding and soil working per und water sources, trees actually repl-
year is essential to check moisture com- enish the ground water during monsoons
petition. This operation should contin",! through seepage. No scientific data on
for at least 2 years. water consumption of trees and agricul-
Sometim~s the agronomists/farmers
tural crops are avilable. It is very likely
feel that grow;ng trees adjoining to that trees growing in areas where water
croplands is not desirable for the follow- table is high are bound to pump out
ing reasons: water through transpiration but in places
like Rajasthan, where water table is as
i) Trees harbour birds which in turn deep as 100 to 300 feet below, the ques-
damage crops. tion of pumping out underground water
ii) Shade from trees hamper crop does not arise. Trees planted in waterlog-
yield. ged areas facilitate to reclaim such areas.
iii) Trees pump out underground In Saharan pur and West Dinajpur, the
water resources through transpir- practice of planting trees on farm bunds
ation. is an age old practice. In 1976, about
The foresters have the counter 304 mm rainfall was absorbed in the
argument against such misunderstand- 'Vatava farm (GlIjarat) in a few hOllrs
under trees, while water in the adjoining
ings.
tree-less field stayed on for 4-5 days after
Birds do more beneficial things to the rains. This clearly indicates that
the crops by destroying and feeding on trees recharge the sub soil water effici-
harmful insects, pests. rodents, etc. They ently provide more scope for seasonal
mainly feed on caterpillars, locusts and crops.
also destroy their eggs. The young ones
of the birds are usually fed with insects. Trees, if raised on farm lands,
Owls, eagles, hawks and other birds always provide good returns to the farmer
help in destroying rodents, rats, etc. in a COli pIe of years. Trees are consid-
ered as cash crop with a distinct advant-
To a certain extent, shade of the age over the traditional field crops.
trees might cause in retardiation of the Whether the field crop has favourable
crop yield. Certain experiments carried market value or not, the farmer has got

249
 ..... O\~~IrI'<tr-:~IrI\O'<t'<t N. 00
0 - .... 00 0000 o

ff)oq'<tOOIrlr-:oooor-:oo-c:C""l~O\
ori .... oril"'il"'itrl..t-O"l"trl-O
t--t"-t"-\O\OO\'<tNff)\O'<t'<tNN
oi-r--:

(',Ioor-:",,:""O\ \Off)C""l .... (',Itrl .... ~ .... ~oo"'"

~ \0 N \0 ~ trl ori r.:
.o:i 0\ ~ r--: t"- -0 trl ....OOONc<)1"'i

O\NOoo-''<tt"-ooooooI£)O\t"-O\
f--OO .... "l"OID-OtrllD'<tC""l'<t00
Vl
:::-OOO\t"-lDtrlIrlOO",""l"'<t ........
::s
o
c~
.!:!l
'0
....C
c ~

E
"0 ..c
C
ro '"
...o
.~

~
~
I~
.~

""0
....
~

(.)
~
4j
....'"o
~
(.)
c
ro
S
...
.2...
4)
0.
4)
;>
.;::
ro
·a0.
S III
o ='
U =
1:1
~
...."CI
I:lJ)

.....CI

2~O
 ~ ~ ' . [ ' V) \0
__ [0 000

~OI()['O'I<:?O\
-oO\...-ir-:O'I\O
V'l"'t"MMC'I_C'I

('f) __ C'l~<:?­

--
('1";..00\['\000

~
~

"
~ ...::l
.5 <U
I::S
- ~ ...
~
'>:I
.5
~
~
.S!
'>:I
.... ...'>:I'>:I
<U
";.: oC:I =:
-"... "" .:: -
<U
oC:I ;: =:
oC:I '>:I <U .S! '<:j =:I::S
~ ~ ~ ..S!
;: .~
.S! '>:I ~
<U .S!
~
.!::! ~ ~ -6... =: §- .!:lN
" Q:;'" ::9
(;;)

::9 '>:I
~ (;;)

~
N
~ ""t! ~ ~ ~

..0 r..: ~ N
- -
oci 0\ c5 ......

251
 to harvest and sell, whereas he need not 4. A. senegal
do so in case of tree crops but can always 5. A. catechu
wait till he gets a good market return. 6. Cassia sianea
Tree crops always serve as an insurance 7. Dalbergia sissoo
against field crops. During emergency, 8: Prosopis cineraria
the farmer can always depend on this 9. Albizzia lebbek
tree crops for quick money. If any 10. Azadirachta indica
revolution in agriculture is envisaged, it II. Tamarix articulata
can only be achieved if the farmer is self 12. Ailanthus excelsa
sufficient in fuel, fodder, manure and 13. Hardwickia binata
small timber. Most of the cottage industr- 14. Albizzia amara
ies also depend on the tree components 15. Tecomella undulata
such as sports goods, silk, honey, oil 16. Anogeissus pendula
seeds, paper pulp timber for furniture 17. Boswellia serrata
and agricultural implements, fodder from 18. Calligonllm polygonoides
trees for livestock, fibre for ropes, etc. 19. Zizyphlls rotundifolia
20. Zizyphus nummularia
List of promising fuel wood a'nd
fodder tree species for arid and semi-arid REFERENCES .
regions: Muthana, K.D., Gyanchand and Arora,
G.D. 1978. Silvical studies on desert
A. Exotics
indigenous and exotic tree species. In
l. Eucalyptlls camalduler.sis Arid Zone Research and Development
2. E. terminalis (ed. H.S. Mann). Scientific Publishers,
3. E. coolabah Jodhpur. pp. 339-343.
4. E. tessel/aris
5. E. melanophloia Srivastava, B.P. and Pant, M.M. 1979
.6. Acacia tortilis var. tortilis Social Forestry on a cost benefit
7. A. forlilis var. raddi1lDa analysis frame worke. Indian Forester
8. Acacia salicina 105 (I): 2-35.
9. Acacia senegal (large farm) Palit, S.B. 1980 Species for wood, food
to. Ac,acia aneura and ladder in arid and semi-arid zone
11. Prosopis julifiora of India. Paper presented for FAG/
12: Brasilettia mollis DANIDA Training course on sand
13. C%phospermum mopane dune stabilization, she/terbelt and
14. Dichrostachys glomerata Affoestation in dry zone, held at
15. Prosopis alba CAZRI, Jodhpur.
16. Prosopis tamarugo Muthana, K.D. 1981. Afforestation prac-
B. Indigenous tices with relevance to Watershed
1. Eucalyptus hybrid Planning. Paper Presented for short
2. Acacia nilotica sub sp. indica course on "Watershed management",
3. A. plallifrolls held at CAZRI, Jodhpur.

252
 Industrially economic plants in agroforestry
Ashok K. Raina
Arid and semi-arid regions world
over present worst examples of resource
degradation as a result of the indiscrimi-
nate destruction of their forest at an
alarming rate to meet the ever-increasing
demands for food, fodder and fuel needs
for the growing population. Development
of these areas is only possible with the
adoption of such land-use-manage-
ment systems which have the potentiali-
ties of augmenting the benefits from
both agriculture and forestry to provide
food, wood and other forest products and
at the same time conserve the eco-system
by simulating or partially recreating
forest conditions to improve the partially
recreating forest conditions to improve the
prevalent edaphic and microclimatic
conditions (Wilkins, 1978).
AGROFORESTRY-ITS' INDUSTRIAL
POTENTIAL
MaQY countries have already deve-
loped, although on a limited scale. agro-
forestry sy~tems to establish 'industrial
tree plantations', for instance depart-
mental taungys in Kenya-pines; Nigeria-
Gmelina; India and Burmateak; and a
number of species tried similarly at
CA TIE, Costa Rico. A number of
commercial establishments in England
and Canada have raised improved clonal
populars interplanted with agricultural
crops (Burley, 1980).
253
FOOD, WOOD AND ENERGY
DEMANDS
Demands on the forest for energy,
industrial wood, the needs of rural
communities and the environment already
exceed local and regional supplies and
may well exceed them globally by the end
of the century.
FUEL WOOD DEMANDS
World Bank calculates that an
additional 20-25 million hactares of trees
must be planted by the year 2000, i.e., a
planting approxi[11ately of (0 times more
than the existing reforestation rate. In
addition to being used for conventional
cooking and heating purposes ample
demand is building up for production of
charcoal; feeding electric generators,
railroad locomotives, driers for fish,
agricultural products, lumber; factories
milling sugar, timber or other new
materials; pottery, brick, charcoal and
lime stone kiins; and metal smelters. It is
used for the supply of secondary fuels
produced by thermochemical. routes-like
secondary solid fuels from charcoal,
gesification, synthesis gas; and secondary
fuels by biochemical treatment of wood
for liquid fuels produced from wood.
WOOD FIBRE DEMAND
A world shortage of wood fibre of
200 million cubic metres (7.1 billion cubic
 feet) has been forcast (Keys, 1975). An
estimate of total annual demand for wood
will be in the order of 4.0 billion cubic
metres (141.3 billion cubic feet) by the
year 2000.
Intensive forest management and
utilization techniques, particularly the use
of short rotations and whole tree harves-
ting, however, are sure to make increasing
demands on the soil, resulting in adverse
environmental impact on the fragile
ecosystem. [t is to be seen in this context
whether agroforestry could, in the face of
such exploitation, conserve the ecosystem
and still satisfy Farmers' demands.
SPECIES SUITABLE FOR
AGROFORESTRY
The species to be taken up in agro-
forestry system should adapt well to
difficult sites without much care, be
adapted to grow with lesser requirement
for water or tap it from deeper zones of
ground water, be able to improve soil
fertiljty by possessing nitrogen-fixing
ability, possess rapid vegetative growth
and have ability to regenerate naturally
or respond to methods of artificial regene-
ration.
Lopking for favourable attributes
for suitability in the agroforestry systems
in arid and semi-arid areas, the' vegetative
growth characteristic like (1) having long
rapidly growing tap roots supported by
lateral roots for better establishment
(Bhimaya and Kaul, 1966); and (2) shed-
ding leaves and to remain leafless for long
periods so as to temporarily decrease
ratio of shoots to roots, and to avoid
transpiratio~ losses in drought conditions
whicll otherwise amount to a considera-
254
bIe prop.ortion of the annual precipitation
(Lahid, 1975; Tomble, 1977) are essential.
There is ample need to draw a comparison
between the species on the consumptive
use of water or water withdrawn, before
introducing new crops or crop combina-
tions.
In floral biology, early sexual matu-
rity, floral and seed setting and other
phenological details necessary to be
studied before taking' up a crop combina-
tion. For instance, in Chile, Prosopis
tamarugo a highly palatable species is
interplanted with less palatable P. chilensis
which attracts bees and thereby helps
improve the pollination (Leaky and Last,
1980).
MULTIPURPOSE SPECIES
An ideal multipurpose species
would be one whkh provides (I) fuel
calories; (2) timber-for lumber, posts,
poles; (3) pulp for paper cardboard and
construction boards; (4) vegetable oil,
fruits and nuts for food; (5) edible leaves
and shoots for sauces, curries, salads and
beverages; (6) honey; (7) forage for live-
stock and silkworms; (8) green manure
for fertilizing soil; (9) tanbark for the
tannin used in leather making; (10) medi-
cjnes an~ pharmaceuticals; (1) extrac-
tives suc11 as gums, resins, rubber and
dyes; (12) shade or support for plantation
crops; (13) add to the soil improvement
by soil and sand dune stabilization; (14)
production of soil and water supplies;
(15) improvement is soil structure, chemi-
stry or water balance, and control of
weeds; (16) useful in hedges, windbreaks,
shelterbelts; and firebreaks; and (17) above
all be of ornamental, esthetic or recrea-
ti9nal value. A number of such trees
have been identified like Azadirachta
indica which provides shade, fodder, food
chemicals, fuel and wood, is adapted to
varied and harsh habitats; Eucalyptus
microthew can tolerate heat, drought,
frost, flood and alkaline soils; and Proso-
pis tomarugo-salt and drought tolerant,
palatable with high stocking rate, yields
fuelwood, minor timber, edible pods,
and a number of exudates. However,
with the increase in demanded benefits
from a species, the chances of selection
of a mUlti-purpose species, equally suita-
ble in all respects and its utilization
potential in specif>c environments and
agro-ecosystems becomes all the more
difficult (Burley, 1980).
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND
AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES
Standard techniques for the design,
management and assessment of producti-
vity under specific agroforestry systems
need to be assessed in terms of improve-
ment of agricultural environments and
rural living. Vega (1978) used O. [ ha
replicated plots to test the effect of various
agricultural crops (including rice and
banana) on the growth of Cordia alliodora
in Surinam. However, whatever design
is used in agroforestry context, there is a
need to evaluate land equivalent ratios
(LER)* for two crops of diffe~ent rotat-
ions wherein the agricultural crops inclu-
ding pasture-two or more rotations may
be achieved before the tree component
closes canopy and several more years.
elapse before the tree crop is harvested.
On the basis of LER for each intercropp-
'" LFR '" Yield of a crop as an intercrop per unit area
Yield of a crop as a sole crop per unit area
255
jng ~ystem, more suitable- crCl-pping pattern
can be worked out. Singh (978) reported
better utilization of land and higher total
productivity from intercropped Cenchrus
ciliaris, a palatable drought hardy species
and cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba,
than when raised as sole crops.
The applicability of the various
silvicultural treatments to the diverse
forest types with respect to the floristic
and structural changes that such treat-
ments bring about have been variously
dealt with in different synecological
studies (Ghosh and Kaul, 1976). In
agroforestry systems the productivity of
a stand will largely depend on the mani·
pulation of composition, regeneration,
fertilization, choice of species, yield,
protection, water uptake and economic
costs and benefits of the silviculturalJ
agronomic treatments.
REFERENCES
Bhimaya, C.P. and Kaul, R.N. 1966. Role
of seedling root habit on initial seed-
ling surviva 1 in some desert tree species
Sci. and Cult. 32: 204-206.
Burley, J. 1980. Choice of tree species
and possibility of genetic improvement
for small holder and community
forests. Commonw. For. Rev. 59:
311-326.
Ghosh, R.C. and Kaul, O.N. 1976. Effect
of standard silvicultural systems on
major uses and forest types in India.
In: XVIllz IUFRO World Congress,
Norway, 1976. Proc. Div. 1,447-462.
Keys, J.L. 1975. Projection of world
demand and supply for wood fibre
 to the Year 2000. Tappi, 58. No. 11.
Nov. 1975.
Lahiri, A.N. 1975. Water use by desertic
vegetation and its hydrological impli-
cations. Ann. Arid Zone 14: 135-148.
Leaky, R.R.B. and Last, P.T. 1980. Bio-
logy and potential of Prosopis species
in arid environment with particular
reference to P. cineraria. J. Arid Envi-
ron. 3: 9-24.
Singh. R.P. 1978. Guar Agronomy. Forage
Res. 4A: 41-48.
256
Tomble, 1.M. 1977. Water requirements
for Mesquite. J. Hydrology 34: 171-
179.
Vega, L. 1978. Plantaciones de Cordia
all;odora en combinacion con co/tivos
agricolas. una a/ternativa de manejo en
Suriname. Pap. FFF/7-8. 8th World
For. Congr., Jakarta, Indonesia, 12 p.
Wilkins, G.C. 1978. Integrating forest
and small scale farm sy~tems in Middle
America. Forest Ecol. Manage. 1:
223-234.
 Chemical constituents of econolnic value from
plants of arid and semi-arid regions
Abu Ghanim
It is well known that the harsh
desert climate is responsible for poor
vegetation. However, there are plants
which thrive even in this climate and
yield products of economic value. For
example hyoscyamine, an important life
saving drug, is obtained from Hyoscy-
amus muticus that grows wild in Egypt.
Similarly Acacia senegal yields gum
arabic, a gum of high quality which
earns valuable foreign exchange for
Sudan. In India, Cassia angustij,.lia and
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba which are
plants of arid region yield a drug and
guar gum, respectively, and earn much
needed foreign exchange for the country.
PHARMACEUTfCALS
i. Diosgenin from Balanites mxburghii
Diosgenin is the raw material for the
production of steroid hormones, anabolic
agents and oral contraceptives in the
country. The fruit of B. roxburghii is a
rich source of diosgenin (Ghanim el al.,
1980).
B. roxburghii, locally known as
hingot is a spiny tree about 6 m in height
with glabrous or puberulous branches
ending in very strong, sharp, ascending
spines. The tree grows in the drier parts
of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar
257
Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra and
Deccan.
The sapogenin, a mixture of diosg-
enin and yamogenin, has been isolated
from all parts of the plant. The highest
yield that has been reported from the
roots (0.5 cm thick) is 2 2% (Puri et al.,
1'976).
Ripe fruits, collected from different
distribution zones, show considerable
variation in shape, size and weight. The
weight of a single fruit ranges from 12 g
to 80 g.
As high as 4.29% (on fresh weight
basis) diosgenin was obtained from some
fruit samples (Ghanim et a!., 1980).
A systematic chemical analysis of fruit
samples collected from trees located at
Jodhpur, Devlia and Dangiavas revealed
considerable variation in diosgenin con-
tent ranging from 1.29-2.7,0.5-3.39 and
2.2-4.20{4.29) per cent, respectively. The
seed kernel also gives 45% of a bland
yellow oil which increases the overall
value of this desert plant as an alterna-
tive source of diosgenin.
!i. Scopolamine from Datura innoxia.
Scopolamine is used in controlling
tremors in Parkinson's disease, in delir-
ium, in maniac and other psychotic condi-
 tions. It is also the best medicine for
Sickness in sea and air travel.
D. innoxia is an undershrub which
grows wild. Leaves of wild plants
indicated poor alkaloidal content. How-
ever, the leaves of D. innoxia raised
from seeds obtained from NBPGR, New
Delhi ,gave 0.309% of the active principle
which compares favourably with the
yields reported from other parts of the
country.
iii. Scoparone from Artemisia scoparia
Scoparone (6,7- dimethoxycoum-
arin) is reportedly under clinical trial
as hypotensive and tranquillising agent.
The chloroform extract of the inflor-
escence of A. scoparia afforded scoparone
in 0.9% yield (Chandrasekharan et al.,
1981). Efforts are being made to further
enhance the percentage of scoparone by
extracting the inflorescence at different
developmental stages. Inflorescence con-
tained two coumarins, scopoletin and
7-methylesculetin and 7-methylaromaden-
drin; rhamnocitrin, eupalitin, cirsimaritin
and eupatolitin. Incidently this is the first
report of the occurrence of these flavo-
Table 1. Comparison of important characteristics of oil from E. viridis, E. globulus
with B. P. and I.P. specifications
. E. viridIs E. globulus
Y~eld% 2.1 0.9-1.2
20 1.4635 1.4605
nn
0.923 0.902 at
iO
20
30°
[ oc]n +3°4' +.9°68'
Cineole% 93 62
Solubility in 70% 1.1 a 5
alcohol in volumes
a= insoluble in 10 vols. * In 80% alcohol.
258
noids in the genus Artemisia, (Chand rase-
kharan et al., 1981).
iv. Naphthoquinones from Arnebia hispid-
issima
Naphthoquinones are considered a
new class of drugs (Shukla et al., 1969).
Arnebin-l, isolated from A. nobilis, is
reportedly undergoing clinical trial as
anticancer agent.
A. hispidissima-a shrub growi ng
wild in West Rajasthan is one of the four
species of the genus occurring in northern
India.
Apart from alkannin which has
been reported earlier, four more naphth-
oquinone derivatives have been isolated
from the hexane extract of the roots and
characterised as amebin-7,. alkannin,
alkannin isovalerate, alkannin-acetate
and alkannin f3 - hydroxyisovalerate
respectively. .
v._ Cineole from Eucalyptus viridis
Cineole is an important ingredient
in inhalers used in sore throat and cold.
The leafy portion of E. viridis raised at
Jodhpur from seeds obtained from Aust-
ralia yielded on steam distillation 2. 1%
B.P. J.P.
1.458 1.48-1.47
0.904- 0.9065-
0.924 0.9155
-5 to 10° -5 to 10°
70 60
1*
(on fresh weight basis) of a colourless
oil. (Ghanim et aI, 1979) The oil
(Table 1) conforms to the specifications
of principal pharmacopoeioas which
require eucalyptus oil for medicinal
purposes to contain a minimum of 70 per
cent cineole. The oil was superior both
in quality and yield compared to E.
globulus which is at present the chief
source of medicinal oil in the country.
(Ghanim and Jayaraman, 1979).
\ PERFUMERY
Essential oil from the leaves of Cymbopo-
gon martinii var. matia
The essential oil from the leaves
and inflorescence is in great demand in
perfumery industry, especially for its
high geraniol content. The oil (0.81 %
on fresh weight basis) obtained from the
leaves (Table 2) was found to conform
to lSI specifications.
INDUSTRIAL
Oil from Citru/Jus colocynth is
The seeds of Citrullus colocY'lthis
locally k'nown as thumba yield an oil
which is used in the manufacture of
soaps.
Seed collected from different loca-
tions indicated considerable variation in
oil content ranging from 8 to 33 per
cent (iPareek and Vashishtha, 1980).
Guar gum from Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
The gum obtained from its endos-
perm and its derivatives are in great dem-
and in pharmaceutical, food, textile and
paper industries, etc.
Can de/ilia wax from Euphorbia antisyphi-
litica
Candelilla wax is imported for end
use in the manufacture of explosives by
cordite factories in India, It can also be
used in shoe polishes, chewing gum and
other allied industries.
A process has been devloped by
the Institute for the extraction and

Table 2. Comparison of phYSIco-chemical constants with lSI specifications

Character istics Raised from seeds lSI specification

obtained from Lucknow

Yield % 0.81
Colour Colourless-light yellow Light yellow-
yellow
Odour Rosaceous with charact- Rosaceous with
eristic grassy back-ground characteristic
grassy back-
ground
Refractive index at 30° 1.4695 1.469-1.4735
Specific gravity at 30° 0.876 0.874-0.886
Solubility in 70% alcohol 1.2 vols 2 vols.
Total alcohol calculated as 93.9 90 Min.
Geraniol%

259
suitable refining of candelilla wax from
the leafless stems of Euphorbia anlisyphili-
tica which is well adapted to arid zone
of west Rajasthan (Ghanim et al., 1979).
A sample of Candelilla wax, isolated at
the Institute and sent to Cordite Factory
Nilgiris, for their evaluation, was found
suitable for end use in the manufacture
of explosives.
Besides Cordite Factory, Nilgiris,
others who have shown interest are shoe
polishes and chewing gum industries. To
make it economically viable, efforts are
underway to evolve suitable processes
for making. the wax acceptable to above
mentioned industries.
REFERENCES
Ghanim, A., Jayaraman, I., Khan, H.A.
and Amalraj Alphonse, V. 1980.
Balanites roxburghii PI. Fruits as a
Source of diosgenin. Indian J. Pharm.
Sci. 42: 149-50.
Puri, H.S., Jefferies, T.N. and Hardman,
R. 1976. Diosgenin and Yamogenin
level in some Indian plant samples.
Planta Medica 30: 118-21.
Dawidar, A.A.M. and Fayaz, M.B.E.
1969. Steroid sapogenins-XIII. The
260
constituents of Balanites ,aegyptica.
Phytoclzem. 8: 261-65.
Chandrasekharan, Indrani, Khan, H. A.
and Ghanim, A. 1981. Flavonoids
from Artemisia scoparia. P/anta
Medica. 43: 310-11.
Shukla, Y.N., Tandon, J.S., Bhakuni,
D.S. and Dhar, M.M. 1969. Chemical
constituents of Antibiotic fractions of
Arnebia nobilis. Experientia 25: 357-59.
Ghanim A, Jayaraman, I. and Muthana,
K D. 1979. The essential oil of
Exotic Eucalyptus species raised at
Jodhpur. Symposium on Production
and Utilization of Forest Products,
Jammu. 1: 142-45.
Ghanim, A. and Jayaraman, I. 1979.
Essential oil from Jodhpur grown
Eucalyptus viridis. Indian J. Pharm.
Sci. 4: 80-8 J • .
Pareek, O.P. and Vashishtha, B.B. 1980.
Variability in Citrulus colocynthis in
the Thar Desert. Ann. Arid Zone 19
(3): 277-281.
Ghanim, A., Jayaraman, I. and Muthana,
KD. 1979. Candelilla Wax. Proc.
Symposium on Production and
Utilization of Forest Products, Jammu,
11: 60-64.
 Post harvest technology-solar energy utilization
Jagdish P. Guptil
The present chapter is concerned
with utilization of solar energy for drying,
instant heat treatment and cold storage.
These are important aspects of post
harvest technology for which solar energy
can be used ..
Basic devices for thermal applica-
tions of solar energy are flat plate and
concentrating solar collectors.
A concentrating solar collector
essentially consists of a curved reflector.
A paraboloidal reflector concentrate rays
on a point whereas a cylindrical parabolic
mirror on a focal line. The latter could
be mounted along the North-South axis
which needs both diurnal and seasonal
tracking or along the East-West axis
which needs only seasonal tracking.
The above two types of solar devices
are used for most of the solar applications
including drying, heat treatment and cold
storage.
SOLAR DRYING
In India, the work on development
of solar dryers is being carried out at
CAZRI, Jodhpur, which also runs a Coor-
dinated Research Programme on Opera-
tional Research in Solar Energy Utilization
in Agriculture with CRRI, Cuttack, PAU,
Ludhiana, TNAU, Coimbatore and the
University of Udaipur as the cooperating
centres ..Other Institutes, engaged in rese-
261
arch on solar drying are nT, Kharagpur,
Annamalai University, RRL, Jammu, etc.
The design of a solar dryer should
depend upon the following criteria.
(i) Use of inexpensive materials and
ease of construction by the village
artisans at the site of use.
(ii) Suitability for drying particular
types of crops.
(iii) Incorporation of thermal storage
for use in sunless periods, and,
(iv) Option to use auxiliary mechani-
cal power and conventional fuels
where available.
A. Direct solar dryers
(i) Flat plate solar collector type
In this dryer the grain is kept on an
inclined perforated metallic tray which is
divided into four equal compartments.
This has been used for drying of 13 to 30
kg of grain. For 23 kg of grain the
moisture content could be reduced from
21% to 15% (w.b.) in about 9 hours. The
small fan causing an air flow rate of 15m3
per hour could be electric, wind or hand
driven.
(ii) Cabinet type
It essentially consists of a cabinet
with the horizontal insulated bottom and
an inclined glass window at an optimum
tilt to allow for solar radiation. The
 arrangement is made at the back for produce is not exposed to solar radiation
sliding -in and sliding out the wire mesh d.irectl y and therefore actinic gecomposi-
trays containing material to be dried. tlOn of the colour of the agricultural
Holes are drilled at the bottam for allow~ produce can be prevented and hence a
ing outside air in and at the top for moist superior quality of dried product results.
air to go out. The temperature in this
It has been observed that the forced
dryer sometimes reaches much beyond
circulation type solar dryer can be used to
60°C after loading it with agricultural
dry 1/2 ton of paddy per day and the
produce. It is ,not desirable in the case of
moisture content is reduced from a initial
fruits and vegetables. In order to regulate
val~e of .18-24% to a final value of 11-12%.
the temperature and increase air circula~
WhJ)~ dIscussing indirect solar dryers,
tion an improved solar dryer with a
mentIOn should also be made of the roof
chimney has been designed and tested
solar collecton wherein air is heated and
at CAZRI, Jodhpur. The dryer has a
circulated to the shed which is used for
basal area of 1.68 m 2 area and material
drying and storing. This method offers
-to b;: dried is kept in two wooden trays
a low cost solution to large scale drying.
(100 cm x 75 cm x 5 cm) with wire mesh.
C. Mixed type solar dryer
Twelve ventillation holes are provided at
In this type, although. a solar air
the bottom to ensure inflow of air and a
heater is used, partial drying of the
chimney (15 em dia x 76 cm length) of
product is also done directly. It has the
aluminium to allow for the escape of
advantage of making available fairly hot
moist air. A regulating valve controls the
air and also only partial direct solar
circulation of air. It took five days to
heating so that actinic degradation of
dehydrate 17.5 kg of chillies from a mois-
colour is less.
ture content of 80% to 6.7% in the impro-
In a solar dryer of this type the air
ved'type while in the simple type it took
heater is made of a blackened hardboard
six days to reduce the moisture content to
sheet and a perforated blackened metallic
12.5%. Similar cabinet type solar dryers
sheet covered with transparent glass or
are being studied at Tamil Nadu Agricul-
plastic.
tural University, Coimbatore, for drying
SOLAR HEAT TREATMENT
of chillies, coconut and cassava. Cabinet
Nqrmally, food grains are subject
solar dryers ~ave been used for drying of
apricots in Ladakh. . to insect infestation. To prevent this, a
solar device has been fabricated at Univer-
B. Indirect solar dryers sity of Udaipur. It essentially consists of
An direct solar dryer essentially ~parabolic reflector made of reflecting
consists of a solar air heater and the mylar sheet. It is installed horizontally
drying chamber. One advantage of this in the E-W direction so that diurnal trac-
type of dryer is that the agricultural king to follow the sun is not required.

262
 Traditional agro-forestry practices in arid zone of
Rajasthan
S.P. Malhotra
History has it on record that the
desert dwellers in India have not only
survived since ancient times but, great
civilizations flourisbed in the region. Man
had developed tenacious means and
adjustment mechanisms to cope up with
the vulnerable desertic situations (Malh-
otra and Mann, 1978).
As it is, cultivation of crops alone
IS a big gamble in the arid areas since
the rainfall would not only vary five to
ten folds from one year to another, but
also during the same year at places just a
few kms from each other. Most desert
dwellers tllerefore raise livestock as a
subsidiary occupation and allow shrubs
and trees to grow alongwith cultivated
crops to mainly cover risk and uncerta-
inty of crop maturity. In good rainfall
years, however, added returns are thus
accruable.
In the context of the present topic
I shall attempt to deal with agro-forestry
practices in different agroclimatic zones
of arid zone of Rajasthan.
Commullity-agro-forestry relationship
Agro-forestry practices were devel-
oped to achieve especially the following
benefits.
a) For meeting the fuel requirements
of the households.
263
b) For getting fencing materials for
the agricultural field ands hut-
ments.
c) For getting materials for construc_
tion of thatched hutments.
d) For getting fodder for livestock.
e) For getting vegetables and fruits
for human consumption.
e) For getting protection from wind
blast leading to erosion of soils
and also for adding green manure
in the fields (specifically when the
trees are not lopped).
For satisfying the above needs
different trees and shrubs have been
grown with different crops in different
agro-climatic zones of arid Rajasthan. In
personal discussion with S.K. Saxena
(S-2 Ecology) the following eight agro-
forestry zones have been deliniated and
the shrubs and trees grown with crop in
each of these regions have been described
in Table I.
SOLAR COLD STORAGE
It isevident from Table I that
Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) from among
the trees and Bord; (Zizyphus nummularia)
from among the shrubs form the impor_
tant components of vegetation grown
with different crops.
 '"
0.
o...
(J

..c
.....
.~

...::so
-...
...o
C
«l
..c
..... tJJ
o
'"o:l
...-, <l)

ro f-..
e:::
......
o
---::s
tJJ
.0
o ...
..c
c [/J
o
N
'0
.;::
<
c
>.
I-<
.....
tJJ
(1)
I-<
,£
I

...o
I:lI)
<

v
C
o
N

o .-
z ~
czi N
.

264
Agro-forestry practices
Brief details of agro-forestry prac-
tices adopted by the desert dwellers in
relation to cropping of Bordi and Khejri
are provided below:
Bard; is mostly taken with Bajra
(the pearl millet) crop which is the staple
food of the population of arid areas.
Right with the start of agricultural opera-
tions. viz., "Sood". that is cleaning of
the fields, Bordi plants are allowed to
remain and are not taken out. Care is
also taken that while ploughing and
weeding, Bordi plants are not removed
during rainy season. Bordt plants sprout
each year from the root stocks which are,
left in the fields in the preceeding year.
The plants also get established from the
seeds which fall in the fields. Twenty to
thirty years before an acre of field sown
with Bordi contained about 100-120 plants
of Bordi. However, wilh the. recent intro-
duction of tractor majority of the Bordi
plants get removed and the density per
acre has reduced to only 25-30 Bordi
plants in many cases. The farmers can
ill afford not to use the tractor but
wish that ways and means be explored
for greater number of Bard; plants in
Bajra fields. Most knowledgeable far-
mers admit about the reduced number
of Bordi plants, its excellent feed, fencing
and food values. and suggest for explor-
ing ways to ha ve more number of these
trees. Farmers look forward to science
for telling them the practices to be
adopted for such modifications including
row to row and plant to plant distances,
etc., Bajra crop matures in October and
is harvested while Pala harvesting is
done generally in November-December,
265
when the leaves are left for storage
purpose. In scarcity periods 'Bord; is
out twice a year, i.e., in ApriJ - May
and in November-December. Bordi is
also grown with Jowar crop in the same
fashion as in case of Bajra. However,
when taken in combination with legumes
Jike moth-moong and gOIVar, the produc-'
tion of these legume crops gets reduced.
This mainly is due to the Bordi achieving
almost the same height as that of the
crop. The uses of the Bordi leaves,
Bordi twigs, the mode of its collection,
storage and use may have been discussed
earlier and hence is not being provided
here,
Khejri termed as a king tree in the
arid Rajasthan grows well in combination
with crops like Bojra, legumes (morh-
moong) and oil seeds. The density of this
tree traditionally preferred and maintain-
ed in one acre area put under crops, was
about 25 to 35 trees. The plants getting
a vertically straight shape were allowed
to grow while the de shaped ones were
removed. As in case with Bordi. the
introduction of tractor for cultivation
purposes has affected the density of these
trees in the field boundaries while they
would prefer to' learn more if ploughing
through tractor could also help them
retain the number of trees traditionally
present in the fields.
Khejri. as is well, known, provides
livestock feed (leaves). vegetables (Sang-
ariya), fruits (Khokha) and timber.
When not lopped (as among one of the
cO,munities namely Bishnois) the leaves
that fall on the ground add fertility to
the soil. It may be pertinent to recomm-
end here that those engaged in researches
for amelioration of the desert dwellers
may intensify efforts for providing reco-
mmendations to the farmers regarding
optimum number of Khejri trees that
could -be taken per unit area and to sugg--
est the improvement in the package of
practices being followed by the farmers
for growth of these trees.
The trees like Bawalia (Acacia nito-
tica), Vilayati Babool (Prosopis juliflora)
and shrubs like Ker (Capparis aphyUa),
Phogra (Calligonum polygonoides) are also
important and useful and found mainly
on the borders of the field. These plants
produce fuel, fodder and fencing material
but disregarded by the farmers for agro-
forestry due to their negative effects on
the crop. However, looking to their
importance, possibilities to grow them
with the crop specifically On the field
boundaries in a more systematic manner
266
should be explored so that, the farmers
can get the benefits from these easy
growing desert plants.
Concluding Remarks
Awareness of the traditional agro-
forestry practices reveal the importance
of developing greater knowledge on the
past and present activities of the dwellers
pertaining to agro-forestry. This provides
leads for developing new knowledge
which could consequently bring about
improvements in the package of traditi-
onal practices and provide suggestions
for effective adjustments according to the
changed and changing situational factors.
Developing or improving upon the
traditional shrubs and trees grown in
combination with crops and a search for
alternatives assumes further significance,
specifically in the change in the system
of agri..:ultural operations.
 · Consolidation of holding~, land tenure and
related problems in agro-forestry
M.L. Purohit
Agro-forestry had been followed
since dawn of civilization, after drawing
a first furrow of plough on forest land.
This concept remained unnoticed through
the ages but followed in each and every
part of the world in one or other form.
In arid and semi-arid areas this practice
was common since times immemorial. It
was first recognized and properly
designated in 19th century by then
Forest Officer Mr. Taungya and after-
wards popularized as Taungya Systems l .
It was an in expensive means of
establishing timber plantations. Toungya
systems were used extensively in India
and Burma and were later adopted else-
where in south east Asia and in parts of
Latin America and Africa as well 2 . This
was first followed in hilly tracts. Slightly
modified form of this was 'shifting
cultivation' locally known as Jhummings
and in other parts of the world as
'Swiddell agricuitllral'3.
Concept
The forest trees groves, shrubs, etc.,
used to grow at farmer's field along
with arable crop but these are not in
definite order or in a specific pattern.
Usually found in ill planned fashion, being
their natural growth. According to the
socio-economic concept of agro-forestry,
267
the development of forest resources like
trees, shrubs, including arable crops,
forage and pastures raised as intercropp-
ed on farmer's fields with their active.
participation with the primary objective
of meeting their demands for fuel, timber
fodder and othe minor forest produce, as
well as to supplement their income,
through increasing productivity per unit
area over time beside achieving other
social beilefiis and ecological balances.
Growth and development of forest area
Before discussing the agro-forestry
vis-a-vis consolidation of holdings, ceiling,
land tenure and related problems let us
have a brief idea of forest growth and
development of Arid zone. In arid zone
the area under forest was only 1.07% in
1956-57 and 1.84% in 1977-78. Whereas
in Rajasthan area under forest was
4.2[% and 5.75%, respectively, in 1956-57
and 1977-78. In last twenty two years the
area under forest increased remarkably to
an extent of about 71 % as compared to
State, i.e., 37%. It can clearly be inferred
that the inclination of desert dwellers
towards forest was too much. While
fast growing population neutralized the
growth effect so that the per capita area
under forest which was hardly 0.023 ha
in 1961 had declined to 0.21 ha in 1971.
 However, ~tate showed a reverse trend, purposes (6.3%), checking wind erosion
i.e., 0.04 hajcapita in 1961 to 0.05 hal and fencing 4.9% and others 1.8%. These
ca pita in 1971. The growth rate of area studies focussed at the preferences qf the
under forest was computed 6.28% in arid arid dwellers towards the different type
zone and 5.27% in state as a whole. of species to meet their various daily
But there is no proper inventory of need. These considerations would be
forests, parameters, growing stock and served as pre-requisite for future planning
annual increment which gives rise to the of Agro-forestry system in arid and
semi·arid zones.
annual allowable cut so that capital stock
of the forest may not deplete. Due to Difficulty of forest grolVth
this very cause arid zone cannot become In arid zone. forests the loss of 90%
independent of forestry products to a or more of the planted trees was so
large extent; because forests provide the common that even fifty per cent survival
agriculturists with ploughs for cultivation, was considered an outstandi~g success6 ,
fodder for cattle, fuel for hearth and wood One of the reasons for failure was that
for shelter. To meet out the huge demand, sites used for afforestation which were
forestry should cover two major aspects, usually those. found unfit for agricultural
viz., multiple use and sustained yield. production and consisted of over exploi-
The combination of two aspect is to ted, shallow soil, on steep sandy slopes.
determine them in the light of natural If any arable land remaind it was thought
environment and of economic and social essential for the production of food crops.
consideration. Utilization of poor land by foresters
Sodal consideration for trees according to became a tradition and even something
their uses of a virtue. Perhaps it is for these reasons
For these consideration liking and many people believe that afforestation in
disliking of the rural society may be taken arid zones is not expected to yield ec~no­
into accQllnt with the help of opinion mic returns nor bring social benefits.
poll. Some of the past studies 4 revealed The only remedy for above difficul-
th"t multiple responses of,243 respondents ties is agro-forestry, where deep, unexploi-
to Sanchore block perferred forestry, 52% ted well rna intained soils are available.
opined for timQer for' agric~ltural imple- This type. of soils provided favourable
ments, 27% for shade, 24% for fruits and conditions for tree growth along with crop
food, 9.5% for fuel, 8.6% animal fled, cultivation and hope to yield better econo-
0.4% religious purposes and 11.5% had mic returns and bringing social benefits
not expressed their opinion. Another to arid zone in habitats.
study5 was conducted in Sumerpur block Nomenclature of variOllS forest systems
revealed that the first choice of the villa- On the cultivated fields the trees, of
gers was to grow trees for shade (54%) fire wood, shrubs, etc., are of infinite
followed by trees for agricultural imple- . varieties in various arid and semi-arid
ments. (38%), fruits and food (27%), zones due to variation of agro·climate,
animal feed (24%), fuel (11%). religious topography, preference of dwellers, etc.

268
The m~jor four categories of vegetation
either naturally growing or cultivated are
trees, shrubs, crops and forages. The
combination of either trees or shrubs and
crops comes under agro-forestry, while
trees and forages combination is known
as silvipastoral, etc. Similar to agro-fores-
try, there are various practices like farm
forestry, SOCIal forestry, community
forestry. mixed forestry, urban forestry,
recreation forestry, environmental fore-
stry. tree farming, forest farming village
wood lot, tree dimensional forestry (con-
servation tree crops and livestock), forestry
for 4F (fuel, forage, food, fertility)" etc.
According to the nomenclature advocated
ty KingS; agroforestry is to be treated as
a generic term which embraces the follow-
ing components:
0) Agri-silviculture systems: Cons-
cious and deliberate use of land for the
concurrent production 'of agricultural
crops (including tree crops) and forest
crops. This term win therefore, include
taungya or equivalent systems as well as
the basic concept of farm forestry or
extension forestry and farm wood lots in
the Indian content.
(ii) Silvi-pastoral systems : Land
management systems in which land is
managed for-the production of wood as
well as for rearing of domesticated anim-
als.
(iii) Agl'o-si/vi-pastoral systems: In
which land is managed for the concurrent
production of agricultural and 'forest
crops and the rearing of domesticated
arrivals_
(iv) Multi-purpose forest-tree produc-
tion systems: In which forest tree species
269
are regen,erated and manag\d for their
ability to produce not only wood but
leaves and/or fruits that are suitable for
food and/or fodder. This would, there-
fore, also include the use of nurse crops,
cover crops and interplanting of useful
species in forestry plantations.
The list of components could be
enlarged to include agro silvo-horticulture
systems and other multipurpose system
combinations of forest trees, plantation
crops, horticultural and agricultural crops,
pasture grasses, etc.
All the practices or nomenclatures
used except agro-forestry are raised on
common village land or g?vernment land.
The consolidation of holdings, ceiling
Acts, tenurial systems have not affected
these systems but agro-forestry is prone
to it. Prior to discuss their implications
on agro-forestry. it is essential to deal in
brief what are these acts?
Consolidafion of holdings and agro-forestry
The Rajasthan Holdings (Consolida-
tion and prevention of Fragmentation)
Act 1954, was passed and came into force
from the II th Dec, 1954. But actual work
of consolidation of holdings was started
in May 1957_ Central subsidy was"availiP
ble to the exten t of 50% of the net cost
subject to an overall maximum of the
expenditure. It was envisaged, that 50%
of the expenditure would be recovered
from the beneficiary farmers. The consoli-
dation of holdings means rearranging
the scattered fragments of individual
o\vners into few bigger and more comp-
act field through exchange with fragment
of other cultivators in the area. The
major aims of consolidation is to reduce The agro-forestry practices followed after
fragments, to facilitate the advanced consolidation of holdings is well received
methods of cultivation. provides opportu- as compared to before. Already developed
nity for planning of village common fragments became an obstacle to the
land. Surplus land obtained after consoli- consolidation of holdings. Therefore,
dation may be used for roads, schools, consolidation of holdings and agro-fores-
play grounds, etc. try may go side by side.
Two types of consolidation was Ceiling Art
followed, viz., voluntary and compulsory. The state legislation passcd the la w
But both of them faced various difficul- on the subject through "Rajasthan
ties like lack of trained persons, involve- Tenancy" (Amendment) Act 1960 (Act
ment of huge costs, affection towards No.4 of 1960). Act received the assent of
ancestral land, non-availability of upto the President on March 12,1960 and came
date records, opposition by village land- into force from 15th Dec. 1963 thereby
lords, money lenders, various agencies, providing considerable time for transfers,
etc. Without consolidation of holdings when the law was enforced a series of
agro-forestry remained stagnant. The litigations followed with the result that as
small size of holdings situated at a against the estimated two milli.on acres
eonsiderable distance caused inconve- on Iy 35,165 acres could be resumed by
nience for tree plantation and agro-fores- the end of 1965.
try practices. Already well developed The unit under this law kept 'A
plots with fairly good density of trees
standard acre' shall mean the area of land
became a major hindrance in consolida- which, with reference to its productive
tion of holdings. An individual may get a capacity, situation, soil classification and
plot Ot few plots in exchange but difficult other prescribed particuiars is found in
to provide trees, if available then not of the prescribed manner to be likely to yield
the same age. The affection of an indivi-
10 mounds 9 (4 quintals) of wheat yearly
dual to his planted trees avoid this type
and in case of land not capable of produ-
of exchange. Consolidation is possible in
cing wheat, the other likely produce
irrigated tract but the opinion expressed
thereof shall for the purpose of calculat-
by majorify of the respondents in unirrig-
ting a standard acre, to determine
ated areas that they were not interested in
according to prescribed scale so as to be
it due to uncertainty of rainfall. In rainy
equivalent in terms of money value to ten
season one plot receives better rains than
mounds of wheat.
other, if he has only one he may suffer a
lot. The size of plots is also fairly large Provided that III determining a
in un irrigated as compared to irrigated ceiling area in terms of standard acres,
areas. The problem of consolidation in . the money value of the produce of wel~
arid and humid areas in different vis-a-vis irrigated (Chahi)10 land shall be taken
Agro-forestry. The size of holdings in . as being equivalent to the money value
humid. areas or irrigated is very meagre to the produce of aq equal area of unirri-
and they may raise few trees per hectare. gated (baroni)l1 Hind.

270
 Even in Ceiling Acts exemptions were
there. The policy behind the exemptions
while determining the general ceiling
on agricultural holdings in a state, it will
also be necessary to consider the catego-
ries of farms to which the ceiling need
not apply. Three mli'in factors could be
taken into account in deciding upon
exemptions from the Ceiling namely (i)
Integrated nature of operation, especially
where industrial and agricultural works
are undertaken as a composite enterprises,
(ii) Specialized character of operation,
(iii) from the aspect of agricultural
production the need to ensure that efficie-
ently managed farms which fulfil certain
conditions are not broken up.
If these considerations are kept in
view there should appear to be an advan-
tage in exempting the following ca'egories
of farms from the operation of ceiling
which may be proposed, (i) Tea, Coffee
and Rubber plantation, (ii) Orchards,
where they constitute reasonable compact
area, (iii) Specialized farms engaged in
cattle breedings, dairying, _ wool raising,
etc., (iv) Sugarcane farms operated by
sugar factories, (v) Efficiently managed
farms which consist of compact blocks on
which heavy investment or permanent
structural improvements have been made
and break up is likely to lead to a fall in
production, (vi) Land held by or under the
management of any temple, Masjid 12 ,
Gurdwara 13 or Goshala 14 and land held
by and educational institution of a public
nature if the entire income of such land is
appropriated for such institution.
Government gave compensation for
surplus land acquired above the ceiling
land.
271
1. 30 times the sanctioned rent of 1st
25 acres,
2. 25 times for next 25 acres, and
3. 20 times for remaining land,
30 standard acres to a family of five
members and 5 standard acre per additio-
nal qJember to a limit of 60 standard
acres.
In fact 1st Ceiling Act since Dec. 1963
could never be properly implemented due
to all kinds of vested interests. In order
to overcome the situation the RaJasthan
Legislative Assembly took up the issue
again and passed the Rajasthan Imposi-
tion of Ceiling on Agricultural Holdings
Act 1973. This law reduced the ceiling
limit to eighteen standard acre.
The reduction in land owned by
an individual caused less motivation for
Agro-forestry. After plantation, if surplus
area is acquired by State leads to disin-
centive to the agro-forestiY develop-
ment. The sub-division of land, due to
law of inheritance and succession reduced
the size of a plot create a conducive
condition for non adopting agro-forestry
practices. After reduction in size the
tendency of the owner to take more area
under cultivation, reduce fallow land,
rcpetative use without adding additional
inputs, indiscriminate felling of trees due·.
to hard press need of fuel wood for
shelter, implements, etc. This hampers the
d.evelopment of Agro-forestry. The only
natural growth over sub-marginal and
marginal lands took lot of time to attain
maturity of the trees. Well managed
farm wood lot, or agroforestry farms may
be exempted from the ceiling on holdings.
This phenomenon will act as major incen-
tive for the forest growth.
 - -
Land tenures and agro forestry
Land tenure systems can be critica-
lly reviewed under two major era, before
Independence and after. Before Jaglr
(feudal state) abolition various land tenu-
rial systems prevailed like BllOmich.:lra15 ,
Soson 16 , Jagir17, KIIO/su 18 , etc. The land
was in the hands of feudal lords, given to
tenants at will for cultivation.
Princely States-feudallords-tenants,
e.g., passetedors 19 , doli 20 on rental or
share basis or free in lieu of services
rendered to feudal lords. The productivity
depends on the system of land tenure,
being a status symbol is attached to land
owned in the rural society. 'But after
independance uniform land policy was
formulated by passing number of land
legislations from time to time. All the
peasants are Khatedars 21 and only few
are goir khatedars22. The ownership can
change the sand into gold. This proverb
was applicable in land tenure systems too.
In preindependance land owned by Jagir-
dars (feudal lords) or Maharaja (King).
These feudal lords were however princi-
pally responsible to the states in a very
loosely defined fashion. Ram Pande 23
revealed that as much as 62% land was
owned by such Jagirdars in the arid areas
, of Western Rajasthan., Ownership of land
was essentially concentrated in the hands
of the kings relatives or those who rende-
red personal services to tpe king.
In this type of uncertain tenurial
status tillers of the soil could not think
of tree plantation due to eiection from
land, frequent changing land-ownership,
and various other considerations.
~fter independance peasants grew
trees on their own fields but before
272
transferring of land to peasantry trees
were ,cut, sold and converted into -unrep--
orted cash. But in Khalsa land tenurial
system tree population on the self cultiv-
ated land was found better than other
tenurial systems. Now at present the
density of Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) is
40 to 400 trees per hectare and similar
case in Bordi (Zizyphus nummularia).
Some times tender plants of bord; are
uprooted inspite of lot of care at the
time of ploughing with tractor. These
trees are acting as shock absorbers in the
famine and scarcity period by providing
top feed, twigs, roots, bark, etc. Only
a minor defect is that these trees are not
planted in proper manner. It creates
the problem in ploughing, turning of
tractor driven implements. These are
acting as complementary enterprises to
crops by sustaining lot of livestock with
added returns, per unit area over time,
besides changing microclimate of the
area changing fertility status, changing
land value, reducing crop risk and wind
hazards.
Related Problems of Agro Forestry
The problems of agro-forestry may
be clsssified under different heads
I. Technical problems
2. ' Economic problems
3. Social problems
4. Institutional problems.
I. Technical problems: Technical prob-
lems are mainly discussed at length by
respective discipline, e.g., what type of
species to be grown:
generally those species which would
not compete with crops for mois-
ture, space and air
 trees should provide nitrogen in soil
and enhancing fertility by fixing
. nitrogen being legumes through
nodules.
trees should provide food, fodder,
fuel and timber for shelters.
shrubs or tree should be grown with
crop to maintain proper eco-system.
damaging of crops with toxic effect
of tree roots should not be grown.
broad leaves trees should be avoided
to safe guard of crops agaillst bird
damages.
2. Economic problems in agro-forestry
are as follows:
availability of land or leased in or
share basis.
number of fragments and distance
between them,
size of fragments-small due to sub-
division,
shape of fragments-irregular fields
after further sub-division,
availability of labour force,
availability of capital or credit from
various sources to develop agro-
forestry,
to fulfil the family requirement of
fuel, feed, fodder, timber, shelter,
etc.
some of the problems can be man-
aged internally within farm but few
need solution from outside, i.e.,
government's land distribution
policy, agro-climatic conditions,
etc.
3. Social problems: The species are acc-
epted by the rural society or not:
traditional farmers faced problems
in adopting new technology like
agro-forestry,
273
due to long maturation time farmers
cannot wait,
socio-cultural and religious barriers
in number of tree species to be
planted along with crop.
whether aesthetic or recreational
value of the species or not,
whether some ~hady trees with
profuse canopy tq give protection
under scorching heat and hot winds
for social or family gathering,
irregular and small fields are facing
Jot of problems after raising trees
and shrubs in turning of tractor
driven implements, leaving unplou-
ghed land around trees, etc.
adoption of mechanical cultivation
may become problem under agro-
foresty systems, if it is not properly
laid out and especially when shrubs
are raised instead of economic
trees,
super natural beliefs attached with
number of tree species.
4. Institutional problems
government policy and Land Re-
forms Acts,
revenue and taxation generally
increase after the improvement of
land,
external demand for major and
minor forest produce,
infrastructure and marketing facili-
ties for disposal of forest as well as
crop or livestock produce,
proper institutionalization of agro-
forestry in comparison to farm,
social, communities, extension fore-
stries, etc.
Agro-forestry policy formulation
Agro-forestry policy may be form-
 ulated to attain a specified goal, i.e;,
productivity per unit area over time,
reduction in instability of production,
socioeconomic security of a family and
rural community within a designated
span of time.
The major criteria of agro-forestry
policy formulation may be in terms of
people's particular needs, their goals and 4. Bose, A.B. and Bharara, L.P. 1965.
their resources. The policy should be
such that politically acceptable, adminis-
tratively feasible, economically sound and
socially acceptable and capable of modi-
5. Bhal'ara, L.P. and Sen, M.L.A. 1970.
fications as conditions changes. The trees
in each and every cultivated or unculti·
vated land with an individual may be
marked on the map of the farm so that 6. Goor, A.Y. and Barney, C.W. Forest
the indiscriminate felling may be stopped
easily. If possible age of the trees or
shrubs may also be entered in the pass 7. Sangal, P.M. 1981. Scope and implica-
book of every Khatedar in rural areas.
The consolidation of holdings,
ceiling Act and land tenurial ownership
may act in developing of the agro-for-
estry. Some times these legislations
became hindrance in development of
agro-forestry or vice-versa. Agro-fore-
stry can be developed by providing some
incentive to the new allotees for raising
trees along with crop cultivation. These
trees afterSutl development provide some
remuneration or services to the person
concerned even in scarcity period'. Agro-
forestry would help in income stabliliza-
tion over worst period and provide addi-
tional returns per unit area over space
and time.
REFERENCES
1. Govindan Kutty, M. 1980. Taungya
cultivation ill Kerala, Paper presented
for '2nd Forestry Conference.
274
2. Taungya methods have been used in
Costa Rica Trinidad (Wattets) 1971:
280.
3. Swidden agriculture, Swidden ,in Bur-
mese language but the term has been
adopted widely in many countries to ,
mean the type of timber/swiddening
combination.
Some sociological considerations in
Farm Forestry. Ann. Arid Zone 4 (I):
24-31.
Social aspects of farm forestry in Arid
Zone. Ann. Arid Zone 9 (1): 36-44.
tree planting in Arid Zones. Second
Ed. The Ronald Press Compa_ny, NY.
tion of Agroforestry in India. The
Indian Forester, May 81. 107 (5): 289-
297.
8. King, K. F. S. 1978. Agro-forestry
paper presented to 50th Tropica Agri-
culture Day, Royal Tropical Institute,
Amesterdam, Holland.
9. Maul1d- Unit of measurement of
weight, tquals to 37.5 kg.
10. Chahi· Irrigated land, mostly by well
irrigation.
11. Barani- Unirrigated or dry land, where
only rainfed crops to be raised.
12. Masjid- Mosque.
13. Gurdwara- Holy temple of Sikhs.
14. Goshala- Charitable institute, where
cows are kept, especially those are
disabled and old.
15. Bhomichara- Land rights, where land
holders were Rajput ·nobles, whose
 ancestors held the lands prior to for-
mation of erstwhile princely States.
16. Sa san- The villages granted by rulers
in for'm of charity to religious caste
such as Charan, Baraths, Brahmins,
Swami, etc.
11. Jagir- The villages granted to some
one in lieu of his services or special
relations with ruler.
18. Khalsa- The yillages under the erst-
while Maharaja (directly owned by
them).
19. Passetedars- were mostly from artisan
castes got land in lieu of their services
275
rendered to landlords (feudal lords).
20. Doli- Land allotted to priest in lieu of
services rendered to temples of feudal
lords.
21. Khatedars- Peasants have ownership
rights of land, and landrights entered
in their names in klmahandi register
of land revenue.
22. Gair Khatedars- Temporary land allot-
tee without ownership rights of land.
23. Ram Pande 1973. Agrarian Movement
in Rajasthan. University Publishers,
India.
 Benefit-cost considerations in Agroforestry
Mruthyunjaya

Benefit-cost investigations are need- the secondary benefits represent the added
ed in order to ensure that agricultural value over and above the immediate pro-
investments are desirable and economic- ducts and services which the project in-
ally sound and that they will be utilized duces. The primary benefit of an agrofor-
to the utmost advantage (Yang, 1968). estry project, for instance is the increase
in the availability of fuel; its secondary
In the appraisal of an investment, or indirect benefits are the increase in
'benefit' means any increase in produc- the earnings of the timber transportation,
tion or any gain in goods, materials and
processing industries in the area and
services which emanates from it. 'Cost' these Increases have come th~ough the
means the expenditure or the consump- handling of a large amount of forest fuel
tion of goods. materials and services for which the forest project makes available.
its production and maintenance.
Likewise, costs can also be classified
Benefits and costs can be put into
into those which are primary or direct
two general categories : tangible and
and those which are secondary or indirect.
intangible. Intangible benefits and costs The primary costs are the value of the
are those to which no value in monetary
materials and services used for under-
terms can be assigned. For example. the taking the project; secondary costs are
damage to food crops by birds which
those incurred in securing the secondary
have beeh harboured by forest trees in the
benefits and among them are all the costs
crop field is an intangibls cost. Similarly,
incurred by the transportation and pro-
the control of wind erosion by forest
cessing agencies in handling the increased
trees in the crop field is an intangible
fuel output which is due to agroforestry
benefit. The importance of intangible project.
benefits and costs should be duly recog-
nised to understand the process and It is suggested that when benefit/
increase the prospects of development. cost appraisals are made, all expected
Tangible benefits which can be ex- . benefits and costs-primary and secondary,
pressed in monetary terms may be classi- . tangible and intangible-should be carefu-
fied primary or direct and secondary or lly ascertained and examined. Only the
indirect. The primary benefits represent values of primary and tangible benefits
the value of the immediate goods and and costs however can be determintd and
services which emanate from the project; calculated with a reasonable degree of

276
accuracy, for as said earlier no value can
be assinged to the intangibles and the
drtermination of the value of the secon-
dary benefits and costs are susceptible to
wide inaccuracies and errors.
The making of the benefit/cost
analysis requires the: (a) determination of
the quantity and value of the various kinds
of costs and benefits, (b) conversion of
costs and the benefits which take place in
different periods to a common time basis,
and (c) comparison of total costs and
total benefits.
The value of various kinds of C0sts
and benefits will be assessed through the
market value of output produced and
through the costs of producing the same
output in some alternative manner. The
market value approach is easier to apply
and is widely used.
Tbe method of analysis for conver-
sion of costs and benefits to a common
time basis is called discounted cash flow
technique. The prime aspect of this tech-
nique is to compare the costs and returns
over time. The costs and returns on year
to year basis are to be estimated first.
Then to estimate the worth of the project,
the costs are to be subtracted from the
returns again on year to year basis to
arrive at net return stream, the so called
cash flow and then it is to be discounted
to the present or known period of time.
The discounted net cash flow has to be
added over the life period of the project
to get the net present value (NPV).
Symbolically, the procedure can be
expressed as (Mitra and Muranjan, 1980::
n Rt-Ct
NPV= ~ project evaluation techniques has been
t=1 1(l+i)O
277
where, Rt= receipts in year t,
Ct= costs in year t,
i = discount rate,
and, n = number of years (project life).
If the NPV is a positive sum, it
implies that the former will get a return
in excess of the value of the capital inves-
ted by him plus the specified rate of
return on the capital. If the NPV is
'Zero', then the return to the farmer is just
equal to the capital invested plus interest
on it at the specified rate A negative
NPV would mean inability of the farmer
to recover his capital plus interest on it at
the specified rate. Projects with positive
NPV when properly discounted can be
considered as financially feasible and can
be taken up for implementation.
The economic feasibility of the
project can be judged by looking to the
benefit-cost ratio expected from the
project. Benefit-cost ratio can be worked
out using the relationship (Mitra and
Muranjan, '1980)
n Bt
2;
B-C ratio= t= 1 O+i)O
n Ct
2; - - -
t=l {J+i)n
where, n = project period,
Bt= benefits of the '1' th year,
Ct= cos's of the t th year,
and, i = rate of discount.
Projects whose B-C ratio exceeds
one can be considered as economically
sound and hence can be taken for imple~
mentation.
ll/ustration
The use of NPV and B-C ratio as
illustrated with an example (Table) taken
 Table. Cash flow of per hectare benefits and costs of irrigated agroforestry
(eucalyptus and cotton) project, Vatava, Gujaratl.
Year Cash out flow 2 Cash inflow 2 Net cash Present (l9n) value
(costs) (Benefits) flow of net cash flow at
15% discount 3
1973 5780 -5780 -5780.00
1974 1365 8000 +6635 +5772.45
1975 1365 500 -865 -653.94
1976 1365 500 -865 -569.17
1977 1365 Il25 -240 -137.28
1978 5336 44461 +39125 +1944513
1979 174R 200 -1548 -668.74
1980 4253 12900 +8647 +3251.27
1981 340 825 +485 +158.59
1982 4942 46084 +41142 +11684.33
1. In the original Table of the article, cash flow approach has not been followed. ,We have
generated cash flow, Det cash flow, and present (1973) value of Det cash flow at 15 percent
discount rate for easy illustration. We have converted net cash flow to present value taking
1973 as the time base.
2. For details see Srivastava and Pant (1979).
3. Heady and Jensen (1961), p. 389.
from Srivastava and Pant (1979). The data As can be seen, the agro-forestry
relate to agroforestry project at Vatava, project at Vatava is financially feasible
Ahmedabad, Gujarat. The farm had an and economically sound.
area of 78.9 hectares out of which a total
REFERENCES
of 64.75 hectares has been progressi-
vely'piaced under Eucalyptus plantation Heady, Earl O. and Herald, R. Jensen,
starting from the year 1973. 1.82 ha of Farm management economics. Pren R

this plantation was felled in 1978. Only tice Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
one coppice rotation (out of four) has 1961. P. 389-90,
been considered in the analysis. During
Mitra, A. K. and Muranjan, S.W. 1980.
the first, year, the farmer took cotton as
Economic benefits of rural electrifi-
an intercrop. cation in M aharashtra-A study of Four
New NPV' and B-C ratio can be work-
Districts. Artha Vignana 22(2) 169-182.
ed out for this project. Net present value
9 Rt-Ct 40311.77 - 7809.13 Srivastava, B.P. and Pant, M.M. 1979.
(NPV) =~ = or Social forestry on a cost-benefit
t=1 l(1+i)n +32502.64 analysis framework. The Indian For-
9 Bt ester 105 (I). January 1979, P.2-35.
};
t= 1 (I+i)D 48702.04 Yang, W. Y. 1968. Methods of farm
B C ratio= - - - - - management investigations. FAO,
9 Ct 16199.40 Rome, P. 229-243.
};--- or
t=l (l+i)ll =3.00
278

Role of institution in agro-forestry development
L.P. Bharara
INTRODUCTION
Importance of Institutions
Scientists view Agro-forestry from
various angles. Their notions concerning
the phenomenon vary from climatic to
bio-physical to socio-economic in nature,
The geographers in general have
used to emphasize the role of physi-
cal environment, whereas economists
have laid more emphasis on economic
factors, and as such -the natural
relationship between the phenomenon
has been under emphasised. In fact agro-
forestry is the product of not only
physical environment but also of social
and technological frame work such as
land ownership and tenancy system, size,
shape and layout of plantation, pressure
of population, irrigation system, imple-
ments, market, attitude of farmer and
his literacy status, etc. Hence, launching
a direct attack on technological problems
above will not be sufficient to ensure
success for agro-forestry development
plans and package progammes but simul-
taneons attention must be given to the
social institutions which at the moment
are impediment to the rapid development
of agro-forestry. So much intimate is
the relationship between agriculture and
character of social institutions and cust-
oms that it becomes virtually impossible
279
•
to decide which is cause and which is
effect (Buchanan, 1959). However, in
recent studies attempts have been made
to analyse the agro-forestry systems in
this light and under different stages of
development.
Studies conducted earlier have
revealed from forestry as an importont
measure for brin~ing relief; its potentiali-
ties for meeting the needs of the rural
population for fuel, timber, edible fruits
and animal feed. for checking wind ero-
sion and for raising the productivity of
the area. Species and lands suitable for
farm forestry and methods of farm fores-
try management have been suggested
(Khan, 1960; Misra, 1960; Raheja, 1960)
by several workers.
Case studies in arid zone
Various studies conducted on socio-
logical aspects of farm forestry (Bose
and Bharara, 1965; Bharara and Sen,
1970) and impact of irrigation in devel-
oping agriculture and forestry (Bharara,
1977, 1974; Malhotra and Bbarara, 1971)
are available at the Institute. In arid
areas the forest areas are rather discour-
aging. No forest worth the name existed
in the former Bikaner state due to
adverse climatic conditions prevail ing
in t.he area. The meagra tree growth
wherever found existing, Were preserved.
 Planting of new trees by private persons
was encouraged by grant of rewards
and concessions. Trees were also both
planted and preserved at state expenses
and their cutting was prohibited when
green. These measures resulted in an
appreciable increase in numbers of trees
growing in the area. The actual manag-
ement of forests was introduced in 1910
for developing forests in the area. With
an idea of incoming irrigation facility
through Gang Canal forestry develop-
ment in advance was conceived as a
measure of d<!sertification. Practical
introduction of forestry in the state took
place with the start of Nursery in 1926-27
on the bank of Sarpalsar tank. A forest
Act was passed during the year. The
nursery raised plantations of Shesham
(2921), Bablll (326), Siris {250), Date Palm
(16) and Neem (8). Gradual improve-
ment developed 1367 ha of Hanumangarh
forests, 822 ha Bir forest and 342 ha
Madh Forest in the year 1927-28. Inculca-
tion of an idea of afforestation as a
meas-ure of soil conservation and regional
development was further strengthened
andthe forests were closed to camels
throughout the year, Goats and sheep
~ere also banned from entering the forest
area frorr- the first July 1928.
The rapid increase in population
and consequent encroachment of cultiva-
tion in forest lane's; increasing demand
for forest produce, uncontrolled lopping,
overgrazing and overexploitation of the
land are the various factors exagerating
the situation. Since any programme'
for the successful development of farm
forestry would depend upon the active
participation of the villagers, it is consi-
280
dered essential to know their preferences.
The villagers preferred trees' chiefly to
be planted for getting timber for agricul-
tural implements followed by shady
plants, fruits and food, fuel, animal feed
and religious purposes. In the region
one finds bush growth and very hapha-
zard planting of trees. Very little inter-
est in planned planting was evidenced by
the villagers. This requires a great deal
of pursuation and demonstration to ind-
uce farmers to take up farm forestry.
Landless farmers should be induced to
start planting trees preferably from
community places.
Since the forest lands in the arid
areas are grossly inadequate. The fuel
wood and timber requirement have
therefore to be met through the develop-
ment of wood lots. Farm forestry has an
important role to playas a supplement
to agriculture and without any detriment
to it. Some possible sites for planting
trees are:
(i) The cultivators should be encour-
aged to plant trees around culti-
vated fields and habitation to
function as shelter belts against
wind erosion.
(ii) On sand dunes to stabilize them.
(iii) On pasture lands to provide shade
and feed for animals.
(iv) Around community facilities such
as schools, gram panchayat as
both have special role to play in
tree planting programme. School
teachers should inculcate in
"--_ children a genuine love for
plants.
(v) Road sides
 (vi) Religious feelings of women
should be exploited by having a
small grove of peepaf.
The planting of trees on c_ommu-
nity lands for meeting the needs of the
community should be managed by the
Gram Panchayat with financial help from
Panchayat Samities. In view of different
climatic conditions, agro-forestry should
be taken up to perform a protective
function in which case the question of
equating returns to investment assumes
secondary role.
Developmental Stages, problems
Inslllutiono/ Approrch
The three developmental stages are
identified as traditional agricultural
economies. transitional agricultural
economies and market-oriented agricul-
tural economies (Table I). In each case
there is a development iJrocess-beginning
with- traditional subsistence production
activities through the transformation to
more modern agricultural economies
culminating in the third stage of comm-
ercialization market orientation.
I. Traditional subsistence economies
In these economies, most of the
people earn their livelihood from the
land, they eat what they produce and
have little left OVer to market. Changes
in the production system are taking place
slowly and practices and facilities are
likely to accommodate themselves to
needs as they emerge.
2. Transitional agricultural economies
Areas are increasingly being deve-
loped. Populations human and livestock
are growing very fast. Most small
farmers are becoming marginal. With a
larger proportion of food crops needing
to go to urban markets, certain kinds of
problems. characteristics to the stage of
development, become evident. Inade-
. quate facilities are among the principal
problems in the transitional period. Need
for roads, transportation. at low cost are
essential. Here the question needs to be
answered as to what kinds and forms of
inputs add to the efficiency of the Agro-
forestry system in the period of transition
from traditional to commercial. Thus
comes the major role of institutions and
agencies which can facilitate the system.
and
3. Market oriented agricultural economy
At this stage changes in traditional
and transitional stages are to take place
with the establishment of mstitutions and
the role of these in developing the areas.
Technology advances and income rises.
The part played by the traditional middle
man also changes. Changing in the
farming method, technology surrounding
the agro-forestry system; changes in the
basic institutions roles, etc. lead to
specialization in the production proces-
ses. The concept of the change agent,
,; the individual or institution will bring
together the elements .into a new combin-
ation with characteristics more conducive
to efficient development of agro-forestry
systems in the area.
Characteristics of the various devel-
opmental stages indicate the nature and
extent of the problems and form the base
for strategies for development. Recogni-
sing the differential land use pattern
- influencing socic-ecoDomic and physical
features of the area, different strategies
~uited to different eco-systems are needed
for development planning. Strategies
28 L
 ., In
I:lIl ~
C ....
In
I:lIl
00. II)
II)
U
C
C1 '"
U 0. ~
.2 ....
~ "'0
::I "'0
~ '<t u 0 In
o 0i:
o .... II) In
~ e
- f!
II)
C iii 0.0.
i i

..c
u
CIS
o
...
0.
0.
CIS
-;
C1
·3
oE
..
'"
c

8
II)

:D
o
....
,0.
....
~
III
...
II)
N
...
.2 .2
6.... "'0
11).

-<
I:lIl
'"::I

In

B ·3 "'0 III

.c
~
In
0;:
2u
Q
II)

II)
"
oS:
ca
0;:
...0.o CIS
.... o
>
o
c
...ao
0. CIS
..c 05
_CIS
-;
u
I ....o
C1 '"
~
c: '"c ~
.,; o~
of:! ~ C g -; U
II)
c
o~ ...
In ::I CIS
c;j o <II c B
Cl .c oJ 0. o~ 2 II)
....
VI
C
..... -0 o~ c: u
8 1:l ca0. .5 ::I
<> o C
a0. ] ,0';::: ...o
CIS '"
o§ u
CIS ::I ...o
II) '"
o
_g
::I
0.
:; c: '" C g 0.
..:
o
......
CIS
.~ Sg o 8 II)

-
.11)
> 0. ..;
II)
I I
o

282
-..,
"0
....
o
bl)
.5en
..,....
co
o
.j'"

.e;.
;a
·0iJ
.;:
~
en
co -;;;
o
bl)
c<I) '"

·a..,'" 8 '0
0. 0
o,.c;
en
o - u
c:Il
o
I
1
..,,n.... 0;
,;.: 3.s.
B ....
en co co
co 8 o,
....0.o 8 .....
o 0
en
-;;
0.
c"O '" ..::: .:: ~
o c
-.:::: co
co-
II)
'"
o
'"co -:d ::c"'''0
-
<I)
"0 bl) ,.c;
co c
..... .... i5
u ~~
Cll N ::l
co .;; 0
<I) co 0. 0.
;. c
'0 .... co~
I Cll I I

'"0.
o
....
u
en t;;
<I)
::l
·0

'"o ~ 8 ~8
.~
'" -;;;
·0
o
..::: o
u

.5
>
o
c
oen
.5
III
bl)
c
:§
c
.s
-:d
;n
-o
8c
'0 ~ ·8 ~
-;;;
C
co u .~
<I)
.5 en
oS
-
,.c;
o
"0
.......... I
.D
::l
rn

283
 cuen
o
e-
.:!?
"0

11)
.::
;;
....
8-
o
o
U

c
.g
.~
c
:s
8
6
o
u
..... "0
C
<tt
...
~

o
e-
CI>
c
<tt
;:

184
 that can produce greater benefits require
people's participati?,o and local institu-
tions involvement which needs to be
assessed and examined in various deve-
lopmental activities. For local resource
conservation, there should be more
emphasis on motivation, perception and
local values as the starting points for
securing participation of local communi-
ties (U.N. Conference on Desertification,
1977).
Institutional role·policy considerations
Each stage of development has
been identified by certain characteristics
with agro-forestry problems and institu-
tional approach to these problems. Here
traditional insti tutions are regarded as
social decision systems which operate to
answer the following questions. How
profitable and what special benefits can
be gained from agro-forestry? Are the
essential resources of knowledge and
capital available? How effective are
present means of encouragement? What
are the incentives and disincentives to
agro-forestry ?
But what is the role of modern
institutions in agro-forestry development?
Institutions are viewed by many planners
and most farmers as an adjunct to devel-
opment and production of the system.
The role is assumed to adapt itself to the
nature and extent of the professional
groups, climatic vagaries; kinds and
quantities of commodities produced, etc.
The supplying of loans, subsidies, credit
alongwith easy procedures will help the
farmers to take b'!tter use of the institu-
tions. The supplying of farm inputs,
extension services including technical
285
know how of agro-forestry programmes
will be seen as providing the means and
motivation for increased production.
Hence, the development planning for the
agro-forestry sectors, investments by
the financial institutions will help the
production process by introduction
of irrigation system, fertilizer plants,
pesticides, farm machinery and supply of
credit for the purchase of these things.
Thus various incentives based on the
assumption that certain types of encou~a­
gement such as loans, advances and
concessions are essen tial. The estab-
lishment of institutions are thus the
only remedial measures to propagate
incentives to agro-forestry developmental
plans.
Thus if agro-forestry is to be encou-
raged, several steps are necessary. The
lack of knowledge of the potential of
agro-forestry must be remedied. The
efforts of the local institutions, develop-
ment agencies are very neC'essary. The
scheme of government assistance could
usefully be restructured and an annual
easy payment would be worked out. The
long production period could also be
mitigated against by the participation of
extension agencies in the establishment
of the plantations. There are also several
government schemes (DPAP, SFDA)
which have the effect of increasing local
income in the area.
The answer to agro"forestry prob-
lems do not lie in stalling afforestation or
protecting trees from wood poachers
but in people-oriented development or
what has come to be called 'community
forestry' alongwith the establishment of
helping institutions.
 For effective functioning of the
institutions engaged in disseminating
innovations, the importance of social
system needs mentioning. The adoption
of new technology/innovation involves
decision making on the part of the
farmers: This decision takes into acco-
~nt not only the economic advantages
accruing from adoption but also depends
upon social setting in which he is placed.
Hence, the behaviour, action and charac-
teristics is very much influenced by socio.
psycho"cultural factors including religion,
caste, moves, norms, education, Jaw,
public opinion, etc.
Ralph Linton, has very clearly
narrated that, "if we know what a so-
ciety's culture is, including its particular
systems of values and attitudes, we may
predict with a fairly high degree of
probability whether the bulk of its
members will welcome or resist a parti-
cular innovation".
286
REFERENCES'
Buchanan, R.O. 1959. Some R~flections
on Agricultural Geography. Geography
44: 1-2.
Bharara, L.P. and Sen, M.L.A. 1970. Social
aspects offarm forestry in arid zone.
Ann. Arid.Zone 9 (1): 36.44.
Bharara, L.P. 1977. Socio-economic
consequences of canal irrigation in
an arid district of Rajasthan. Ann.
Arid Zone 16 (4): 458-472.
Bose, A.B. and Bharara, L.P. 1965. Some
sociological considerations in Farm
Forestry. Ann. Arid Zone 4 (l):
24-31.
Khan, M.A.~. 1960. Planning offarm
forestry. ]n Procd. Farm Forestry
Symp., 1958, ICAR, New Delhi.
Misra, B.R. 1960. Creation of fuel-
cum-fodder reserves in the plains of
Chhattisgarh. In Pro cd. Farm Forestry
Symp., 1958, ICAR, New Delhi.
 Reflections for the future
I. Research
Since the main problem besetting
the system of agro-forestry is the inherent
potentiality of competition among differ-
ent types of species for solar energy, nutr-
ients and water, the selection of species
assumes great importance which should
not only be compatible with each other
but also complement each other.
The trees in particular should have
the following attributes which should
receive special attention for research:
1) they should be amenable to early
wide spacement, 2) they should tolerate
high incidence of pruning, 3) they should
have a low crown diameter to bole dia-
meter ratio, 4) they should be low bran-
ching in habit, 5) their phyllotaxis
should permit the penetration of light to
the ground, 6) the phenology particularly
with reference to leaf flushing and leaf
fall should be advantageous to the growth
of annual crops in conjunction with which
they are being raised, 7) their root sys-
tem and root growth characters should
ideally result in exploration of soil layers
that are different from those being tapped
by agricultural crops, 8) new breeding
programmes designed to obtain in both
forest tree species and crops those charac-
teristic and attribute~ that are necessary
for successful and efficient intercropping,
287
9) standardisation of tree density in
systematic row plantation system speci-
ally for Prosopis cineraria and Zizyphus
nummularia for eaSe in cultural operation
by mechanical means is essential for
agro-forestry programmes, 10) research in
breeding of Koobabul for low mimosine
content and for breeding suitable cultivars
for arid regions requ re to be undertaken
II) in basic researches the adaptive pot-
ential of different combination crops in
agroforestry should be worked out.
2. Extension and Education
On the basis of research work done
at CAZRI in agro-forestry, the ICAR may
consider undertaking, 1) Operational Res-
earch Programme in Agro-forestry in all
the eleven districts of W. Rajasthan. ORP
should preferably be taken in tribal areas,
2) the ICAR may request all the Agricul-
tural Universities to restructure their
syllabi to include agro-forestry both in the
undergraduate and postgraduate classes,
3) the beneficial role of agro-forestry in
improving local climatic conditions and
better economical returns even from
marginal land have already been well
understood by the farming community.
However, with a view to consolidate this
movement and accelerate the momentum,
financial assistance through Land Deve-
lopment Banks, Rural Coopetative Insti-
 tutions, etc., should be forthcoming at low
interest rates and long term repayment
conditions, 4) still closer links between
the district development agency, forest
department and CAZRI are to be-fostered
for formulating programmes of agro-
forestry in the State, 5) people's participa-
tion with high expertise is needed to
288
analyse land to man, land to livestock
and livestock to man ratio which should
be the basic criterion in implementation
of the agro-forestry programme, 6) for
rapid and urgent implementation, the
extension and operation wing of any
Institute must be strengthened.

Acknowledgernents
Our grateful thanks are due to the
Director-General, Dr. O.P Gautam and
Assistant Director-General (Edn.), Shri
M. Aravindam of the ICAR for selecting
CAZRI to hold this Summer Institute.
We are also grateful to Dr. H.S. Mann,
Director of this Institute for his valuable
guidance and encouragement and to Shri
S.P. Malhotra for having kindly agreed
to preside over the opening session in the
absence of Dr. H.S. Mann.
We are indebted to Shri Vijay Varma,
lAS, Desert Development Commissioner.
Rajasthan, who very kindly consented to
be the Chief Guest and addressed the
participants at the concluding session.
Our grateful thanks are also due to
al\ the participants for their unstintcd
cooperation, alertness and keen interest
shown during the training period.
We thank al\ the guest lecturers and
Institute scientists for sparing their valu-
able time to deliver the lectures. We also
extend our sincere thanks to the staff
members of the Administration and
Accounts Sections of the Institute, especi-
ally SjShri H.M. Mathur, G.R. Bhansali,
Dashrath Mal Mehta, Makhtur Chand,
and Rastogi. S/Shri P.C. Chatterjee and
S.P. Marwah had extended their full
cooperation and assistance but for which
289
.
the summer Institute would not have been
a success.
In no small measure we are also
grateful to all those officers who made
our study tours to Ajmer, Chittorgarh,
Udaipur, Agolai, Dadania, ORP areas,
etc., very successful, purposeful and enjoy-
able. In particular we wish to thank SjShri
A.K. Sen, A.K. Raina, Laxman Goyal of
the Institute, the State Forest Officers of
Ajmer and Jodhpur Divisions, the Direc-
tor of Extension, Proiect Coordinator,
Associate Professor of Extension of the
Agricultural University of Udaipur and
all their supporting staff.
For rendering efficient secretarial
assistance, we thank SjShri B.G. Kalan-
tri, Harish Darwani, and George and
Mrs. Annamma Varghese. For assistance
rendered in preparing the sets of lectures
and their distribution, etc., we express our
thanks to SjShri G.D. Arora, Dalip Singh
Patwal, G.L. Meena, Bachan Singh and
Daula!. Our special thanks are due to
Shri Mamchand for his assistance in
audio-visual and lecture hall arrange-
ments.
We also thank SjShri T.K. Bhati
and M.P. Singh for their assistance in
registering of the participants and in
recording the discussions held during and
after each lecture. The Drivers of the Insti.
tute, viz., S}Shri Sarwan LaI. Jar Singh,
Mohan Singh, Kundan Singh, Kistor
Singh and Ranglal deserve our sincere
thanks for their wonderful coopetation
Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur.
290
and all time services.
Our special thanks go to Shri Dalip
Singh Patwal for his untiring services
rendered in managing the mess arrange-
ments.
K.D. Mutbana
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

AHUJA, L.D. 161 DAULAY. B.S. 132

Division of Plant Studies, All India Coordinated Research
Central Arid Zone Research ' Pro.iect for Dryland Agriculture.
Institute (CAZRI), • CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Jodhpur-342003. DHIR, R.P. 20
Division of Basic Resources
'Present address:
Studies. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
3-T-35 Jawaharnagar,
Jaipur-302004. GHANIM, ABU 257
Division of Plant Studies,
ARORA, SUBHASH S. 122 CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Division of Plant Studies,
GHOSH, P.K. 180
CAZRI, J odbpur.
Division of Animal Studies,
Present address: CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Production Manager,
GUPTA, J.P. 43
Hindustan Lever,
Division of Soil-Water-Plant
Etah (U.P.). Relationship, CAZRI, Jodhpur.
BHARARA, L.P. 279 GUPTA, JAGDISH P. 261
Division of Human Factor AICRP on Renewable Energy
Studies, CAZRI, Jodhpur. Sources for Agriculture and
Agrobased Industries (Solar
BHAn. T.K. 150
Energy). CAZRI. Jodbpur.
All India Coordinated Research
Project for Dryland Agriculture, JAIN, B.L. SO, 232
CAZRI, Jodhpur. Regional Research Station,
CAZRI. Pali.
BOHRA, H.C. 180
JOSHI, D.C. 33
Division of Animal Studies,
Division of Basic Resources
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Studies, CAZRI, Jodhpur.
DAS. R. B. 174 KHYBRI, M.L. 216
Division of Plant Studies, Central Soil and Water
CAZRI. Jodhpur. Conservation Research and Training
Present address : Institute, Dehra Dun (U.P.).
Emeritus Scientist. KOLARKAR, A S. 39
Division of Plant Studies. Division of Basic Resources
CAZRI, Jodhpur. Studies, CAZRI, Jodhpur.

291
 LAHrRT, A.N.
Division of Soil- Water-Plant
Relationship, CAZRl, Jodhpur.
LODHA, SA TlSH
Division of Plant Studies,
CA,ZRI, Jodhpur.
MALHOTRA, S.P.
Division of Human Factor
Studies. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
MANN,H.S.
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Present address:
42D, Sarabha Nagar;
Ludhiana-14JOOJ.
MRUTHYUNJAYA
Division of Agricultural
Economics and Statistics, .
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Present address:
Division of Agricultural
Economics,
LA.R.I., New Delhi.
MUTHANA, K.D.
Division of Plant Studies,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
PARIHAR, D.R.
Division of Plant Studies,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
PARODA, R.S.
Division of Plant Studies,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Present address:
Add!. Director of Research,
HAU, Hissar.
PRAKASH,ISHWAR
Profes~or of Eminence,
CAZRT, Jodhpur.
99 PUROHIT, M.L. 267
Division of Human Factor
Studies, CAZ"iU, Jodhpur.
]86 Present address:
Division of Agricultural
Economics, CAZRI, Jodhpur.
263 RAINA, ASHOK K. 253
Division of Plant Studies,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
94 Present address:
Programme Coordinator
(Forestry Research),
.Bharatiya Agro-Industries
Federation, Central R~search
Station, Uruli-Kanchan,
276 District Poona-412202.
RAMAKRISHNA, Y.S. 9
Division of Wind Power and
Solar Energy Utilisation,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
RAMANA RAO. B.V. 5
Division of Wind Power and
Solar Energy Utilisation,
75,243 CAZRI, Jodhpur.
RANA, B.D. 211
Division of Animal Studies,
206 CAZRI, Jodhpur.
RAO, A.V. 67
Division of Soil-Water-Plant
171 Relationship, CAZRI, Jodhpur.
SASTRI, A.S.R.A.S. 5, 15
Division of Wind Power and .
Solar Energy Utilisation,
CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Present address:
]99 Department of Agricultural
Meteorology, J. N.K. V. V.,
I
Raipur (M.P.).
292
SAXENA, M.B.L. 126 SINGH, R P. 107
All India Coordinated Project All India Coordinated Research
for Improvement of Millet, Project for Dryland Agriculture,
CAZRl, J0dhpur. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
SAXENA, S.K. III Present address:
Divisiop. of Basic Resources Project Director.
Studies, CAZRI, Jodhpur. All India Coordinated Research
Project for Dryland Agriculture.
SEN, AMAL KUMAR 80 Hyderabad (A.P.).
Division of Basic Resources
SINGH, Y.V. 227
Studies. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
Division of Soil-Water-Plant
SHANKAR, VJNOD ]43 Relationship, CAZRJ. Jodhpur.
Division of Basic Resources
SONI, R.C. 238
Studies, CAZRJ, Jodhpur.
Divisional Forest Officer,
SHANKARNARAYAN, K.A. 1,59,7},137 Jodhpur.
Division of Basic Resources SURESH KUMAR 88
Studies, CAZRI, Jodhpur. Division of Basic Resources
Present address : Studies, CAZRJ, Jodhpur.
Director, VASHJSHTHA, B.B. ]56
CAZRI, Jodhpur. Division of Plant Studies.
30 CAZRJ, Jodhpur.
SINGH, H.P.
All India Coordinated Research VIR, SATYA 192
Project for Dryland Agriculture, Division of Plant Studies.
CAZRI, Jodbpur. CAZRI, Jodhpur.
SINGH, K.C. 222 YADAV, MS. 167
Division of Plant Studies, Division of Plant Studies,
CAZRI, Jodhpur. CAZRI, Jodhpur.

293
 CAZRI Monograph Series
No. Desert Ecosystem and its Im- Edited by H.S. Mann
provement, pp. 1-387 (1974).
No. 2 Proceedings of Summer Institute Edited by Ish war Prakash
on Rodentology (Mimeo.), pp.
1-365 (1975).
No. 3 Solar Energy Utilization Re- by H.P. Garg
search (Mimeo.), pp. 1~48
(1975).
No. 4 Rodent Pest Management- by Ishwar Prakash
Principles and Practices, pp. 1-
28 (1976).
No. 5 White Grubs and their Manage- by S.K. Pal
ment, pp. 1-30 (1977).
No. 6 The Amazing Life in the Indian by Ishwar Prakash
Desert, pp. 1-18 (1977).
No. 7 Geomorphological Investiga- by Surendra Singh
tions of the Rajasthan desert,
pp. 1-44 () 977).
No. 8 Proceedings of Summer Institute Edited by K. A. ~ilank~arnarayan
on "Resource Inventory and
landuse planning", pp. 1-373
(1977).
.. . "

No. 9 Land Use Classification System by Amal Kumar Sen

in Indian Arid Zone, pp. 1-43
( 1978).
No. 10 Ecology of the Indian desert by Ishwar Prakash
gerbil, Merions hurr;anae, pp.
1-88 (1981)..
No. 11 Khejr; (Prosop;s cineraria) in Edited by H.S. Mann and
the Indian desert-its role in S.K. Saxena
Agrofo res try , pp. 1-78 () 980).
No. 12 The goat in the desert environ- by P.K. Ghosh and M.S. Khan
ment, pp. 1-26 (1980).
No. 13 Bordi (Zizyplllls nummu/aria)- Edited by H.S. Mann and
A shrub of the Indian Arid Zone S.K. Saxena
-its role in silvipasture, pp. 1-93,
(1981).

294
No. 14 Sheep in Rajasthan, pp. 1-38, by AX. Sen, P.K. Ghosh,
(1981 ). K.N. Gupta and H.C. Bohra
No. 15 Water proofing of field irrigation by K.N.K. Murthy, V.C.
channels in desert soils, pp. 1-23, Issac and D.N. Bohra
(1982).
No. 16 Termite pests of vegetation in by D,.R. Parihar
Rajasthan and their manage-
ment, pp. 1-31, (1981).
No. 17 Water in the eeo-physiology of by P.K. Ghosh and R.K.
desert sheep, pp. 1-42 (1981). Abichandani
No. 18 Ground water atlas of Rajasthan, by H.S. Mann and A.K.
pp. 1-61 (1983). Sen
No. 19 Agro-demographic Atals of Rajas- by A.K. Sen and K.N.
than, pp. 1.63 (1983). Gupta
No. 20 Soil and Moisture Conservation by J.P. Gupta
for Increasing Crop Production
in Arid Lands, pp. 1-42 (1983).
No. 21 Depleted Vegetation of Desertic by Vinod Shankar
Habitats: Studies on its Natural
Regeneration, pp. 1-32 (1983).
No. 22 Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) D.C., by K.D. Muthana and
a fast growing tree to bloom the G.D. Arora
desert, pp. 1-21 (1983).
No. 23 Arid Zone Forestry (with special by H.S. Mann and
reference to the Indian Arid K.D. Muthana
Zone), pp. 1-48 (1984).

295