The Communication Process: A Definition and a Model

better the encoding skills of the sender, the smoother and more effective is the flow of
communication.
Channel factors
Channel factors, which are positive or negative characteristics related to the vehicle
through which the message is communicated, can also influence the effectiveness of the
communication process. Selection of the proper channel can have an important effect on
the accurate flow of communication. For example, using a visual device such as a chart or
graph to present complex information on sales and profit figures is likely to be a more
effective channel than the spoken word. The channel selected can also affect the impact of
the message. For exam- ple, a face-to-face reprimand from a supervisor might carry more
weight than the same reprimand conveyed over the telephone. Whenever possible, using
mul- tiple channels to present complicated information will increase the likelihood that it
will be attended to and retained. Research on organizational communi- cation has focused
on specific types, or “genres,” of messages, such as business letters, memos, or group
meetings (Yates & Orlikowski, 1992). In one study, it was found that persons higher in the
organizational hierarchy had a preference for more formal modes of written
communication (word-processed letters and memos) over more informal, handwritten
messages (ReInsch & Beswick, 1995). Another study has found that managers are
indicating a growing preference for using e-mail to communicate messages, even in
situations such as responding to another's telephone message, or when the recipient is in
an office just down the hall (Markus, 1994).
Semantic problems are common channel factors that can lead to a break- down in
communication. These difficulties occur because different people may interpret the
meanings of certain words differently. For example, if your work supervisor tells you that
you are doing a “good” job, you may infer that your performance is well above average.
However, if the supervisor defines “good” as work that is barely passable (but really he
expects “excellent,” “superior,” or “outstanding” performance), you may be missing the
meaning of the message. Semantic problems may arise through the use of technical
language, or jargon, the special language that develops within a specific work environment.
Jargon is typically filled with abbreviated words, acronyms, special vocabularies, and slang.
For example, industrial/ organizational psychology could be abbrevi- ated as “I/O Psych”
and might be described as the field in which topics such as RJPs, BARS, and validity
generalization are studied.
Although jargon serves the purpose of speeding up communication between those who
speak the language, it can create problems when the receiver is not “fluent” in its use. The
use of jargon can also create problems when a team of workers is composed of members
from different professional disciplines, all of who may use different jargon (Cooley, 1994).
For example, imagine the potential communication breakdowns that occurred during some
of the NASA space projects, where decision-making teams were made up of aerospace engi-
neers, military officers, and research scientists, each using their own technical
jargon.
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£2) Stop & Review
Explain each of the steps in two-person communication.
channel factors characteristics of the vehicle of transmis- sion of a message that affect
communication
jargon
special language devel- oped in connection with certain jobs; also called technical language
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audience factors characteristics of the receiver that influence the effectiveness of a
communication
CHAPTER 11 Communication in the Workplace
The type of channel used to communicate can affect important work-related outcomes,
such as job satisfaction. Research suggests that the frequency and quality of face-to-face
communication between supervisors and subordinates is positively related to workers’ job
satisfaction (Callan, 1993; Lee, 1998; Muchinsky, 1977b). The type of channel may also
have some influence on work performance and efficiency. For example, a company policy of
keeping written documentation of all orders and directives rather than simply relying on
spoken orders may decrease the likelihood that workers will forget what they are
supposed to be doing, which in turn may have positive effects on the productivity and
efficiency of the work unit.
A topic of great interest has been the use of computer-mediated meet- ings, where workers
interconnect and hold meetings at their individual computer work stations, or
teleconference via the Web (Sadowski-Rasters, Duysters, & Sadowski, 2006; Trevino &
Webster, 1992; Weisband, 1992). Research indicates that computer-mediated meetings
have the advantages of convenience, with members getting more equal participation in the
interac- tion than occurs in face-to-face meetings (Weisband, Schneider, & Connolly, 1995).
Low-status or shy members may be more willing to share informa- tion in computer-
mediated meetings. However, the lack of “social dynam- ics,” including the loss of
nonverbal cues available in face-to-face interac- tions, tends to lead members of computer-
mediated meetings to engage in more extreme or “risky” decisions. Members
communicating via computer may also be more outspoken, and members may engage in
“rude” behaviors, including “put-lowns” of other participants, because the members do not
have to face the disapproving looks of other participants (Kiesler & Sproull, 1992; Savicki &
Kelley, 2000). There may also be some difficulties in coor- dinating the flow of
communication and in taking turns—actually causing electronic meetings to be longer than
face-to-face ones (Carey & Kacmar, 1997). However, as video—computer interfaces
become more common, and the technology evolves, computer-mediated meetings may
eventually become quite similar to face-to-face meetings (Fussell & Benimoff, 1995).
Audience factors
Audience factors are elements related to the receiver, such as the person’s attention span
and perceptual abilities, which can facilitate or impair the communication process. For
example, it is important that training information be presented at a level that matches the
audience's ability to per- ceive and process that information, or much of the
communication may be lost. Moreover, it is critical to consider the attention span of the
target audi- ence. Although all-day classroom training sessions might be appropriate for
management trainees who are used to such long sessions, the attention of assembly-line
workers might be lost after an hour's lecture because of their unfamiliarity with this
format.
The receiver's relationship to the sender can also affect the communication process. For
example, if the receiver is subordinate to the sender, the message may be better attended
to because the receiver is supposed to listen to superiors. The Communication Process: A
Definition and a Model
Videoconferencing offers instantaneous, face-to-face communication over long distances.
If, however, the situation is reversed, a message from a lower-ranking organizational
member may not receive much attention from a higher-ranking employee.
Finally, the decoding skills of the receiver can influence the effectiveness of communication.
Workers vary greatly in their ability to receive, decode, and understand organizational
messages. Although managers are often considered the source rather than the audience of
much organizational communication, research has shown that effective managers have
good decoding skills in listening and responding to the needs and concerns of their
subordinates (Baron, 1986). In fact, because much of the communication in work settings
involves spoken communication, oral decoding skills, often referred to as listening skills,
are considered to be the most important decoding skills of all (Hunt, 1980).
Research suggests that “active listening’—where the decoder asks clarify- ing questions,
repeats the encoder’s words, and provides feedback (“Yes, I see.” “Uh-hum,” etc.)—has
positive effects on the effectiveness of the communication flow, in terms of greater
comprehension and mutual understanding, and greater participant satisfaction (Kraut,
Lewis, & Swezey, 1982; Rao, 1995). Bays (2007) argues that college students should be
taught both speaking and listening skills in order to prepare them for the workplace.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN WORK SETTINGS
We commonly think of communication in work settings as taking one of two forms, either
written or spoken. However, people can and do use a great deal of nonverbal
communication, which is sent and received by means other than the written or spoken
word. Broadly defined, nonverbal communication can occur through facial expressions,
gesture, tone of voice, body movements, posture,
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messages sent and received through means other than the spoken or written word