DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

SUBJECT CODE: 342

 UNIT I
V- BELT &PULLEYS

DEFINITION:
V - Belts are another type of flexible connectors for transmitting power
from one pulley to another whose centre distances are approximately up to 3 metres.
Their cross-section is trapezoidal or similar to a wedge.

Ø Generally V-Belts are made endless (i.e., each belt is made in a circular form)
with various cross section which may be differentiated by various grades.

Ø The belts are operated on grooved pulley, grooves being V-shaped or having two
inclined sides with flat bottom.

Ø The contact between the belts and pulleys is obtained in the inclined surfaces of
pulley in contrast with flat belt where contact is obtained at the top surface of the
pulley.

Ø A properly installed V-belt should fit tightly against the sides of the pulley
grooves without projecting beyond the rim or touching the bottom of the groove.
Ø The correct method of mounting a wedge-shaped belt in a grooved pulley is
shown in figure.
Ø In any grade belt, the included angle between the inclined surfaces is about 40°.
Comparing with flat belt, V-belt is adopted for positive drive (i.e., drive without
slip).about 40°.
Ø Comparing with flat belt, V-belt is adopted for positive
Ø drive (i.e., drive without slip).

MATERIALS USED :-

Usually V-belts are made of the following items

Ø Cord and fabric
Ø Impregnated with rubber
Ø The cord
Ø Material being cotton or rayon.
Some of the companies, where V-belts are manufactured, are Goodyear India Ltd., and
Fenner India Ltd.

TYPES OF V-BELTS:-

Ø Generally V-belts are classified into various grades based on their power
transmitting capacity as A,B,C,D and E.
Ø The cross-sectional areas are in increasing order from A to E. Depending upon the
places of applications, V-belts are manufactured into single V-belts, multiple V-
belts, and ribbed belts.
The multiple V-belt and ribbed belt are manufactured in such a way that they
Ø may have a number of separate single V-belts joined together to act as a single
unit.For transmitting very high power, a calculated number of single V-belts or a
suitable multiple V-belt can be used.
Ø It may be noted that in a multi-belt drive (i.e., drive with many number of single
V-belts), all the belts should be stretched at the same rate.
Ø Then only we can say that the load (or power) is distributed evenly between the
belts.
Ø If anyone belt is worn-out, all the belts should be replaced by new belts instead of
changing the broken belt alone so as to have the even distribution of load and
constant velocity of all belts.
Ø Such a deficiency may be avoided in the case of multiple V-belt drive. For getting
clear positive drive, toothed or timing belt is generally preferred.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF V-BELTS :-

Advantages :-

1. V-Belts can be employed for higher velocity ratio (upto 10)

2. They are used to employ with small centre distance.

3. They can be operated at any position of the drive (i.e., horizontal, vertical or
inclined) and even with vertical shaft.

4. In this drive, the tight side of the belt need not compulsorily be at the bottom
side of the pulley, like in flat belt drive.

5. They can take up shocks especially at starting.

6. High smoothness of operation is' obtained owing to the absence of laced joints
and other belt fasteners which may produce noise as in the case of flat belts.

7. The space required for this drive will be comparatively less.

8. During operation, the belt will not come out from pulley at any cost which may
sometimes happened in flat belt drive if the shaft's parallelism is slightly changed.
Disadvantages:-

1. V-belts are not so durable as flat ones, because of formation of high bending
stresses in V-belts due to higher ratio of belt section height to the pulley
diameter comparing to flat belts.

2. The design of pulleys for V-belts are more complicated than the design of
pulleys for flat belts.

3. The power transmitting capacity of V-belts is in lower range than flat belt.

4. V-belts cannot be used with large centre distance.

5. They can not be used for cross-belt drive (or) Quarter-turn drive.

DESIGNATION OF V-BELTS:-

Ø As per Indian standards (IS 2494-1964), V-belt is recognised by a 'letter' which

represents the size of cross-section/followed by the nominal inside length (i.e.,
inner circumferential length) of the belt.
Ø For example, a V-belt of cross-section D and of nominal inside length 3048 mm
shall be designated as D 3048 - IS: 2494 : 1964 or simply D 3048. Some times the
belt length may be represented in inches as D 120.

Ø Also there is another length caned pitch length which is the neutral
circumferential line where there is no tensile to compressive stress acting when
the belt is operated.
Ø This pitch line coincides with pitch circle diameter of the grooved pulley and also
this pitch length is mainly used for designing the V-belts.
Ø Generally there may be a constant difference between pitch length and the inside
length.
Ø For A-type belt, pitch length is more than inside length by 36 mm similarly for B,
C, D and E type belts, pitch lengths are more than their inside lengths by 43 mm,
56mm 19 mm and 92 mm respectively.
Ø Some times V-belts are manufactured in "over and under sizes." Usually the belt
having nominal pitch length is denoted by a grading number 50.
Ø A deviation of 2.5 mm in length from nominal pitch length is represented as one
unit and the grading number will increase or decrease from 50 as the length is
more or less. For

Examples:

Ø A belt of designation D 3048 having actual pitch length of 3127 mm should be

represented as D 3048-50.
Ø If the actual pitch length is 3122 mm, then it may be marked as D 3048-48.
Ø If the actual pitch length is 3132 mm, then it is denoted as D 3048 - 52.
DESIGN OF V-BELTS :-

V-belts are also designed based on

1) Fundamental formulas
2) Manufactures catalogues.
Ø Since V-belts vary considerably in cross-section and amount of reinforcement, the
design of V-belts is usually based on the tables given by the manufactures than
the first method

Ø Any how, before learning in detail about the design using manufacturer's tables, it
is better to have some basic ideas about the design using fundamental formulas.

1) Ratio of driving tensions

where Tl and T2 are tensions at tight side and slack side respectively.
= Angle of contact in radians
.= Angle subtended by sides of V-belts

2) Power transmitted by a belt in SI or M.K.S. unit as

P = (T1 - T2) v N - m/s (or watts)

DESIGN OF V-BELTS USING MANUFACTURES' TABLES :-

The manufacturers produce V-belts in different grades as A, B, C, D, E which can be

tised to transmit different ranges of power, the range being in increasing order from
A to E because of increasing order of area of cross-section in the same series.

One important point is that when selecting flat belt, we should give preference
to thin wider belt for optimum power transmission because the area of contact between
belt and pulley is more in thin wider belt than thick narrow belt. But in the case of V-belt,
thick belt is more preferred to thin belt which may reduce the total number of belts to be
operated for transmitting a particular quantity of power.

Here also, the design of V-belt depends on two concepts.

1. Design Power (i.e., Total power after considering safety factors or correction factors)

2. Belt Rating (i.e., Power transmitting capacity of one .belt)

Consider a V-belt, required to transmit the power of 'P' from one pulley of diameter 'd' to
another pulley of diameter 'D' the pulleys being situated at a distance of 'C'. The work
may be intermittent or continuous.

For designing such a belt, we may follow certain steps.

1). At first based on amount of power to be transmitted, select the type of belt
from A to E grades (Table 4.1) (PSG 7.58)

2) Calculate design power using the relation as

Design power = (Rated power x service factor)./ (Arc of contact x Belts pitch length
factor)
Ø For obtaining the above correction factors, find out the service conditions, arc of
contact and pitch length and then choose suitable factors from tables respectively.
Ø Since the V-belt can be operated as open-belt type we can make use of the
following formula for finding pitch length and arc of contact.

3) Note the inside length corresponding to pitch length from table 4.4 ft1rbelt
specification.

4) Determine the belt rating (i.e., power transmitting capacity of one belt) using
suitable formula adopted by the manufacturers given in table 4.5 or from
table 4.6 (a) to 4.6 (e) .
5) Obtain number of belts required to transmit the entire design power as
Number of belts = ( Design power/ Belt rating)
6) Correct the centre distance according to the selected pitch length Using the
formulas which have been given below of table 4.7 and give initial tension
to belt.
7). Also determine parameters of V-groove pulleys using table.

Formule for Transmitting capacities:

where

kW - max. power
S Belt speed
de - equivalent pitch dia.
dp - pitch dia of smalle pulley
Fb - the small dia to account
for variation of arc of contact.
Formula for calculating the centre distance :

Cmin = 0.55 (D+d) + T T, nominal belt thickness in mm

Cmax = 2(D+d) L, nominal pitch length of belt, in mm

π ( D − d )2
L = 2C + (D + d ) + C, Centre diatance, in mm
2 4C

Centre distance for a given belt length and diameters of pulleys is given by

C = A + (A2-B)1/2

W h e re
L D + d
A = − π
4 8
2
(D -d )
B =
8

Where allowances for the adjustment of the centres for two transmission pulleys:

Lower limiting value = Nominal centre distance minus, 1.5 % of L

Higher limiting value = Nominal centre distance plus 3% of L

Initial Tension:
In order to give the initial tension, the belts may be stretched to 0.5% to 1% of L.
Problem 1
Design a V-belt drive to the following specifications.
Power to be transmitted 7.5 kW
Speed of driving wheel 1440 rpm
Speed of driven wheel 400 rpm
Diameter of driving wheel 300 mm
Centre distance 2500 mm
Service 16 hours/day
Solution:
For the given power of 7.5 kW, 'D' type (or) 'E' type belts are suited.

Let us select 'D' type belt. (From Table 4.1) (PSG 7.58)

Rated power X Service factor

Design factor =
Length factor X Arc of contact factor

Service factor = 1.5 (for heavy duty and 16 hours/day with A.C. motor high torque)
(Table 4.2) (PSG 7.69)

π ( D − d )2
Pitch length of the belt L = 2C + ( D + d ) +
2 4C
Now d = 300 mm
D = 1080 mm
C = 2500 mm
From the formula by substituting the values we get the value of L = 7229 mm.

The next standard pitch length = 7648 mm

Corresponding inside length = 7569 mm (Table 4.4) (PSG 7.60)
Length factor = 1.05
The next standard pitch length =7648 mm

Arc of contact factor = 0.955

Now Design factor = (75 X 1.5)/ (1.05 X 0.955) = 112 Kw

Power rating for ‘D’ type belt

506.7
Power transmitting capacity of one belt = (3.22 S -0.09
− − 4.78 x 10-4 S 2 ) S
de
d e = d p x Fb = 300 X 1.14 = 342 mm<d e(max)

S = 22.6m/s
 Therefore the Belt capacity = 15.96 Kw at 180° arc of contact

Therefore Belt capacity for 161.3° arc of contact = 14.3 kW.

Number of belts required = ( Design power / Belt rating)

= (112/14.3)
= 7.82 belts.

Total number of belts = 8

Since the pitch length is changed from 7229 mm to 7648 mm, the centre distance should
also be increased in order to place the belt property over the pulley.

New centre distance

Initial tension = 0.75 to 1% of L

Specifications :

Type of belts D 7569 50 IS2494 (V-Belt)

Number of belts 8
Pitch diameter of smaller pulley = 300 mm
Pitch diameter of bigger pulley = 1080 mm
Centre distance = 2788 mm

Problem 2:
Ribbed V- Belts:

Ø Ribbed V-Belts are the combination of the V-Belts.

Ø Having the shape of the V-belts which are attached together.
Ø And in the pulley also the groove are taken in the form of the V shape.
 Sheave on Ribbed V-Belt
Design of Pulleys:
Bending moment on each arm is equal to the maximum torque (due to belt pull) over the
number of arms.
a = major axis of elliptical section near the boss

Where
w= width of pulley .
D = diameter of pulley rim
n = No. of arms

e) Minimum size of the pulley is limited by the elongation of belt fibres due to bending
over the pulley.
 FLAT BELT & PULLEYS
Definition :

The power or energy produced in one machine can be transmitted to another

machine or between two members of a machine by means of some intermediate
mechanisms called drives.

Classification of Flat belt drives:

Depending upon the use, the flat belt drives are classified into the following
categories:

1) Open belt drive:

In this type, the shafts of driving and driven members are kept parallel and the
direction of rotations of both pulleys are same. The line joining the centres of pulleys
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.

Open Belt Drive

2) Cross or twist belt drive:
Here the shafts are kept parallel but the directions of rotations of pulleys are opposite to
each other.

(3) Quarter-turn drive:

In this case, the axes of pulleys are arranged at right angles to each other. The drive is
sometimes provided with an idler pulley so as to maintain the required arc of contact.
(4) Belt drive with an idler pulley :
Here .a small extra pulley is operated in the slack side of the belt drive apart from the
usual pulleys (i.e., driving and driven pulleys) for increasing the arc of contact and thus
the power transmission is properly maintained.

(5) Belt drives with many pulleys:

Here many pulleys are operated by a single belt so that many operations are carried out at
a time.

DESIGN OF FLAT BELTS:

The essential parameters of flat belt like width, thickness, length and the type
of belt are determined based on two methods.
 1. Using Fundamental formulas.
2. Using Manufacturers catalogs

1. Using fundamental formulas :

Ø When the driving pulley rotates the driven pulley by belt, the belt pulling side is
known as tight side and the belt releasing side is known as slack side.

Ø If the centre distance and the selected materials of belt and pulleys are kept
proper, the belts can have sufficient grip over the pulley without any slip and the
power transmission is properly maintained.

Ø For designing the belt based on fundamental formulae, we should know the
tensions (i.e,. loads) on tight side and slack side of the pulleys, power-torque
relationship, coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces of pulleys and
belt, diameters of pulleys and so on.

Some of such useful formulas are;

Ratio between the tensions of tight side and slack side,
T1
= e µθ
T2
where µ = Coefficient of friction between the contact surfaces of pulley and belt.
θ = Arc of contact in radians.

2. Using Manufacturer's catalogues:

Ø In this method, the manufacturers are producing certain types of belts whose
widths and thickness have already been standardised by them.
Ø Their loading capacity (i.e., belt rating) are also experimentally determined by the
concerned manufacturers.
Ø They may also adopt certain safety factors like service factors, angle of contact
factors for obtaining better design. To meet out our requirement, we may select a
particular belt based on working conditions and it is compared with their available
data in practice.

Design of belts by this method is based mainly on two concepts.

1. How much power (i.e., Maximum power (or) Design power) to be transmitted.

2. What may be the power transmitting capacity (i.e., belt rating) of the selected
belt.

Arc of contact:
Consider the driving pulley and the driven pulley are connected by a flat belt as shown in
fig. The angle subtended by the overlaying belt on the pulley is known as angle of contact
or arc of contact ( ).

Let d = Diameter of smaller pulley

D = Diameter of bigger pulley
C = Centre distance between pulleys.
Problem 1

Select a flat belt to drive a mill at 250 rpm from a 10 kW, 730 rpm motor. Centre
distance is to be around 2m. The mill shaft pulley is of 1 m diameter.
Solution :
Design power =Rated power x Service factor x Arc. of contact factor.
Rated power =10kW
Service factor = 1.3 (Assuming heavy duty intermittent load).

 D-d 
Arc of contact = 180° -   60°
 C 
D = 1m = 1000mm
i = 730/250 = 2.92
d = 1000/2.92 = 342.46 mm

From the formula the arc of contact is 1.08

now

Design power = 10 x 1.3 x 1.08 = 14.04 Kw

Select the Dunlop fort 949g fabric belting. For finding the number of plies, let us find the
belt speed.
Specification :

Dunlop fort 949 g fabric belting of 112 mm width may be selected.

Pulley width = 125 mm
Length of belt = 6100 mm
Problem 2:
 CHAINS AND PULLEYS

Definition:
A chain drive is a mechanical drive which belongs to the category of drives
with intermediate link, like belt drives, in which the intermediate link is obtained by
chains.

Ø It may also be considered to be intermediate between belt and gear drives in that it
has features in common with both.
Ø A chain is a flexible connector like a belt and is used when a positive drive is
required, but its action is such that it can not be used where precise timing is the
requirement.
Ø Chains are suitable for long as well as short centre-distance drives and give a
more compact drive than is possible with belts.
Ø The alignment of the shaft must be more accurate than for belts, while the centre-
distance is not as critical as for gear-drives.
Ø Chain drives are similar to gear drives in that proper lubrication must be provided
for a satisfactory service-life.
Ø The chains are operated between toothed wheels called as sprockets as shown in
figure.

Applications:

Ø Modern chain-drives are employed in those places where we require the velocity
ratios upto 10, chain velocities upto 25 m/s, and power ratings upto 150 kW.

Ø The chain drives are quite extensively utilised in transportation machineries like
motor-cycles, bicycles, automobiles and conveyors, and in technological
machines like agricultural machinery, oil-well drilling rings, machine-tools etc.

Ø They are usually served in such places where we require medium centre-
distance, overall compact size and positive power transmission without slippage
and so on.
Advantages and Disadvantages Of Chain Drives:

Advantages:

1. The chain drives are having more power transmitting capacities compared with belt
drives when the centre-distance between the shafts is large (i.e., 5 to 8 metres).
2. Their efficiency is higher (i.e., about 98%)
3. Their small size compared with V-belt for a particular power transmission provides a
compact set-up.
4. The chain drives exert less load on shafts' since no initial tension is required as
compared with belt-drives.
5. They can be operated for a wide range of centre distances of power transmitting
sprockets.
6. One chain can be operated to transmit power to several number of sprockets.
7. Maintenance is very easy because the chains can easily be required or replaced.

Disadvantages:

1. The design of chain drive is more complicated as compared with belt drives.
2. The operation of chain drive is noisy.
3. Their production cost is high.
4. They need careful maintenance by providing housing to the chains to save them form
the dust and dirt.
5. They require more accurate assembly of shafts than for belts. Otherwise the chains
may disengage from the sprockets during running.

Classifications of chains:
The chains can be classified from the functional point into three group such as

(i) Power transmitting chains, treated for transmitting mechanical energy from
one shaft to another.
(ii) Hauling chains used for carrying loads in conveying machinery.
(iii) Loading chains or lifting chains served for suspending, hoisting and lowering
loads, mainly in material handling machinery.

The power transmitting chains, also known as driving chains, which are dealt
in this chapter, are classified according to

1. The type of chain employed such as roller, bush and silent (or inverted tooth)
chains.
2. The number of chains required to transmit the load as single row and multi-row chains
(For example, chains of simplex, duplex and triplex. Types etc. Sometimes chains of
four, five and six rows are operated).
3. The number of driven sprockets such as
(a) Normal type drive (i.e., one driven sprocket)
(b) Special type drive (i.e., several driven sprockets)
Components Of Chain Drive :
The essential components of a chain drive are
(a) Chains,
(b) Sprockets,
(c) Chain housing and
(d) Slack adjusters.

(a) Chains:

Ø A chain, consisting of hinge-jointed links, is the main element of drive which

determine its reliability and service life.
Ø The design, dimensions and mechanical characteristics of chains are standardised.
Ø The strength of chain is determined by its ultimate strength established by the
manufacturers.
Ø The schematic diagram for various types of chains is shown in figure.
Ø Regarding the design parameters, the pitch, p, which is linear distance between
the centres of consecutive rollers and the width, b, which is the space between the
inner link plates are considered as the main geometrical characteristics of chains.
Ø Usually the driving chains such as roller, bush and silent chains are made in
various standards.
Ø Among them, the simplex, duplex and triplex chains are commonly used.
Ø Sometimes chains of four, five and six rows are made.

(b) Sprockets:

Ø The operating capacity of a chain drive largely depends on the quality of the
sprockets. The sprockets are made of cast-iron or hardened steel.
Ø The teeth of a sprocket are shaped depending on the type of chain.
Ø The small size sprocket is known as pinion-sprocket and the big size sprocket is
known as wheel sprocket.
Ø The detailed sketch of a sprocket engaged with chains is shown in figure.
(c) Chain housing:

Ø The housing is a cover made of thin plates and it protects the drive from dust
and dirt, preserves grease and damps the noise of the drive.
Ø The housing should be as small as possible but should not interfere with
adjustment of the distance between the shafts when the chain becomes stretched.

(d) Slack adjusters:

Ø Chain sag is regulated and the required tensions are ensured by means of movable
bearings known as slack adjusters.
Ø The movable bearings are in the form of slides in which sprocket shaft is
installed.

Failures of chain drives:

The chain drive may fail due to the following causes

(i) Wear in the joints leading to elongation of the chain and its faulty engagement
with the sprockets. The allowable elongation is 1.5 to 2.5%.
(ii) Wear of the sprocket teeth.
(iii) Turning of pins and bushings in the plates where they are press fitted is a
frequently encountered reason for the failure of roller chains.
(iv) Fatigue failure of the plates at the eyes.
(v) Chipping and breaking of the rollers.
(vi) Poor lubrication and improper maintenance.
Design criteria of chain drives:

Ø The chain drives can be employed to transmit from a fraction of kilowatt to

3500 KW, but in most cased upto 100 kW.
Ø When selecting a suitable chain to transmit the design power, we should consider
the characteristics of certain parameters which are essential in the design point of
view.
The following are some of such parameters.

1. Chain velocity :
Ø The velocity of chain and the speed of rotation of sprockets are limited by chain
wear which may increase with velocity.
Ø Hence the optimum chain velocity may be taken about 15 m/s. For high speed
drives with high quality chains and proper lubrication, the velocity may be
adopted upto 30 m/s.
The average velocity of chain (v) is given by

Where Z = Number of teeth of a sprocket

n =Sprocket speed in rpm
p = Pitch of chain in mm
d = Pitch circle diameter of sprocket
The speed of rotation of the sprockets is limited by the impact stresses of the
chain on the sprockets.

2. Speed ratio:

Ø The speed ratio is decided by the allowable overall size of the drive, angle of
contact (arc of meshing the chain on the smaller sprocket) and the number of
teeth.
Ø Usually the speed ratio may be taken upto 10.

It is found out from the condition of equality of average velocities of the chain on the
sprockets as

where
n1, Zl = Speed and number of teeth of small sprocket (i.e., pinion sprocket)
n2, Z2 = Speed and number of teeth of big sprocket (i.e., wheel sprocket)
3. Number of teeth of sprockets:

Ø The number of teeth of sprockets is limited by the wear of chain joints, dynamic
(impact) loads and also the noise made by the drive.
Ø The less the number of teeth, the greater the wear of the chain because the angle
of chain engagement with sprocket is (360/Z)° and hence more impact load on
less numbered teeth sprocket.
Ø The minimum number of teeth on sprockets in power drives with roller chains is
Zmin =19 to 23 for high speeds, 17 to 19 for medium speeds and 13 to 15 for low
speeds.
Ø Due to chain wear, the chain may elongate and hence it may shift outward
upon the sprocket teeth profiles.
Ø The smaller the angular pitch of the sprocket (angle between adjacent teeth), the
greater the outward shift.
Ø This outward shift limits the maximum number of teeth on sprocket, which for
roller chain is taken from 100 to 120.

4. Distance between the sprocket axes :

Ø The minimum centre distance is determined from the condition that the angle of
contact of the chain with the small sprocket should be at least 120°.
Ø Usually, the centre distance may be specified in terms of pitches.
The optimum centre distance is given by
a =(30 to 50) p where p = chain pitch
and the maximum centre distance is
amax 80p

6. Arrangement of chain drives:

Ø Chain drives are arranged so that the chain travels in a vertical plane, the
relative height position of the driving and driven sprockets being arbitrary.
Ø The optimum a position of the line of centres is horizontal or inclined at an angle
up to 45° to the horizontal.
Ø Vertical arrangement of the chain drive requires more careful adjustment of the
chain tension because the sagging of the chain in this case does not provide for
self tensioning.

Selection of chains:

Ø In accordance with the principal criterion of chain drive performance-wear

resistance of the chain joints.
Ø The load carrying capacity of a chain can be determined from the condition that
the pressure developed in the joints must not exceed the allowable value.
Ø Usually chains are manufactured in different sizes with different structures such
as simplex, duplex and triplex chains and so on.
 Ø Each chains is having a certain amount of load carrying capacity. Among these
various chains, for transmitting the given power, a suitable chains is selected
based on its minimum breaking strength required and the induced stress on the
bearing area of the selected chain.
Ø To overcome the chain failure, the selected chains should have more strength than
the breaking load and the induced stress should be less than the allowable value.

Formulae for chain and sprockets:

where kl = Load factor

k2 = Factor for distance regulation
k3 = Factor for centre distance of sprockets.
k4 = Factor for the position of the sprockets.
K5 = Lubrication factor
K6 = Rating factor
Problem 1
Silent Chains:

Ø Silent chains consists of special-profile plates corresponding to the profile of

sprocket teeth.
Ø As the name implies they are relatively quieter in operation.
Ø Silent chains are also known as inverted tooth chains.

Silent chain
 WIRE ROPES & PULLEYS

Definition :

Wire-rope is a flexible element, like belt and chain, used for transmitting large amount of
power from one pulley to another pulley when their centre distance is very long of about
500 metres sometimes upto 2000 meters.

Ø They are mainly employed in hoisting machineries such as mine hoists, lifts and
material handling equipments like cranes, conveyors, elevators etc.

Ø Sometimes, wire-ropes are used for people to travel between two mountains by
means of cable cars and winches. They can also be serviced in suspension bridges.

Steel wire rope:

When compared with hemp, cotton or man-made fiber ropes, steel wire ropes have
greater strength and reliability.

Failure of wire ropes:

Ø Failure in chain occurs suddenly while in wire ropes the outer wires break due to
wear before the inner wires.
Ø The wire rope becomes fuzzy before rupture and they can be replaced
immediately.
Ø Wire ropes cost less than chains but they require larger drums and heavier
hoisting mechanism.

Construction:

Ø Steel wire is drawn cold and given heat treatment as well as chemical treatment
between drawing stages in order to obtain required strength, structure, appearance
and surface finish.
Ø The wires are first twisted into strands and the strands are twisted about a core of
soft steel or hemp.
Ø This type of construction makes the rope highly pliable and it can be Wrapped
around a sheave without inducing undue bending stress in the wire.
Number of wires :

Ø The number of wires in each strand is generally 7,19 or 37 and number of strands
is usually 6.
Ø Wire rope is designated by the number of strands and the number of wires in each
strand (e.g. 6 x 7 - 6 strands and 7 wires in each strand).

Classifications:
Wire-ropes are classified based on
Ø Number of strands and number of wires in each strand as
a) 6 x 7
b) 6 x 19
c) 6 x 37
d) 8 x 19 ropes.

Ø Direction of twist of wires and strands as

a) Cross-lay ropes.
b) Composite lay ropes.
c)Parallel lay ropes.

Ø Direction of strand bending

a) Right-hand lay (strand bend round to the right side)
b)Left-hand lay (strand bend round to the left side)

The various types of wire-ropes are shown as.

Steel wire ropes of various constructions

Advantages:

1. The wire-ropes are lighter in weight.

2. Their operations are silent and smooth.
3. They can withstand heavy shock loads.
4. They can transmit power for very long distance of about 1000 metres which is not
possible by other flexible drives such as belt drives.
5. Apart from power transmission, wire-ropes are employed as fastening elements as used
in suspension bridges and load carrying devices as used in cranes and hoists etc.
6. They do not fail suddenly due to its complicated self-winding.
7. They can be operated at different speeds, pliable in all directions.
8. They have long, reliable service life and more efficient.

Disadvantages:

1. The wire ropes can not be employed for low power transmission and also for short
centre distance.
2. They need careful maintenance than other flexible drives such as belt drives.
3. The cost of manufacturing of wire-ropes is high.
4. They should be kept away from electrical power connections in order to safeguard the
wire-ropes from current leakage to them.

Selections of wire-ropes:

Ø When selecting steel wire-ropes, we must consider the induced stresses in tension,
bending and twisting.
Ø Numerous factors control the magnitudes of the stresses set up in the material of
the wire-ropes.
Ø One of such factors is the static load which is composed of the following items
a) Dead weight (i.e., known given weight)
b) Additional loads caused by sudden starts and stops.
c) Shock loads.
d) Sheave bearing friction.

Ø For safe operation, the total of the above loads should be for less than the ultimate
strength of rope.
Ø The design factor, which is the ratio of the nominal strength of wire-rope to the
maximum load it is advised to carry, may be taken from 5 to 20 depending upon
the nature of applications.

The other factors which affect the selection of wire-ropes are

(i) Type of duty.
(ii) Operating speed.
(iii) Place of applications.
Type of duty :

Ø All types of cranes and hoists are classified into four groups in accordance with
operating conditions such as magnitude of loads acting on the ropes, their daily or
annual utilisation etc.
The four groups are
1. Light duty (L)
2. Medium duty (M)
3. Heavy duty (H)
4. Very heavy duty (VH)

The usual number of switching on operations per hour for electric drive of above groups
are given in table.

The normal operating speeds of cranes are given as

1. Hoisting speed - 25 to 30 m/min.
2. Trolly travel speed - 35 to 50 m/min.
3. Bridge travel speed - 100 to 120 m/min.

Stresses in hoisting ropes:

The hoisting rope is subjected to following stresses during operation. They are
1. Direct tensile stress due to hoisting load and weight of the rope.
2. Bending stress due to bending of ropes over the sheaves or drum.
3. Stress due to acceleration or change of speed including stops.
4. Stress due to starting.

Design procedure:

For designing a wire-rope, the following procedure may be adopted.

1. Based on the given data, like, nature of application, duty etc, select a suitable
type of rope from the table.
2. Estimate the design load by multiplying the dead weight by three times the design
factor using the table in order to satisfy all working conditions of rope such as
during acceleration, starting etc.
3. Determine the net cross-sectional area of the rope, by choosing specific tensile
Strength of wire, using the formula,
A = Pd u
Where Pd =Design load
u = Tensile strength of wire.
4. Find out the diameter of rope using the relation given in table.
5. Select next standard diameter of rope given in table and note down the maximum
breaking strength of that rope from the same table.
6. Compute the load applied at normal working, acceleration and starting etc. and find out
the actual factor of safety by dividing the breaking strength by above loads.
7. For safe design, the actual factor of safety should not be less than 5 at any
circumstances.
8. Then calculate the drum and pulley dimensions.

Problem 1:
Select a wire-rope for a vertical mine hoist to lift a load of 20 KN from a depth of
500metres. A rope speed of 3m/s is to attained in 10 seconds.

Solution:

Load to be lifted, W= 20 KN = 20,000 N

Depth, h = 500 m
Rope speed, v = 3 m/ s
Time, t= 10 s
Let us select 6 x 19 rope for mine hoist. (Refer table 11.3)
Let d= Diameter of rope in mm.
Then, wire diameter, dw= 0.07 d
Optimum pulley diameter D =100 d
Net area of cross-section of rope A =0.4 d2
Approximate weight of rope per metre length =0.0375 d2
Tensile strength of rope-wire, u= 1800 N/mm2 (Assumed)
Since the diameter of rope is not known now, the design load may be calculated from the
dead weight (W) only, by assuming suitable factor of safety, without considering the rope
weight.

Minimum factor of safety = 10 (for mine hoist)

Design factor of safety, n = 2.5 x 10 = 25
Design load, Pd = 25 x W = 25 x 20,000
= 500 x 103 N
 Its breaking strength, P = 472 kN (PSG 9.5)
Next standard diameter of rope, d = 29 mm.
Weight of rope per metre length =30.5 N
The actual factor of safety for various working conditions is determined as
follows.

During Normal working:

During acceleration:
During starting :

Since the calculated factor of safety in all the working conditions are almost sufficient,
our design is safe. i.e., 29 mm diameter rope is satisfactory.

If we require further safe operation, then next higher size rope (i.e., 32 mm diameter
rope) may be selected, whose breaking strength is 584 KN.
Important questions:

1) What is a power drive? Mention their types.

2) State the "Law of Belting"
3) Explain the term crowning of pulley .
4) Define Co-efficient of' friction'
5) State the materials by which the belts are made of?
6) Indicate some merits and demerits of belt-drives.
7) What is meant by the ply of belt?
8) Mention the different types of joints employed for joining flat-belts.
9) Why tight-side of the belt should be at the bottom side of the pulley?
10) Differentiate open-belt drive and cross-belt drive.
11) What is belt rating?
12) Briefly explain about initial tension in belts.
13) What factors should be considered during the selection of a belt drive?
14) What are the commercial types of flat belts.
15) What are the factors on which the co-efficient of friction between the belt and
pulley depends?
16) Explain briefly about creep .in belts.
17) How are the V-belts designated?
18) Define a) Pitch length, b) Inside length, c) Initial tension of V-belt.
19) Describe the method of selecting V-belt using manufacture's catalogues.
20) When do we prefer a V-belt to a flat-belt?
21) In what ways, timing belts are superior to ordinary V-belts?
22) Write the features of a chain drive.
23) Mention the applications of chain drives.
24) Indicate the types of chains.
25) What are the advantages of chain drives?

1. Design a fabric belt to transmit 15 HP. at 450 rpm from an engine to a line
shaft at 1200 rpm. The diameter of the engine pulley is 600 mm. and the
centre distance between the shafts is 2 metres.

2. Design a flat belt drive to transmit 20 kW at 730 rpm. to a rolling machine

with a speed ratio of 3. The centre distance is nearly 3.5 m. The diameter
of rolling machine pulley is 1.2. m.

3. A centrifugal water pump is driven by a 30 kW motor running at 1440 rpm.

The speed of the pump is to be 360 rpm. The maximum size 0 the pulley
permitted is 1 m and approximate centre distance is 2.2 m. Design the V-belt
drive.

4. Power of 60 kW at 730 rpm. from an electric motor is to be transmitted to a

compressor shaft at 300 rpm. by V-belts. Approximate larger pulley diameter
is 1500 mm. Approximate centre distance is 1650 mm. Overload factor is 1.5. Design
the V-belts.
5. A 50 kW motor running at 1000 rpm. is required to drive a pump pulley at 400 rpm.
Motor pulley diameter is limited to 0.3 m. Centre distance is to be around 2.5. m. Select
a suitable V-belt and design the drive.

6. A 50 kW, 1160 rpm. AC split phase motor is to be used to drive a reciprocating pump
at a speed of 330 rpm. The pump is for .12 hour service and normally requires 44 kW,
but is subjected to peak loads of 175% of full load. Determine the details of multiple V-
belt drive for. this application.

7. Select suitable V-belt for the following data:

Power to be transmitted' =50 kW
Speed of the driving pulley =960 rpm
Velocity ratio desired =3
Specify all the details

8. Select a suitable V-Belt and design the drive for a wet grinder. Power is available from
a 0.5 kW motor running at 950 rpm. Drum speed is to be about 100. rpm. Drive is to be
compact.

9. A 10 kW, 1440 rpm motor drives a line shaft at 300 rpm by a chain drive. The centre
to centre distance of the shaft is to be approximately 0.5 m. The motor shaft diameter is
40 mm. The starting torque of the motor is 2.5 times the running torque. The load
applied is with moderate shock. Select a suitable roller chain drive.

10. Design a chain drive for the following data.

Motor 5 kW, 3 phase, 1440 rpm.
Transmission ratio - 2.4
Driven member - A transporter of heat treatment furnace.
Rating - continuous with 3 shifts / day
Motor mounting - On auxiliary bed.
Lubrication - Bath type.
Transmission - Horizontal

11. Select a suitable wire-rope to lift 20 KN of debris from a well of 60 m deep. The
weight of the bucket is 4 KN. The weight is being lifted with a maximum speed of 100
m/min and the maximum speed is attained in 2 seconds. Determine also the stress
induced in the rope due to starting with an initial slack of 0.2 m.

12. Select a wire-rope for a vertical mine hoist to lift 1800 tonnes of ore in each 8 hour
shift from a depth of 750 m. Assume a two compartment shaft with the hoisting skips
in balance. Use a maximum velocity of 720 m/min with acceleration and deceleration
of 15 sec each and a rest period of 10 sec for discharging and loading the skips. A
hoisting skip weighs approximately 0.6 of its load capacity. Let the factor of
safety be 6.