DRY FRICTION – Sliding motion

The Laws of Friction

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), ?

F f  0.25 F
G ill
Guillaume A
Amontons
t (1663
(1663-1705),
1705) 1699

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806), 1779

1. The friction force is independent of the nominal or apparent area of

contact of the two bodies;

2. The friction force is proportional to the normal load between them.

(3.) The kinetic friction is almost independent of the speed of sliding (Coulomb, 1785)

The Coefficient of Friction,  Ff   F

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

DRY FRICTION – Sliding motion

The Measurement of Friction

` Inclined-plane test rig
Gsin
Gcos Ff G sin 
G    tan 
 F G cos 
Static friction coefficient

kinetic friction coefficient Friction & Wear test-rigs

F
F F
F

Mf
Mf Mf Mf
a) flat pin on disc b) thrust washer c) pin on cylinder d) hemispherical
(Amsler machine) pin on disc

Lower pairs Higher pairs

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

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 DRY FRICTION – Simple Adhesion Theory

Bowden & Tabor, 1950 Ideal elastic-plastic material

After loading
Before loading
Fi
Fi
1. Hard & F  Ar p0 F  F
i
i
smooth surface
Ffi
Initial asperity
of soft metal
p0  H Ar  A r, i
i
Asperity after
loading Ff s
p0 = H F f  Ar s  
2. Soft & rough
F H
Ari surface
s  c c

H
H – Brinnel hardness (HB)
Ar – Real area of contact H  6 c   0.167
p0 – Yield stress of the softer material
C – Critical shear stress of the softer material Model criticize

•  is independent of
•Friction is independent of nominal or apparent area of contact
the pair of materials &
•Friction force is proportional to the normal load surface quality

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

DRY FRICTION – Extended Adhesion Theory (I)

Tangential Maximum shear stress failure theory gives

Ffi Fi stress
2
  p
     c
2 2
p c  2
p  Normal
stress
p 2  4 2  4 c2   2c

(a) (b) p 2   2  r 2
Boundary conditions for  and r

No tangential force   0 and p  H p 2   2  H 2

H2
p 
2
2  H2
H2  c2
Large-scale
p   and    c 
junction growth
 c2
Ff s
 s   c s  c c c 1  p 2   2s   c2
Ar p
c - contamination coefficient
M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

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 DRY FRICTION – Extended Adhesion Theory (II)

2
s c2
  
 
1
 p  1  c2 very
contaminated
0.8
surfaces
Ff  s Ar c (boundary
  
 
0.6 lubrication)
F pAr  1  c2 
0.4
c  =25
  =36
 0.2 very clean
surfaces
 =9 (vacuum)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
c

critical shear stress of the interface


Brinell hardness of the bulk softer metal

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

DRY FRICTION – Ploughing Theory (I)

Hokkirigawa & Kato, 1988

Steel / Brass
Ploughing mode Pin radius = 27 m
Spherical asperity
Disc radius = 20 mm

Wedge mode

Micro-cutting mode

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

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 DRY FRICTION – Ploughing Theory (II)
Hard conical Ploughing mode Bowden & Tabor, 1950
asperity
Fi r  N – number of asperities
Ffi
 AV  rh
F f  N Av p0  N r h p0
h
1
F  N AH p0  N  r 2 p0
2
Soft & flat material
h
1  tan   tan 1 
AH  r 2
r
2
2 2 Ff 2h
 tan   cotan   
  F r

  5,   85, =0.056   45,  = 0.637

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

DRY FRICTION – Ploughing Theory (III)

Combined effects (adhesion + ploughing)

 AH  s  AV p0 F f tot  s 2
Ff  tot    tan  ;   a   p
H 
tot
F
Effects of apportionment     a  1    p
on friction coefficient
1 C
Copper
0.8
Coeffcient of friction, 

0.8 0.7  ( = 45) ploughing effect only

0.6 0.6
 Tungsten (W)
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2 Goddard et al. (Nature,
03
0.3 1959)
0
0.2
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
  Emery particle dimension, D [microns]

• Measured  (close to theoretical for presumed  ) is independent on D

• Adhesion effect is significant on the experimental curves

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

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 BOUNDARY LUBRICATION – Stribeck Curve
Boudary lubrication is lubrication by a liquid under conditions where solid surfaces are so close together
that appreciable contact between opposing asperities is possible. The friction and wear in boundary
lubrication are determined predominantly by interaction between solids and between solids and the liquid.

The bulk flow properties of the liquid (viscosity) play little or no part in the friction and wear
behaviour.
I. Boundary lubrication or dry friction
II. Mixed film & EHD lubrication
Friction  III. HD or EHD Lubrication
10 coefficent, 
IV. Superlaminar flow (Turbulent)

1 Stribeck experiments
I
IV
II
01
0.1
III

0.01 EHD Lubrication
Striebeck   n
Number pm

5 10 15 20
Petrov model
M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

BOUNDARY LUBRICATION – Rabinowicz chart

W Mo Cr Co Ni Fe Nb Pt Zr Ti Cu Au Ag Al Zn Mg Cd Sn Pb

In

Pb Rabinowicz chart
Sn
Metal-to-metal compatibility

Cd

Mg
• Identical metals in contact have a
Zn
strong tendency to adhere.
Al
• Softer metals have a stronger
Ag
tendency to adhere then harder
Au metals.
Cu
• Nonmetallic alloying elements tend to
Ti reduce adhesion (e.g., carbon in cast
Zr
LEGEND iron).
Pt lowest adhesion • Iron and its alloys
y have a low tendency y
Nb to adhere to lead, silver, tin, cadmium,
low adhesion
Fe and cooper and a high tendency to
high adhesion adhere to aluminum, zinc, titanium,
Ni
higher adhesion and nickel.
Co

Cr
a) Blank boxes indicate insufficient information
Mo
b) Identical pairs are perfectly compatible (highest adhesion)

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

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 BOUNDARY LUBRICATION –Experimental data

52100 Steel/Steel
Four-ball Machine

FRICTION COEFF.
LUBRICANT WEAR COEFF. (~) LIFE (~)
(~)
Dry argon 0.5 10 –2 Minutes
Dry air 0.4 10 –3 Minutes
Isoparaffin(C8)/Air 0.3 10 –5 Hours
Isoparaffin(C30)/Air
0.12 10 –7 Hours

Armatic Oil/Air 0.06 10 –8 Weeks

C18 Fatty Acid in C30
Isoparaffin/Air 0.08 10 –9 Years

Engine Oil/Air – 10 –10 Years

• Boundary lubrication reduces drastically wear coefficient

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

BOUNDARY LUBRICATION – Models

Fi Hardy model
Ffi

0.5...5 nm

Ffi
Fi
Bowden & Tabor
improvements

Ff  c*   c*
Ari    1    
F p0 p0 p0
Ari

• In Boundary Lubrication wear of solid surfaces is replaced by wear of boundary layers.

• Boundary layers are worn (destroyed) and rebound continuously (dynamically stable).
• The chemistry of lubricants is key factor for effective boundary lubrication – ADDITIVES.
M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

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 BOUNDARY LUBRICATION – Additives (I)

Adsorption Chemisorption

COHESION
COHESION H H
H–C–H H–C–H H
H
H–C–H H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H
H–C–H H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H IRON H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H STEARATE
H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H HEXADECANOL about H–C–H
H–C–H 30 °A H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H
H–C–H C16H33OH ADHESION
H H–C–H C H–C–H
H C H H–C–H
C H–C–H
H C H
H–C–H H
H–C–H
H–C–H H–C–H O O O C H–C–H H–C–H
H–C–H O
H–C–H Fe C H–C–H
H–C–H Fe O Fe
H–C–H O Fe O Fe O O O C
H–C–H O Fe Fe O Fe O O FeFe O O
H–C–H O Fe
O O Fe Fe O O FeFe
H–C–H Fe O Fe Fe O Fe Fe
O
O FeO
H–C–H Fe O O Fe Fe O Fe O Fe O Fe
-
0-H + H–C–H ADHESION O O FeO Fe O Fe O Fe O O Fe
FeO Fe
H–C–H O Fe OFe O Fe O Fe Fe O
-
0-H + IRON Fe O Fe O
+ - +
H-0 - Iron Oxide
+ -
- +
Unreactive
metal

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8

BOUNDARY LUBRICATION – Additives (II)

0.5
paraffin oil

0.4
paraffin oil + fatty
acid (G oils)
03
0.3 paraffin oil + EP
 additive (TIN-EP

0.2

0.1
paraffin oil + EP
additive + fatty acid
0
Tr T

Additives selection - function of contact pressure (conformal or non-

conformal pairs) and temperature

The most important practical effect of Boundary Lubrication is the

reduction in wear which may decrease by a factor of 100 or even 10000.

M.D. PASCOVICI & T. CICONE Tribology – 2011 part 8