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Abstract
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doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.10.041
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Table 1
Parametric analysis as a function of the condensation temperature
40
35
30
Xout and ^Xout (%)
25
20
Oversaturation
15
X salt evaporator inlet
10
5
0
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5
CR
Fig. 5. Influence of &5 on the concentrations.
C. Fernández-López et al. / Desalination 235 (2009) 179–198 187
68
67
66
Condensation T (C)
65
64
63
62 T=7C
61 T=8C
60
59
1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5
CR
The condensation temperature diminishes with and thus the temperature difference decreases,
recirculation (Fig. 6), because a lower recircula- causing the reduction of the heat transfer coeffi-
tion reduces the salinity of the water entering the cient and increasing the heat exchanger area
evaporator and, consequently, the boiling tempera- needed as shown in the figure.
ture. The energy cost also diminishes with the re- This fact has a notable effect at lower conden-
circulation, even though the difference of tempera- sation temperatures. Setting the condensation tem-
tures is kept constant in the evaporator. perature at 59ºC and the recirculating coefficient
Fig. 7 represents the effect on the heat ex- at 1.1, results in an optimum exchange area of
changer size that the recirculating coefficient and 100 m2 per m3/h of fresh water. By increasing the
condensation temperature have. When CR rises, recirculating coefficient to 1.85 the area consid-
the salt concentration in the evaporator also does, ered significantly rises to reach a level at which
therefore the boiling temperature is incremented 10,000 m2 per m3/h of fresh water are needed.
10000
Evaporator Area (m2)/(m3/h)
100
10
56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72
T cond (C)
Fig. 7. Evaporator area vs. Tcond and CR.
188 C. Fernández-López et al. / Desalination 235 (2009) 179–198
Table 2
MVC + MED behaviour for different flow values at the MED entrance
100% of the original flow passes through the MED will remain stored in the accumulator tank for later
cycle. In the same table it can also be seen how use in hours when solar irradiation drops. Addi-
an increased flow in the MED system increases tionally, provided that the desalination plant has
the salinity. to work in a continuous regime, and in order to
foresee the shortage or absence of solar irradia-
3. Energy supply with renewable energies tion, a back-up system able to guarantee the op-
erational needs (100 m3/h — 67ºC) is included.
3.1. Thermal energy supply with solar collectors The number of collectors to be installed will
The object of this section is to discuss the pre- depend on the type of collector, especially the
liminary design of a solar installation that is ca- performance curve, and on the geographical zone
pable of providing the thermal energy demanded (i.e. the average solar power available in that
by the MED plant. zone).
The energy demand for completely desalinat- The installation will be located in Murcia
ing 100 m3/h of seawater has been calculated at (Spain) and all the data refers to Murcia. In Table 3,
2,362 kW of thermal power. Considering that the the average daily irradiation is shown and also
installation would work continuously for 24 h/d, the data are corrected by the coefficients k1 and
the annual energy demand would rise to a total of k2, which take into account the clarity of the sky
74,488,032 MJ/y (20,691,120 kWh/y). and the lack of perpendicularity of the sunrays in
The layout of the installation is shown in Fig. 8. relation to the solar collector, respectively.
This system has to provide 100 m3/h seawater To estimate the solar collector needed, a study
at 67ºC to be operational. To achieve this, seawa- based on the collector performance was carried
ter which has been warmed to 49ºC as cooling out. Three different models were studied. Due to
fluid in the MED steps is further heated in the the variability of the disposable energy in sum-
exchanger by heat transfer from another water mer and winter conditions a monthly energy cal-
circuit that has been warmed by the solar collec- culation is required.
tor and stored in the accumulator tank. There are two different criteria for estimating
As solar irradiation is discontinuous, the solar the area of the solar collectors:
power to be captured during the hours of maxi- • Maximum surface (so that the energy needed
mum solar irradiation will exceed the require- is covered even in December, the month with
ments of the plant. The excess of thermal energy least disposable energy).
190 C. Fernández-López et al. / Desalination 235 (2009) 179–198
100 m3/h
67 C
Auxiliary
system
Exchanger
Solar collector Solar
accumulator 100 m3/h
49 C
Fig. 8. Layout of the solar installation.
Table 3
Solar data referred to Murcia (Spain)
• Average surface (so that average disposable 3.2. Electrical supply with wind energy
energy is covered. In the corresponding months
The electricity consumption in the MVC sys-
with lower energy than the average, a gas boiler
tem, which is calculated at 1,944 kW, would have
will supply the extra need). This solution was
to be completely provided by the wind installa-
considered in the thermoeconomic analysis
tion. For the rest of the plant, namely the pump-
performed.
ing system, the solar plant and the desalination
station, the wind-generated energy needed to
In Table 4, the energy demanded, the energy
pump a cubic meter of fresh water is estimated to
obtained by the TSC, the maximum area obtained
be 3 kWh. Thus, the minimal energy production
(criteria 1), the average area (criteria 2) and the
of the wind farm to cover the annual electricity
final number of collectors are shown. In Table 5,
demand of the desalination plant would be:
the boiler outputs are calculated and the associ-
ated costs of the fuel. E = electrical power × working time (7)
C. Fernández-López et al. / Desalination 235 (2009) 179–198 191
Table 4
Energy data
Thermal solar Annual energy Available solar Maximum surface Average surface TSC number
collector demand (MJ) energy (kJ/m2) (m2) (m2) (average surface)
TSC 1 74,488.03 3,135,292 47,005 23,758 6,097
TSC 2 74,488.03 3,284,961 43,483 22,676 6,592
TSC 3 74,488.03 2,545,929 72,789 29,258 11,704
Table 5
Consumption data
Thermal solar Annual energy Collector Available solar Solar fraction Boiler output Fuel cost
collector demand (MJ) performance (%) energy (kJ/m2) (%) (kW-h) (€)
TSC 1 74,488.03 59.78 3,135,292 88.50 2,380,754 54,090
TSC 2 74,488.03 56.92 3,284,961 88.20 2,452,938 61,150
TSC 3 74,488.03 45.46 2,545,929 85.90 2,933,823 72,821
was ca. 1,000,000 €. This figure was scaled to 4.2.1. Staff costs
our dimensions.
The plant staff would consist of a managerial
The MVC system cost information given di-
board, operational staff and maintenance staff. For
rectly to us by the company Jumsal SA, which
an optimal plant operating regime, three work
exploits the salt mine in Jumilla, has been in-
shifts for the operational and maintenance staff
creased by 50% to adapt these cost appraisals to
would have to be considered.
our particular case, which would run with a big-
ger MVC machine.
4.2.2. Maintenance costs
The data available from IDE Technologies
Ltd., a pioneer and world leader in the delivery of These would include repairs and installation
sophisticated water solutions in Israel, concluded upkeep, and maintenance-related materials (i.e.
that the total capital investment for MED plants lubricants and spares). The maintenance costs are
designed for production levels of 14,400 and assumed to vary during the installation working
25,000 m3/d were 14,486,000 and 22,100,000 life, due to that fact, the averaged annual amounts
USD respectively. [15] are considered here. In the first years, the mainte-
Using the information provided by the afore- nance costs will be at their lowest, but are ex-
mentioned companies the economic balance in- pected to gradually rise due to breakdowns. The
cluded in the Annexe I has been calculated. Tak- medium annual maintenance cost of the MED +
ing into consideration all these data, the invest- MVC system is estimated as 2% of the total value
ment costs for the MED + MVC plant proposed of the investment of the unit. As to the solar plant
rise to 4,500,000 €. and the wind farm, the medium annual mainte-
nance costs are respectively envisaged to be 3%
4.1.2. Wind farm and 4% of the total value of the unit investment.
These costs are expected to increase due to the
Essentially, these costs consist of the purchase
inflation rate.
of the wind turbines, this accounting for 71% of
the total investment cost. An estimate of capital
4.2.3. Consumables costs
cost for a wind farm developing 10,000 kW of
wind potential is shown in Annexe II [16]. These are the costs incurred in buying all
chemicals to be used in the desalination process,
4.1.3. Solar farm particularly in the conditioning of seawater and
fresh water. Essentially, these chemicals are: dis-
The cost per solar collector unit ranges between
infectants, coagulants, flocculants and pH-control-
1,200–1,800 € (300–450 €/m2) depending on the
lers. The needed amounts of these chemicals will
collector type. The average cost for an evacuated
depend on the magnitude of the fresh water
tube collector is between 2.30–3.10 €/Wt includ-
throughput.
ing installation, as shown in detail in Annexe III
[17].
4.2.4. Energy cost
The current analysis is based on the following
4.2. Operation costs premises and assumptions. One is that regulations
These other expenses derive from the opera- of the electricity rates in Spain allow different
tional regime of the plant. These include staff types of contracting so that costs can be mini-
costs, maintenance costs, consumables costs and mized. The present calculations are based on tar-
energy costs. iff 3.3, way 2, and type 4 of the electricity power
C. Fernández-López et al. / Desalination 235 (2009) 179–198 193
tariff system. The calculated price for kW, in- The electric tariffs for 2006 are established
stalled and contracted, and for a functioning re- according to the “Real Decreto” RD 1556/2005
gime of 8,760 h/y, is of 5.26 cent €/kWh. of December 23. This decree also establishes the
The energy cost associated to the boiler in- rated increment of the reference electric tariff for
stalled in the solar farm to guarantee the supply the sale of electricity during 2006. This increment
of energy in the months of low solar radiation is was set at 4.48 % of the tariff that had come into
50,090 €, raising the total energy cost for the in- effect on January 1st, 2005. In summary, the ref-
stallation to 1,088,048 €. erence average electricity tariff for 2006 is
In order to consider all the above-mentioned 7.66 cent €/kW.
factors, a summary of the global costs incurred The production of salt in the desalination plant
for the installation of the plant is shown in Table 6. is calculated at 0.987 kg/s. If a commercial price
of salt of 0.04 €/kg is considered, an annual in-
4.3. Energy and salt sale incomes come for the sale of the salt of 1,233,700 € will
be obtained. The above mentioned price of salt
Calculations of benefits as a result of the sale
has been calculated by averaging the referred
of salt and energy are made according to the stipu-
prices of several producers.
lations of the “Real Decreto” (RD, Royal Decree)
The general methodology for estimating the
436/2004 of March 12. It is stated that the remu-
cost of the produced fresh water, after the study
neration that the producers will obtain in exchange
of the initial investment and the annual costs, is
for transferring electric power to the grid from
based on capitalizing at a certain interest rate (4%)
facilities of production and under a special regime
the payments made during the investment. Capi-
will be:
talization would last for a period equal to that of
P = Pm + B ± EP (8) the operating system-life. For the calculation of
the amortization quota, a general equation of fi-
where P — payment in €/kW; Pm — market price nancial amortization is used.
as specified in Article 24 of the RD 436/2004; B
— bonus; is a percentage of the average electric i i 1
t
Table 6
Summary of the global costs for the installation of the plant
Total water cost (m3) = (FC + OC)/(Q × t) (10) Initial capital cost (k€) 20,536
Amortization (k€/y) 1,499
where FC — financial cost; OC — operation cost; Operating costs (k€/y) 2,199
Q × t — annual water production; 365 d × 24 h × Staff 383
100 m3/h = 876,000 m3/y. Maintenance 670
Consumables 57
The water cost without any fee would be
Energy 1,088
4.22 €/m3. If income from the sale of salt and en- Total amortization +operation costs (k€) 3,698
ergy is included, the total cost of water is 0.59 €/m3 Total water cost (€/m3) (excluding 4.22
(Table 7). incomes)
The Order of September 26, 2006, of the Min- Incomes (k€/y)
istry of Industry and Environment must also be Salt 1,234
Energy 1,946
taken into account. By that order, the legal bases Clear balance costs and incomes (k€) 518
for subsidies for the execution and exploitation Total water cost (€/m3) (with incomes) 0.59
of projects related to sustainable energy manage-
ment in rural and urban areas are regulated. Ar-
ticle 7 of this order states that the variable-quan- Table 8
tity subsidies for each project cannot exceed 37% Total water cost considering a 35% subsidy (k€)
of the cost of investment.
Considering a 35% subsidy, the cost of water Initial capital cost (k€) 18,399
without any fee would be of 4.04 €/m3, whereas Amortization (k€/y) 1,343
the total cost including fees from the sale of salt Operating costs (k€/y) 2,199
and wind power is only 0.41 €/m3. This is in agree- Staff 383
Maintenance 670
ment with previous data reported by Reddy and Consumables 57
Ghaffour, who estimated the unit water cost of Energy 1,088
MED plants as 0.55–0.7 [18] (Table 8). Total amortization + operating costs (k€) 3,542
Total water cost (€/m3) (excluding 4.04
incomes)
5. Conclusions Incomes (k€/y)
Salt 1,234
In this study a high-throughput seawater de- Energy 1,946
salination plant is described. The design is based Clear balance costs and incomes (k€) 362
on the feasible combination of a solar-driven, Total water cost (€/m3) (with incomes) 0.41
multi-effect distillation seawater plant and the fi-
nal separation of salt and water by mechanical
compression of the vapour. The environmental
interest of this plant should be emphasized, as the conventional desalination systems which are
MCV step is powered by wind-generated elec- based on reverse osmosis (RO). Nevertheless, the
tricity and no brine is discharged into the sea. high energy input demanded by the MVC step
The system proposed is designed to produce can be partially compensated by the economic
up to 100 m3/h of fresh water in which the salt is profits from selling the dry salt resulting from this
completely separated. Water is produced with an process and the electricity generated by the wind
energy consumption estimated at 2,362 kWt-h and turbines. Additionally, resorting to sources of re-
1,944 kWe-h, which is higher than other more newable energy reduces the cost of exploitation
C. Fernández-López et al. / Desalination 235 (2009) 179–198 195
and allows one to take advantage of subsidies re- able energy sources. Progress Energy Combustion
lating to the use of these technologies. Sci., 31(3) (2005) 242–281.
In summary, the total cost per m3 of desalted [6] S. Ebrahim, M. Abdel-Jawad, S. Bou-Hamad and
M. Safar, Fifteen years of R&D program in seawa-
water is calculated at 0.59 €, but if a 35% subsidy
ter desalination at KISR. Part I. Pretreatment tech-
for the initial investment is also considered, the nologies for RO systems. Desalination, 135 (2001)
final price drops to 0.41 €. 141–153.
[7] O. Miyatake, Y. Koito, K. Tagawa and Y. Maruta,
Transient characteristics and performance of a novel
Abbreviations desalination system based on heat storage and spray
RES — Renewable energy systems flashing. Desalination, 137 (2001) 157–166.
MED — Multi-effect distillation [8] J.I. Ajona, ACE-20 Spanish parabolic trough col-
lector. Proc. 6th International Symposium on Solar
MVC — Mechanical vapour compression
Thermal Concentrating Technologies, Ministerio de
RO — Reverse osmosis Industria y Energía, CIEMAT, Madrid, September
MSF — Multistage flash 28–October 2, 1992, vol. I.
VC — Vapour compression [9] A. Hanafi, Desalination using renewable energy
PSA — Almería solar platform sources. Desalination, 97 (1994) 339–352.
WT — Wind turbines [10] A. Karameldin, A. Lotfy and S. Mekhemar, The Red
TSC — Thermal solar collector Sea area wind-driven mechanical vapor compres-
psu — Practical salinity units sion desalination system. Desalination, 153 (2003)
47–53.
[11] E. Zarza, Solar Thermal Desalination Project. First
Phase Results and Second Phase Description.
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Annexe I
MED +MVC (costs and investments)
Annexe II
Wind farm (costs and investments)
Nominal electric power: 10000 kW (medium wind regime)
Annexe III
Solar farm (costs and investments)
Thermal power: 2362 kW