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Circular Economy through electric vehicles

Preprint · October 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19952.38405

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 Circular Economy through electric vehicles
Jorge Ivan Cifuentes , Andrea Barrera

1 Faculty of Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of San Carlos of Guatemala

01012

jicifuentes@ing.usac.edu.gt / kavic.engineering@gmail.com

ORCID: 0000-0002-8735-1182

Abstract

The use of electric motor vehicles is part of the solutions to reducing fossil fuel consumption. As well
convert vehicles with internal combustion engines to vehicles with electric motors and manufacture
vehicles with electric motors. Using photovoltaic solar energy, and wind energy to charge the batteries is
an important contribution and part of the circular economy. We converted 2 gasoline-powered vehicles to
electric-powered vehicles, a Tuk Tuk or moto-car and a sedan, both with solar panels for battery charging,
the sedan also has a wind turbine generator. The third phase is the manufacture of a model designed
according to the requirements of the local electric vehicle market. After the manufacture of the prototype
or third phase of the project, it is important to carry out a market study, a business plan of option 1. -
Convert vehicles with a diesel or gasoline internal combustion engine to vehicles with an electric motor
2.-A model of vehicle with electric motor designed and manufactured locally according to a certain sector
of customers and market such as farms, recreation, construction, mining, to later have a small urban
vehicle.
Keywords: Electro mobility, circular economy, electric motor, energy, vehicles

1 Introduction
Nowadays, the emissions from conventional vehicles significantly contribute to increasingly serious
environmental issues. In addition, the energy crisis and the low energy efficiency of conventional vehicles
also offer a good opportunity to develop electric vehicles (Li, Khajepour & Song, 2019). Electric vehicles
are a manifestation of technological advances in the transportation sector that are being promoted recently
(Hill et al., 2021). Currently, the electrification of passenger cars is seen as one of the key strategies for
heading toward a sustainable transport system. Of special interest are battery electric vehicles, which can
enable significant emission reductions if electricity used is produced from renewable energy sources
(Ajanovic & Haas, 2020).
Converting from diesel or gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles to electric powered vehicles has
some advantages and disadvantages. First the used vehicle has to be in good mechanical condition, not be
a very heavy construction vehicle so that the range of displacement with batteries is considerable.
According to Leitman, S., & Brant, B. (2008) the critical factor in any electric vehicle is weight. The
high cost of electric vehicles currently on the market, the use of special safety systems, high speeds and
other benefits make them more luxury vehicles or vehicles that need subsidies and incentives to enter the
market. This is an economic contradiction, electric vehicles must be profitable, competitive and have a
life cycle and return on investment in a reasonable time, without the need for subsidies. As these barriers
exist, it is also seen as an opportunity for technological development and business in the markets of
countries with fewer regulatory restrictions and without subsidies such as Latin America, the Caribbean
countries, Africa and other regions of the World.
Although in Guatemala the presence of electric vehicles began in 2005, when the entry of the first two
cars of this type was registered, the development of this type of technology is in very early stages. There
are many limitations, one of them is the legal framework for them to be operated, and of course, to be
manufactured. At the moment there is no technical guidance and law approved for the use and incentives
for the use and incentives of these new clean or pollutant-free technologies that provide autonomy and
contribute to the environment. At the Ministry of Energy and Mines was just presented (April, 2021) a
plan that seeks to promote an increase in the demand for national electricity, promote efficiency and the
energy transition in the country.
At School of Mechanical Engineering of the University Of San Carlos of Guatemala have developed
together with the company Kavic Engineering (Energy & Water Technologies) electric vehicles in 3
phases. Phase 1 conversion of a TukTuk motor vehicle with a gasoline engine to an electric motor, with
battery charging with solar energy shown in figures 1 and 2. Phase 2 is the conversion of a Mitsubishi
Mirage vehicle with a gasoline engine to a vehicle with an electric motor, with a battery charging system
with photovoltaic solar energy and wind energy as shown in figures 3 and 4. The phase 3 is the design
and manufacture of a prototype of an electric vehicle with a battery charging system, wind, manual,
electric, solar and incorporated diesel generator, making the travel distance greater than 300 kilometers at
day time and more than 150 kilometers night or hybrid time. After the manufacture of the prototype or
phase 3 of the project, it is important to carry out a market study, a business plan of option 1.- Convert
vehicles with a diesel or gasoline internal combustion engine to vehicles with an electric motor 2.-A
model of vehicle with electric motor designed and manufactured locally according to a certain sector of
customers and market such as farms, recreation, construction, mining, to later have a urban functional
vehicle.

Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Tuk Tuk Motor Car with solar panel

Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. Mitsubishi Mirage with solar panel and wind turbine
2 Method
The structural and mechanical designs were according to the mechanical engineering, Avallone, E. A. et
al (2007). . The electrical designs, connections, variation of speed and frequency of the motor
according to the manual of electric motors Toliyat, H. A., et al (2018). , manual of electrical
engineering Dorf, R. C. (2018). and own designs as shown in figures 5,6,7,8, 9 and 11.

Fig. 5 Solar panel and electric diagram

Fig. 6. Electric diagram

 Fig. 7 Electrical diagram and of the installation of the electric motor, current inverters, batteries.

Fig. 8 Diagram of electric motor car

A driver for a brushless dc motor (BLDCM) which is supplied by a wind generator (WG) is proposed.
The system uses a buck converter with high efficiency and control unit for implementation maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) technique. No optimal characteristic of the WG or an anemometer for wind
speed measuring is needed while the WG works is variable speed mode, whereas simplicity and
reliability of the proposed system is improved, cost and mechanical tension of the WG is already
reduced. Usage of available wind energy is achieved too; specifically under low wind speeds. The whole
system is used in electric vehicle application. Recent research studies about small wind turbine global
market, made by the American Wind Energy Association in 2007, have found that the micro-scale WPGS
is a subset of the small scale ones and a WPGS with capacity of less than 1kW is applicable in electric
vehicle drive application. Typically, wind turbine with fixed pitch angle, permanent-magnet (PM)
generator, rectifier, DC converter, battery module, and a DC load are different parts of a small size
WPGS.
A control system which is appropriate for driving a BLDCM in electric vehicle application has been
presented in a mathematical model. ( Kazraji, S., et al 2013). According to Leitman S., & Brant, B.
(2008) he shows us how “Build Your Own Electric Vehicle “ gets on the expressway to a green,
ecologically sound, cost-effective way that even can look cool, too. This comprehensive how-to goes
through the process of transforming an internal combustion engine vehicle to electric or even building
an EV from scratch for as much or even cheaper than purchasing a traditional car. Describes each
component in detail, motor, battery, controller, charger, and chassis and provides step-by-step instructions
on how to put them all together. Electromobility, circular economy and electric vehicles ceased to be a
hobby, at the beginning of the 20th century, more than 50% of circulating vehicles were electric, the low
oil prices at that time and not seeing the emissions of gases delayed the development and electric vehicle
market. It is expected that they will become more than 80% of vehicles circulating in the next few years,
3 Circular Economy and Sustainability
An analysis for developing a typology of ecopreneurs with user business models, and an in-depth case
study analysis. Identifying four patterns of entrepreneurial user business models in e-mobility:
predominantly simple use, complementary business, feedback to core business, and additional business.
Also is explored the transformation path of the case company, which starts with simple use and then
moves to the feedback to core business pattern ( Abdelkafi, N., & Hansen, E. G. 2018). Comply with the
norms and standards of materials, manufacturing, vehicle design is important; quality system regulations
and specifications associated with the automotive, aerospace and general manufacturing industries are
reviewed for the purpose of identifying the requirements for Failure Mode and Effects Analysis and
Control Plans in the Product Quality Cycle. The intent is to provide with a general overview of the
regulatory requirements related to the above-mentioned industries in the United States and in Europe.
Press, D. (2003).
Sustainable business model innovation (SBMI) in large multinational corporations is perceived as a key
driver for competitive advantage and corporate sustainability. While the SBMI literature acknowledges
that corporations require dynamic capabilities to innovate their business model for sustainability, the role
of organization design dynamic capabilities for this purpose has been scantly addressed. By taking a
qualitative research approach, address how organization design affects dynamic capabilities needed for
SBMI. Accordingly, from an organization design perspective, identified barriers and drivers on three
levels: the institutional, the strategic, and the operational Sustainable business model innovation (SBMI)
, (Bocken, N. M., & Geradts, T. H. 2020) . MA Cusenza et al (2019) describe according to recent
literature and technical analyses, used batteries from electric vehicles can still be used, before the final
treatment at the end-of-life, in stationary applications that are usually less stressing than the automotive
ones.
The study shows that reusing used batteries as stationary storage systems in residential buildings can
enhance the overall environmental sustainability of the two systems considered. In particular, the
environmental impacts decrease of a percentage ranging from around -4% (in cumulative energy demand)
to -17% (in abiotic depletion potential). The examined strategy can contribute to initiate the transition
towards a circular and low-carbon economy. The life cycle and programmed obsolescence of vehicles
and parts is studied by Despeisse, M., et al (2015) as the European Directive on end-of-life vehicle (ELV)
treatment has heavily influenced policies in many countries, car manufacturers need to reconsider the
early phases of the product design to enable better ELV treatment. The policy, technical and business
recommendations to improve the reuse, recycling and recovery (RRR) rate of ELVs. A comparative
analysis between the United Kingdom and Japan is undertaken, in which the two countries’ contextual
background is described along with their RRR performance from a lifecycle perspective. Barriers and
countermeasures to improve the RRR rates are discussed based upon mutual learning between the two
countries..
An abductive multiple-case study design and an analysis of over 25,000 responses from globally
dispersed suppliers to two types of supplier sustainability self-assessment questionnaires administered
and requested by a global automotive focal company by Fraser, I. J., Müller, M., & Schwarzkopf, J.
(2020) . How raw materials deemed critical are defined as having potential issues in their supply ,
limited substitutes, and applications of importance, namely in clean energy, defense, healthcare, and
electronics. Disruptions in supply of critical materials can have serious negative repercussions for firms,
consumers, and economies. One potential set of mitigation strategies for firms dealing with criticality
issues is the implementation of circular economy principles in their supply chain, operations, and end-of-
life management. Results indicate the potential for risk reduction that could be gained from
implementation of these strategies; specifically recycling, for example, can provide an in-house source
(for prompt or fabrication scrap) or at least domestic source (for post-consumer scrap) for critical
materials; up to 24% for the case of indium usage in China. ( Gaustad, G., et al 2018).
The synergetic attributes of four emerging technologies that have significant potentials to enhance smart
and sustainable urban mobility, and ultimately improve urban sustainability. Shared mobility, wireless
charging, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration, and vehicle automation have complementary features that
rectify the practical barriers and implementation restrictions of each other. The bridge between
transportation research studies and the environmental sustainability community, discuss the recent
findings, and identify critical knowledge gaps to better understand the synergies and mutual benefits of
these emerging technologies and avoid unintended environmental consequences. (Taiebat, M., & Xu,
M. 2019) . Circular Economy increasingly attracts the interest of business, policy makers and academia
in the search for answers to sustainability challenges. While earlier studies have presented drivers that
support the introduction of new business concepts for circular economy, as well as barriers that hinder the
rate of innovation in the field, no systematic categorizations of such factors have been brought forward.
Drawing on current literature, a framework of drivers and barriers is introduced, including seven distinct
areas: environmental, economic, social, political and institutional, technological and informational, supply
chain, and organizational factors, ( Tura, N., et al 2019).
The most critical element and factor in electric vehicles are batteries, mining, and materials such as
lithium, cobalt, weight, size, cost, the environmental part, toxicity, supply, recycling and reuse.
Electrification of the transport sector will support its decarbonization, yet significantly change material
requirements. This calls for an integrated modeling approach internalizing metal demand-supply
dynamics in low-carbon scenarios to support the Paris agreement on climate change and sustainable
material circulation. Develop a step toward the integrated simulation of energy-materials scenarios by
unifying a stock-flow dynamics model for low-carbon scenarios using linear programming. The modeling
framework incorporates lithium supply from both mines and end-of-life (EoL) recycling for projected
use in electric vehicles on a global basis. The results show that supply constraints, which could become
apparent from around 2030 in the case of current recycling rates (<1%), would impede the deployment
of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), leading to the generation of an additional 300 Mt-CO2 of emissions
for vehicle operation in 2050 (Watari, T. et al 2019).
The business model and innovation in the automotive industry is essential. The co-integration of
economic and sustainable concerns, in this case through the medium of the automotive industry, reveals
that business management strategy stands upon the threshold of a turbulent but innovative era. It further
suggests that sustainability is not a ‘bolt on’ addition, but an issue that goes to the heart of the structure
and conduct of business. For those involved in business management, it further suggests that strategy
and the creation of new business models requires an embedded understanding of products and sectors
alongside a ‘whole system’ perspective. The analysis suggests that in this sector (and potentially in
others too) the days of economies of scale, product standardization, and least purchase price cost to
consumers being the means to market success are numbered. (Wells, P. 2013).
The circular economy (CE) represents an environmentally and sustainability-focused economic paradigm
that has gained momentum in recent years. Innovation ecosystems are the evolving interconnected sets of
actors, activities, artifacts, and institutions who are vital to the innovative performances of single actors
or actor groups consisting largely of firms in the products and services sector. To develop sustainable CE
ecosystems, participating firms need to involve the consumers and users in their innovation processes.
The automotive industry is to a large extent an industry in which incorporating customer requirements in
product development is critical to success. Likewise, the specific preferences of the end-users of
sustainability-focused cars such as electric vehicles (EVs) and users of biofuels are unknown in the CE
context so far. Based on the current state of research, is an important, unexplored topic of product
circularity . ( Wurster, S. et al 2020) . Placing all the technical, economic factors of sustainability and
circular economy is a major challenge in electro mobility.
4 Results
1. – The Tuk Tuk vehicle was fitted with a 110 volt single phase electric mor with a DC-AC power
inverter, 2 12-volt deep cycle batteries. Without an extra charging system, he had a journey of 55
kilometers. With a 100 watt photovoltaic solar panel, one of the batteries was charged from 10.5 to 13
volts in 3.5 hours.
2. – The Mitsubishi Mirage vehicle was fitted with a closed electric motor of 110 volts of 5 Kilowatts, of
1750 RPM; 5 deep cycle 12 volt batteries, a DC-AC inverter, the same transmission was used, at a fixed
speed without variation of engine speed, it had a displacement of 38 kilometers without any extra
charging system, it develops a maximum speed of 50 kilometers per hour; It has a 355 watt photovoltaic
solar panel, it has not yet been proven how long it takes to charge the batteries with the photovoltaic solar
panel. The motor was replaced by a more efficient electric motor of 2.5 KW, 110-220 volt, 1750 RPM
single phase. The transmission or gearbox cooling system was connected, a pulley was fitted for the
hydraulic rudder system (power steering), it has been tested in forward and reverse gear with external
current of 120 volts, 3 meters forward and back. It is in the process of connecting an electric vacuum
pump for the brake booster system, inserting 3 of 12 volt deep cycle batteries and testing the displacement
and speed achieved, as well as the photovoltaic solar charging system. The design and conversion of the
Mitsubishi vehicle with electric motor and solar panel will be tested for displacement range and autonomy
after the electromechanical system is approved by Mechanical Engineers from University of San Carlos
of Guatemala and Kavic Engineering.
3. - The design and manufacture of a new model of the electric vehicle prototype charged by photovoltaic
solar energy, wind energy, manual generator is in the process of research and development.
4. - The most critical thing in an electric vehicle is the weight, the design of the motor, the speed
variation, the weight and the battery system, this implies more than 50 % of the cost of the vehicle.
Fig. 9. Own design of electric vehicle with solar panel. by Jorge Ivan Cifuentes and Kavic Engineering

Fig. 10 Electric vehicle with wind turbine. ( Kazraji, S., et al 2013)

 Fig. 11 and 12. Own design of electric vehicle with solar panel. by Jorge Ivan Cifuentes and Kavic
Engineering

5 Conclusions
The conversion of vehicles with a gasoline or diesel engine to vehicles with an electric motor, the design
and manufacture of electric vehicles with a battery charging system by photovoltaic solar energy, wind
energy, manual generator are part of the application of technology and engineering for it reduced the
consumption of fossil fuels, clean transportation systems without the need for subsidies. Cusenza, M. A
et al (2019) . Despeisse, M et al (2015) .
This is a research and development project, as well as a business project, industry 4.0 and direct
application of the circular economy. Watari, T., et al (2019)
The acceptance of the customers, the cost-benefit, the return of the investment, are the key factors in the
technical, environmental and commercial success of the electric mobility. Also its relationship with the
real principles of circular economy and sustainability.
The adaptation of electric vehicles with characteristics of the Mesoamerican region is important and
according to the needs of the market.
6 Ackowledgement
Research funded by Kavic Engineering (Energy & Water Technologies); This project is carried out in
conjunction with the research unit of the School of Mechanical Engineering of the University of San
Carlos de Guatemala
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