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Brandt - 1996 - Handbook On Solids Control & Waste Management PDF
Brandt - 1996 - Handbook On Solids Control & Waste Management PDF
4th EDITION
Published by Brandt / EPI ™
1st Edition © 1982
2nd Edition © 1985
3rd Edition © 1995
4th Edition © 1996
Thanks,
Mike Montgomery
Manager, Technical Group
Brandt/EPI
i
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS .....................................................1.1
1.1 Functions of Drilling Mud ............................................................................1.1
1.2 The Nature of Drilled Solids ........................................................................1.2
1.3 Properties of Drilling Mud ...........................................................................1.4
1.4 Types of Drilling Muds.................................................................................1.8
iii
4.7 Screen Panels................................................................................................4.9
BlueHexSM 3HX Screen Panels .....................................................................4.9
Pinnacle™ Screen Panels .............................................................................4.9
PT Screen Panels ........................................................................................4.10
Hook-Strip Screen Panels...........................................................................4.10
4.8 Hydrocyclone Units ....................................................................................4.10
Desanders....................................................................................................4.10
Desilters.......................................................................................................4.11
4.9 Centrifuges ..................................................................................................4.11
SC-1 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.11
SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.12
HS 3400 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.12
SC 35HS High Speed Decanting Centrifuge..............................................4.12
HS 5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.13
Roto-Sep Perforated Rotor Centrifuge .......................................................4.13
4.10 Dewatering Units ........................................................................................4.14
4.11 Filtration Units ............................................................................................4.14
4.12 Vacuum Degassers......................................................................................4.15
4.13 Mud Agitators..............................................................................................4.15
4.14 Portable Rig Blowers ..................................................................................4.15
4.15 Integrated Systems......................................................................................4.16
Closed Loop Processing Systems ...............................................................4.16
Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing Systems....................................................4.17
Trenchless Technology Processing Systems..............................................4.17
Live Oil Systems..........................................................................................4.17
4.16 Remediation Management Services ...........................................................4.17
4.17 Technical & Engineering Services..............................................................4.18
APPENDICES
Glossary .....................................................................................................................A.2
Mud Solids Calculations
Standard Calculations..................................................................................................B.1
Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge...........................................B.4
Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ..............B.5
Solids Control Performance Evaluation .....................................................................B.6
Method for Comparison of Cyclone Efficiency .......................................................B.10
Mud Engineering Data
Conversion Constants and Formulas..........................................................................C.1
Density of Common Materials ....................................................................................C.2
Hole Capacities ...........................................................................................................C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Fast Rates ..........................................................C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Slow Rates.........................................................C.5
Solids Content Chart ...................................................................................................C.6
Equipment Selection
Pre-well Project Checklist...........................................................................................D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons .........................................................................................D.2
Brandt/EPI Equipment Specifications........................................................................D.3
Selecting Size and Number of Agitators ....................................................................D.7
Brandt/EPI™ Sales & Service Locations ....................................................................D.8
iv
1.0 DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS
Mud is the common name for 8. Help support the weight of the
drilling fluid. While it is outside the drill string.
scope of this handbook to offer a 9. Transmit hydraulic horse-
detailed discussion of drilling fluids, power to the bit.
a brief outline of the general char- 10. Allow removal of cuttings by
acteristics of drilling mud is the surface system.
included to establish the basic rela-
tionships between drilling mud and Of the ten functions listed, the fol-
solids control. lowing are generally considered
Similarly, any discussion of solids most important:
control would be incomplete with- 1. Drilling mud moves the forma-
out establishing an understanding tions’ solids cut by the drill bit
of the nature of mud solids — their from the bottom of the hole to
size, shape and composition. the surface. Removal of cut-
tings from the wellbore is
1.1 FUNCTIONS OF essential in order to continue
DRILLING FLUID drilling.
The mud system in a drilling 2. Drilling mud must withstand
operation performs many important the pressure exerted by the
functions. Among these are: formations exposed in the
1. Carry the drilled solids from hole. The pressure exerted by
the bottom of the hole to the the mud against the formations
surface. helps the driller control the
2. Support the wall of the hole. pressure created by the gas, oil
3. Control pressure within the for- and water that are exposed
mation being drilled. while drilling, thus reducing
4. Cool the bit and lubricate the the potential for costly
drill string. blowouts.
5. Clean beneath the bit. 3. Drilling mud protects and sup-
6. Suspend cuttings while circula- ports the walls of the wellbore.
tion is interrupted (e.g., during The mud has a plastering effect
trips). on the walls of the hole and
7. Secure accurate information helps prevent the walls from
from the well (cuttings sam- caving in, causing an enlarged
ples, electric logs, etc.). hole or leading to stuck pipe.
1.1
These problems significantly ITEM DIAMETER IN MICRONS
Cement Dust (Portland) 3-100 µ
increase drilling expense and Talcum Powder 5-50 µ
time. Red Blood Corpuscles 7.5 µ
Finger Tip Sensitivity 20 µ
4. Drilling mud cools the bit and Human Sight 35-40 µ
lubricates the drill string. This Human Hair 30-200 µ
Cigarette (diameter) 7520 µ
function is important in drilling One inch 25,400 µ
because it increases the useful Figure 1-1
life of bits and the drill string. Micron Size Range of Common Materials
1.2
The more commonly used classifi- Abrasiveness of mud solids is
cations shown in Figure 1-2, determined by particle shape and
cuttings, sand, silt and clay (or col- hardness. Drilled solids come in
loidal size) will be used throughout various shapes such as round, nee-
this handbook, as they are the most dle shaped, platelets, cubic, etc. To
readily recognized in the field. be destructive, particles must be
These terms will refer to size classi- sharper and harder than the materi-
fication only, not to material al they are to abrade. Figure 1-3
composition. illustrates the degradation of drilled
CLASSIFICATION PARTICLE SIZE
solids in a mud system. The main
(Diameter in Microns) body of the particle becomes less
Cuttings Larger than 500 µ
abrasive with wear as the most
Sand 74-500 µ
Silt 2-74 µ
abrasive corners continue to
Clay Smaller than 2 µ degrade down through the silt size
Figure 1-2 to approximately 15–20 microns.
Common Field Terminology of Particle Size
1.3
to various shapes and sizes of composed of clays that easily dis-
solids, is another important con- perses into the mud produce
cept. Specific surface area refers to relatively more viscosity increase and
the surface area per unit of weight will have “wetter” separations in
or volume. Figure 1-4 lists examples removal by equipment than forma-
that show surface area greatly tions that produce larger sized solids.
increases per unit of mass: 1) as Bentonite disperses easily into col-
particle size decreases, and 2) as loidal solids and also absorbs much
particles become less spherical in more water than most solids types.
shape. Hence bentonite builds viscosity at
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL relatively low concentrations.
PARTICLE DIAMETER TYPE SQUARE FEET
(Microns) PARTICLES PER POUND Viscosity and other mud properties
5.0 µ Glass Spheres 2,345
are discussed in Section 1.3 of this
5.0 µ Crushed Quartz 3,435
1.0 µ Glass Spheres 11,725
Handbook.
1.0 µ Crushed Quartz 17, 160
0.1 µ Glass Spheres 117,250 1.3 PROPERTIES OF
0.1 µ Crushed Quartz 171,500
DRILLING MUD
Figure 1-4
Effect of Particle Size and Shape on Surface Area The ability of a drilling fluid to
perform its functions depends on
Surface area adsorbs or “ties-up”
various properties of the mud, most
water. The more surface area, the
of which are measurable and are
more water adsorbed. As the parti-
affected by solids control.
cle size decreases toward the
colloidal size, the relative effect of
DENSITY (MUD WEIGHT)
the water coating increases. The
specific surface area has a pro- Density is a measure of the weight
nounced effect on viscosity, as of the mud in a given volume, and
Figure 1-5 illustrates. The higher the is frequently referred to as mud
relative specific surface area, the weight. The instrument used to
greater is the viscosity. Formations measure density is the mud balance
(see Figure 1-6). The instrument
consists of a constant volume cup
with a lever arm and rider calibrat-
ed to read directly the density of
the fluid in lbs/gal (water = 8.33
lbs/gal) and pressure gradient in
psi/1000 ft (water = 433 psi/1000 ft)
or pounds per cubic foot (water =
Figure 1-5
Effect of Specific Surface Area on Viscosity 62.4 lbs/ft).
1.4
Figure 1-6 Mud Balance
VISCOSITY
Viscosity measures the mud’s
resistance to flow as a liquid and is
one of the key physical properties
of mud. Increasing the amount of
solids or exposed surface area in a
mud increases its resistance to flow
as a liquid and therefore increases Figure 1-7 Marsh Funnel and Cup
1.5
rotational viscometer (Figure 1-8)
and is expressed in centipoise
(grams per centimeter-second).
YIELD POINT
1.6
microns when referring to solids
control separation. Therefore, the
sand content of a mud is simply the
amount of solids too large to pass
through a US Test Sieve 200-mesh
screen. This is determined with a
sand content set (see Figure 1-10)
by washing a mea-
sured amount of
mud through the
200-mesh screen in
the kit. The
Figure 1-9 Retort (Mud Still)
amount of solids
that does not pass
mud. To determine the solids con-
through the screen
tent of a mud containing weight
is measured as
material, a mud container in the
percentage by vol-
retort is filled with a measured vol-
ume and is
ume of mud (see Figure 1-9). The
recorded as per-
mud is then heated to boil off the Figure 1-10
cent sand. Sand Content Set
liquid. The percentage of the liquid
distilled off is measured in a glass FILTRATION
cylinder and subtracted from 100%.
Filtration and wall-cake building
The difference is the percentage of
are actions that the drilling mud
solids by volume contained in the
carries out through and on the
drilling mud and is recorded as per-
walls of the hole. Some formations
centage solids. The total solids from
allow the liquid in the mud to seep
the retort and mud weight are used
into them, leaving a layer of mud
to calculate the low and high gravi-
solids on the wall of the hole. This
ty solids content.
layer of mud solids is called filter
If the mud does not contain oil or
cake or wall-cake. The filter cake
weight material, such as barite or
builds up a barrier and reduces the
hematite, the low gravity solids can
amount of the liquid that enters the
be determined without a retort by
formation and is lost from the mud.
weighing the mud and referring to
This process is referred to as filtra-
a solids content chart.
tion, or fluid loss. The instrument
used to measure the fluid loss due
SAND
to filtration is a filter press (see
Sand is any particle larger than 74 Figure 1-11).
1.7
content, salt content, and other
properties that affect drilling mud
performance. Some of these chemi-
cal properties can be controlled
through various mud additives that
thicken, thin, precipitate, disperse,
emulsify, lubricate or otherwise
adjust the mud depending on spe-
cific drilling needs. For example,
caustic soda can be added to some
saltwater mud in order to maintain
a high pH level; it makes disper-
sants more effective and reduces
corrosion. Chemical changes such
as these are used to fine tune
drilling muds.
Figure 1-11 Filter Press
1.8
need, such as to keep the hole disposal may require sophisticated
from swelling or caving in, or to solids control techniques. System
reduce friction and prevent stuck recommendations for specific appli-
pipe in very crooked or high angle cations are covered in detail in
holes. Either water-base or oil-base Chapter 4.
mud can be used as “weighted” Here is a list of the most common
mud. mud types, followed by a brief
Weighted Mud refers to any mud description of each type:
which has barite or barite substi- I. Water-Base Mud (WBM)
tutes added to increase density. A. Spud Mud
These muds normally have a densi- B. Natural mud
ty greater than 10.0 lbs/gal. The C. Chemically-Treated Mud
solids in weighted mud consist of 1. Lightly Treated Chemical
drilled solids from the hole, plus Mud
barite, plus commercial clays added 2. Highly Treated Chemical
Mud
to control fluid loss and viscosity.
3. Low Solids Mud
Unweighted Mud refers to any 4. Polymer Mud
mud which has not had barite 5. Calcium Treated Mud
added. This mud type normally has D. Saltwater Mud
a density of less than 10.0 lbs/gal. 1. Sea Water Mud
The solids in unweighted mud con- 2. Saturated Salt Mud
sist of drilled solids from the hole, II. Oil-Base Mud (OBM)
plus commercial clays. A. “True” Oil Base
Solids control techniques will vary B. Invert Emulsion
considerably depending on the type C. Synthetic (SBM)
of mud being used. For example,
with many unweighted water-base SPUD MUD
muds, the loss of fluids along with Spud Mud is used to start the
the drilled solids may be economi- drilling of a well and continues to
cally insignificant, allowing simple be used while drilling the first few
solids control techniques. In the hundred feet of hole. Spud mud is
case of mud that contains expen- usually an unweighted water-base
sive chemical additives and/or mud, made up of water and natural
barite, especially oil-base mud, solids from the formation being
sophisticated solids control tech- drilled. It may contain some com-
niques must be utilized to minimize mercial clay, added to increase
overall costs. In addition, environ- viscosity and improve wall-cake
mental costs of haul-off and building properties.
1.9
NATURAL MUD erties, and density. Chemical muds
Natural Mud (sometimes called are often treated with lignosul-
“native” mud) is usually unweight- fonates or lignite and are therefore
ed water-base mud which contains commonly called “lignosulfonate
mostly drilled solids. Some ben- mud” or “lignite” mud.
tonite and small amounts of These muds are used where mod-
chemicals may be used to improve erate to severe hole problems are
filter cake quality and help prevent expected or high down-hole pres-
hole problems. This mud is often sures occur. Of all the water-base
the next mud type used after spud mud types, these are the most
mud. Often, natural mud is used to expensive to maintain. As mud den-
drill the first few thousand feet of sity is increased and potential hole
hole, where only minor hole prob- problems (such as stuck drill pipe)
lems are expected. become more of a risk, the removal
of drilled solids by mechanical
CHEMICALLY TREATED MUD solids control equipment becomes
Chemically Treated Mud is water- increasingly important.
base mud which contains chemicals Low Solids Muds are water-base
to control physical and chemical mud containing less than ten per-
properties. Bentonite is usually cent (10%) drilled solids; 1–5% is a
added to help control viscosity and normal range. Generally speaking,
fluid loss. Barite (weight material) the lower the solids content in the
may be added to increase density. mud, the faster the bit will drill.
This mud is used where more Low solids muds are usually
severe hole problems are expected, expensive to maintain because the
in order to prevent these problems. solids, chemical, and fluid loss
Lightly Treated Chemical Mud is properties have to be kept very
usually unweighted water-base close to prescribed levels. It is
mud. It is used where minor hole absolutely essential that all solids
problems are expected, such as removal equipment operate at max-
sloughing or caving of the walls of imum effectiveness in order to
the hole. maintain the desired low level of
Highly Treated Chemical Mud is solids at a reasonable cost.
usually weighted, water-base mud Polymer Muds are special types of
that contains larger amounts of low solids mud which contain syn-
chemicals, bentonite, additives, and thetic materials, polymers, designed
barite to maintain strict control of to control viscosity and fluid loss.
viscosity, fluid loss, chemical prop- Polymers are very expensive and
1.10
often difficult to screen when a blinding can occur when salt dries
high viscosity fluid is used. and cakes on the solids control
Calcium Treated Muds are special equipment. Fresh water may be
water-base muds, usually weighted, used to clean the screens, but it
which have lime or gypsum added. must be used very carefully
Calcium Treated Muds are normally because too much fresh water can
used to prevent shale type forma- upset the chemical balance of this
tions from swelling or sloughing – mud.
problems which could lead to stuck
pipe or a ruined hole. “TRUE” OIL-BASE MUD
“True” Oil-base Mud contains a
SALTWATER MUD liquid phase with ninety to ninety-
Saltwater Muds contain a high five percent (90–95%) diesel oil and
concentration of salt. They may be five to ten percent (5–10%) water
weighted or unweighted. emulsified within the oil. These
Sea Water Muds contain sea water muds often use asphaltic type mate-
as the continuous phase and, usual- rials suspended in the liquid for
ly, only sea water is used for controlling viscosity and fluid loss.
dilution. They may be weighted or “True” oil-base muds provide good
unweighted. These muds are used hole protection, especially in shale
offshore and in bay areas where type formations, and also increase
fresh water is not readily available. drill string lubrication.
When sea water mud is being
used, only sea water should be INVERT EMULSION MUD
used to rinse or wash the screens in Invert Emulsion Mud is oil-base
solids control equipment. mud in which the liquid phase is
Saturated Salt Muds (sometimes sixty to ninety percent (60–90%)
called brine fluids) contain as much diesel oil with ten to forty percent
salt as can be dissolved in the water (10–40%) water emulsified within
phase. This mud type is often used the oil. An invert mud can be for-
to drill through salt formations so mulated with mineral oil or other
the fluid will not dissolve the salt low environmental risk oil substi-
formation. If fresh water mud is tutes when needed. In this mud,
used, greatly enlarged holes would water and chemicals are used to-
result, usually leading to hole trou- gether to control viscosity and fluid
ble. loss. Invert emulsion muds provide
It is important to be aware of the good hole protection and are the
use of salt mud because screen most commonly used oil mud.
1.11
SYNTHETIC OIL MUDS reduced eye and respiratory irrita-
The term “Synthetic-Based Mud”, tion. The major benefit of SBMs
or SBM, describes any oil-base mud over traditional OBMs is the
that has a synthesized liquid base. reduced environmental impact of
Some common synthetic base fluids cuttings and liquid mud. Currently,
include linear alphaolefins (LAO), SBMs and cuttings meet U.S. off-
straight internal olefins (IO), polyal- shore environmental requirements
phaolefins (PAO), vegetable oils, and may be discharged under
esters, and ethers. This base fluid is WBM protocols.
then combined with viscosifiers, SBMs are expensive, $200–400
weighting material, and other addi- /bbl., depending on the oil/water
tives to produce a stable, useful ratio. Proper solids removal and liq-
drilling fluid. uid recovery techniques must be
SBMs share several advantages used to maintain desired fluid prop-
with traditional oil-base muds, erties and drilling rate, and to
including excellent wellbore stabili- control mud maintenance costs.
ty, improved drilling rates, good The alternatives to mechanical
hole cleaning, excellent cuttings solids control — dilution and whole
integrity, and reduced torque. SBM additions — are prohibitively
SBMs also provide additional health expensive when compared to the
and safety benefits — higher flash cost of proper solids control equip-
points, lower vapor production, and ment.
1.12
2.0 BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY
MECHANICAL SEPARATION
2.1
some drilled solids are so finely 2.2 REDUCED DILUTION
ground that they tend to remain in REQUIREMENTS
suspension. This results in A common method of trying to
increased mud viscosity and gel offset the build-up of drilled solids
strength which, in turn results in is the addition of more liquid. This
larger particles also remaining in is known as dilution and does not
suspension. Thus, the approach of remove cuttings but reduces (or
removing cuttings through settling dilutes) their concentration in a
alone is of limited practical value. drilling mud, thereby reducing the
Solids control equipment was percent of total solids in the mud.
However, it is important to note
developed in order to more effec-
that dilution is expensive. Every
tively remove unwanted solids from
barrel of dilution water (or oil)
drilling mud. A variety of devices
added requires an additional
(which will be discussed in detail in amount of chemicals, barite or
Chapter 3 of this handbook) are other materials in order to maintain
available which mechanically sepa- desired mud properties. The lower
rate the solids particles from the the drilled solids content to be
liquid phase of the mud. Thus the maintained, the greater the dilution
driller, depending on the particular required. In the case of an oil-base
situation and equipment used, can mud, oil must be used for dilution
regulate to a fine degree the — which can become extremely
amount and size of solids particles expensive.
that are removed or maintained in It should be noted that chemical
any given drilling mud. treatment alone will ultimately
Such control of mud solids through result in high solids content and
mechanical separation allows the uncontrollable mud properties. The
most effective approach is to use
mud to perform its drilling-related
mechanical solids control equip-
functions and avoids the downhole
ment to remove as much of the
problems caused by excessive solids
drilled solids as possible before
contamination. Effective solids con- they are incorporated into the mud
trol permits viscosity and density to be system and then treat what is left
kept within desired levels, dramati- with appropriate amounts of chemi-
cally increases the life of pump parts cals and dilution.
and drill bits, and promotes faster Effective solids removal by
penetration — all of which decrease mechanical separation can maintain
the time and expense of drilling. a minimum solids level in drilling
2.2
mud and greatly reduce the need 45 = 44 barrels of dilution per hour.
for dilution. Reducing the need to If the chemicals and additives were
dilute the mud can drastically worth only $10 per barrel, the mud
decrease the cost of having to pur- treating costs would be reduced by
chase mud products such as weight approximately $440 per hour! Over
material (barite) and chemicals. the life of a drilling operation, $440
These materials are expensive — per hour adds up to a very signifi-
mud costs can be 10% of the total cant cost savings.
cost of drilling a well. The same procedure can be used
The Dilution Ratio Chart (Figure to show reduced dilution require-
2-1) can be used indirectly to ment in weighted mud. When
approximate the amount of dilution heavily — weighted muds (16–18
that can be eliminated by use of lbs/gal) are being used, drilling
solids removal equipment. For usually proceeds more slowly and
example, suppose a drilling engi- less drilled solids are removed per
neer required that no more than 5% hour. However, if approximately 5%
solids were to be maintained in an drilled solids are allowed in the
unweighted mud. The chart shows mud, then each barrel of mud still
that at 5%, each barrel of mud contains roughly 44 pounds of
would contain about 45 pounds of drilled solids.
drilled solids. If solids control Therefore, if the solids control
equipment were removing 1 ton equipment were removing even a
(2000 lbs) of solids per hour, then pencil-sized stream of solids which
the equipment would save 2000 ÷ would amount to 44 pounds per
MUD WEIGHT DRILLED POUNDS OF BBLS OF WATER
(LBS/GAL) SOLIDS 2.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY REQUIRED TO DILUTE
TO BE PERCENT BY SOLIDS PER 1 TON SOLIDS AND
MAINTAINED VOLUME BARREL OF MUD MAINTAIN MUD WEIGHT
2.3
hour, then 44 ÷ 44 = 1 barrel of discarding of excess mud. The size
dilution saved per hour. With the of the active and waste pits them-
high cost weighted mud (usually a selves can be reduced due to
minimum of $30 per barrel), the smaller capacity requirements.
solids removal equipment would be Instead of throwing away valuable
saving at least $30 per hour. Over mud additives, these can be sal-
an average operation of 20 hours vaged and returned to the active
per day, this represents a savings of mud system.
approximately $600 per day. If the If properly used, solids control
maximum amount of drilled solids equipment can virtually eliminate
were reduced to 3%, the cost savings waste liquid mud through a “closed
would double to approximately mud system”. In such a system the
$1200 per day. liquid phase can be recycled —
The expense of the dilution liquid which can be critical in special
is a major factor in considering the applications such as when using
advantages of reduced dilution oil-base or polymer muds, especial-
requirements. Oil is obviously ly offshore, or where environmental
much more costly than water, but concerns prohibit disposal of liquid
water also can be expensive if it waste materials. In these cases the
has to be trucked into a remote cost of hauling the liquid waste
drilling location. away for disposal is also avoided.
The disposal of “waste” mud can Solids removal by mechanical sep-
also be a significant factor in overall aration can achieve the benefits of
dilution costs. Heavy reliance on low solids content and at the same
dilution to control solids content time significantly reduce the many
can result in the addition of so costs associated with dilution.
much extra liquid that the volume
of mud exceeds the capaci-
ty of the active mud pits.
When this happens, whole DRILLED SOLIDS
mud (including all of the
expensive additives) must
be discarded into waste or
reserve pits.
Appropriate use of solids
control equipment in place
of dilution lessens the vol-
ume of the mud system and
can usually eliminate the
2.4
3.0 MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND
RELATED EQUIPMENT
3.1
Should one piece of equipment fail, cone’s discharge to minimize the
the equipment downstream will loss of fluid. The hydrocyclone and
soon lose efficiency or fail com- vibrating screen device is called a
pletely. mud cleaner or mud conditioner. If
The first piece of equipment used a location must be “pitless”, then
to separate the solids from the mud the screens are essential to mini-
is usually a vibrating screen or mize the liquid waste volume.
series of screens. The cuttings that The final step may be to remove
are larger than the mesh openings the ultrafine silt and clay-sized
are removed by the screen but solids with the use of a decanting
carry an adhered film of mud. The centrifuge. On a weighted mud,
screen mesh should be sized to two centrifuges may be used in
prevent excessive losses of whole series: the first to salvage barite, the
mud over the end screen. second to remove fine solids and
The second step is to remove the reclaim the valuable liquid phase.
sand-sized, silt sized and larger clay
particles that were not removed in 3.1 PARTICLE SIZE
the shakers by using hydrocy- AND CUT POINT
clones. Hydrocyclones with a cone Modern drilling rigs may be
diameter of 6 to 12 inches are equipped with many different types
called desanders, and hydrocy- of mechanical solids removal
clones with a cone diameter of less devices depending on the applica-
than 6 inches are called desilters. tion and requirements of a particular
These units should normally be project. Each device has a specific
sized to process 125% of the maxi- function in the solids control
mum flow rate used to drill. process. Equipment commonly uti-
Sometimes a screen is used below lized and the effective removal range
a hydrocyclone to “dry-out” the for each are listed in Figure 3-1.
3.2
Figure 3-1 Particle Diameter and Ideal Equipment Placement
3.3
Figure 3-2 Typical Cut Point Curve
resent the removed, oversize solids. points where 16% and 84%, respec-
Particles to the left of the curve, in tively, of the solids in the feed
the area labeled “B”, represent the stream will be classified as oversize.
undersize solids returned with the These two points are statistically
whole mud. significant because they are one
Particular interest is given to three standard deviation from the D50 in a
points along the cut point curve, normal distribution. An “ideal” clas-
the D50, the D16, and the D84. Given sifier (the dashed line) would show
these three points, the removal very little difference between the
characteristics of screens, hydrocy- D50, D16 and D84.
clones, or other devices can be
compared. Separation Efficiency is a measure
The D50, or median cut point, is of the D50 size relative to the num-
the point where 50% of a certain ber of undersize particles that are
size of solids in the feed stream will removed or oversize particles that
be classified as oversize and 50% as are not removed. The higher the
undersize. The D16 and D84 are the separation efficiency, the lower the
3.4
Figure 3-3 Separation Curve
3.5
is “better” than Screen No. 2, or 3.2 SEPARATION BY
vice versa; it simply illustrates that SCREENING
two devices with similar “cut point” One method of removing solids
(as measured by the D50 alone) may from drilling mud is to pass the
perform very differently. As an mud onto the surface of a vibrating
example, consider solids removal
screen. Particles smaller than the
from a weighted drilling fluid using
openings in the screen pass
vibrating screens.
through the holes of the screen
An effective solids control pro-
along with the liquid phase of the
gram for weighted mud should
remove as many undesirable, sand- mud. Particles too large to pass
sized solids as practical, while through the screen are thereby sep-
retaining most of the desirable, silt- arated from the mud for disposal.
sized barite particles. Referring back Basically, a screen acts as a “go–no
to Figure 3-3, Screen No. 2 would go” gauge: Either a particle is small
return all the sand in area “A” that enough to pass through the screen
Screen No.1 would catch, and opening or it is not.
Screen No. 2 would remove the silt- The purpose of vibrating the
size material in area “B” (including screen in solids control equipment
all weighting material) that Screen is to transport the cuttings off the
No.1 would recover. screen and increase the liquid han-
Therefore, in a weighted mud, dling capacity of the screen. This
Screen No. 2 would not perform as vibrating action causes rapid sepa-
well as Screen No.1. Further, if the ration of whole mud from the
area to the right of both curves
oversized solids, reducing the
(representing total mass solids
amount of mud lost with the solids.
removal) were calculated, Screen
For maximum efficiency, the
No.1 could prove superior in terms
solids on the screen surface must
of mass solids removal.
As shown by this example, it is travel in a predetermined pattern —
important to view “cut point” as a spiral, elliptical, orbital or linear
continuous curve, rather than a sin- motion — in order to increase par-
gle point. This concept is equally ticle separation efficiency and
true with screens, hydrocyclones, reduce blockage of the screen
centrifuges, or any other separation openings. The combined effect of
equipment — the relative slope and the vibration and the screen sur-
shape of the cut point curve are faces result in the separation and
more important than a single point removal of oversized particles from
on the curve. drilling mud.
3.6
SCREENING SURFACES tensioned screen panels have
Screening surfaces used in solids extended screen life and justified
control equipment are generally the use of 200-mesh screens at the
made of woven wire screen cloth, flowline. The panels consist of a
in many different sizes and shapes. fine screen layer and a coarse back-
ing cloth layer bonded to a support
The following characteristics of
grid (Figure 3-4). The screen cloths
screen cloth are important in solids
are pulled tight, or tensioned, in
control applications.
both directions during the fabrica-
Screens may be constructed with
tion process for proper tension on
one or more Layers. Non-layered
every screen. The pre-tensioned
screens have a single layer, fine-
panel is then held in place in the
mesh, screen cloth (reinforced by
bed of the shaker.
coarser backing cloth) mounted on
a screen panel. These screens will
have openings that are regular in
size and shape. Layered screens
have two or more fine mesh screen
cloths, usually of different mesh
(reinforced by coarser backing
cloth), mounted on a screen panel.
These screens will have openings
that vary greatly in size and shape. Figure 3-4 Pretensioned Screen
3.7
size to reduce inventory and pro-
duction costs. The opening size is
typically 1” for maximum mechani-
cal support. Brandt / EPI™ provides
screen panels with a variety of
openings to allow rig personnel to
choose the desired mechanical sup-
port and total open area (translating
to more liquid flow), depending on
the application.
Mesh is defined as the number of
openings per linear inch. Mesh can
be measured by starting at the cen-
ter of one wire and counting the Figure 3-5 Eight Mesh Screen
number of openings to a point one
inch away. Figure 3-5 shows a sam- Tensile Bolting Cloth. Both of these
ple 8 mesh screen. A screen are square mesh weaves, differing
counter is useful in determining in the diameter of wire used in
screen mesh (see Figure 3-6). their construction.
Market grade cloths use larger
SCREEN CLOTH diameter wires and are more resis-
There are several types of wire tant to abrasion and premature
cloth used in the manufacture of wear. Tensile bolting cloths use
oilfield screens. The most common smaller diameter wire and have a
of these are Market Grade and higher Conductance. Since screen
3.8
in larger screen openings, with larg-
er particles passing through the
screen. The larger the diameter of
the wire, the smaller the particles
that will pass through the screen.
Remember, it’s the size of the open-
ings in a screen, not the mesh
count, that determines the size of
the particles separated by the
screen. Also, normally the larger the
Figure 3-7 One-half Inch Opening
diameter of the wire used in the
selection is a compromise between weaving process, the longer the
screen life, liquid capacity, and par- screen cloth will last.
ticle separation, both types are in
wide use. PERCENT OPEN AREA
Percent Open Area is the amount
OPENING SIZE of the screen surface which is not
Size of Opening is the distance blocked by wire. The greater the
between wires in the screen cloth wire diameter of a given mesh
and is usually measured in fractions screen, the less open space
of an inch or microns. Figure 3-7 between the wires. For example, a
shows a screen with a 1/2 inch 4 mesh screen made of thin wire
opening. has a greater percent of open area
Screens of the same mesh may than a 4 mesh screen made of thick
have different sized openings wire (see Figure 3-8).
depending on the diameter of the The higher the percent of open
wire used to weave the screen area of a screen the greater its theo-
cloth. Smaller diameter wire results retical throughput. Open area can
3.9
be increased for a given mesh by oblong — or rectangular — shaped
using smaller diameter wire, but at openings and are referred to as
the sacrifice of screen life. The Rectangular (or Oblong) Mesh
choice of any particular screen cloth screens. This is illustrated in Figure
therefore involves a compromise 3-9.
between throughput and screen life. Use of a single number in refer-
Calculating the percent open area ence to a screen usually implies
for layered screens is difficult and square mesh. For example, “20
inaccurate. This is due to the ran- mesh” usually identifies a screen
dom and wide variety of openings with 20 openings per inch in either
present. Conductance of a screen is direction. Oblong mesh screens are
an experimental measure of the generally labeled with two num-
flow capacity of a screen. The high- bers. For example, a 60 x 20 screen
er the conductance of a screen, the has 60 openings per inch in one
greater its flow capacity. direction and 20 openings per inch
in the other direction.
SHAPE OF OPENING It has become common industrial
Shape of Opening is determined practice to add the two dimensions
by the screen’s construction. of an oblong mesh screen and refer
Screens with the same number of to the sum of the two numbers as
horizontal and vertical wires per the mesh of the screen.
inch produce square-shaped open- For example, a 60 x 20 mesh
ings and are referred to as Square screen is often called an “oblong
Mesh screens. Screens with a differ- 80” mesh. This screen has oblong
ent number of horizontal and openings measuring 1040 x 193
vertical wires per inch produce microns, much larger than the
3.10
openings smaller than a “square
OBLONG MESH SQUARE MESH 200” mesh screen (74 x 74
microns). However, the actual
B-20 S-16
B-40 S-30
opening size and shape of a lay-
B-60 S-40 ered screen is a combination of the
B-80 S-50 multiple screen layers and will pro-
B-100 S-60 duce a wide variety of opening
B-120 S-80 sizes and shapes. Therefore, the
“layered 210” mesh screen will
Figure 3-10 Equivalent Screen Sizes remove some solids smaller than 74
microns, but will also allow some
square openings of a “square 80” particles larger than 74 microns to
mesh screen (177 x 177 microns). pass through the screen openings.
The “oblong 80” will allow much
larger, irregularly-shaped particles SCREEN PLUGGING
to pass through its openings than AND BLINDING
the 80 x 80 square mesh screen. Screen Plugging and Blinding,
while present to some degree on
EQUIVALENT SCREEN MESH rig shakers fitted with coarser
Screen manufacturers now com- screens, is most frequently encoun-
pare different types of screen tered on fine screen shakers. If the
through charts, such as the one mesh openings plug with near-size
shown in Figure 3-10. The oblong- particles or if the openings become
mesh screens listed in the left-hand coated over, the throughput capaci-
column remove similar sized solids ty of the screen can be drastically
as the square-mesh screens listed in reduced and flooding of the screen
the right-hand column. These may occur.
screens are referred to as “equiva- Plugging can often be controlled
lent”. In actual field use, the by adjusting the vibratory motion or
conductance and screen life of the deck angle, but sometimes requires
oblong mesh screens is noticeably changing screens to a coarser or
higher than the equivalent square finer mesh. A coarser screen should
mesh screen, but the shape of the be used only as a temporary solu-
cut point curve discussed earlier is tion until the particular formation
not as sharp or distinct. responsible for near-size particle
In a similar fashion, a layered generation is passed. Changing to a
screen will often be designated by finer mesh screen often presents a
a single number, e.g. “layered 210” better, more permanent solution.
mesh. This implies a screen with Screen blinding is caused by
3.11
sticky particles in viscous mud coat- Drilling rate affects screen capacity
ing over the screen openings or by because increases in drilled solids
the evaporation of water from dis- loading reduce the effective screen
solved solids or from grease and area available for mud throughput.
requires a screen wash-down to The mesh of the screen in use is also
cure. This wash-down may simply directly related to shaker capacity
be a high pressure water wash, a because, in general (but not always),
solvent (in the case of grease, pipe the finer a screen’s mesh, the lower
dope or asphalt blinding), or a mild its throughput. Increased viscosity,
acid soak (in the case of blinding usually associated with an increase
caused by hard water). Stiff brush- in percent solids by volume and/or
es should not be used to clean increase in mud weight, has a
fine screens because of the fragile markedly adverse effect on screen
nature of fine mesh screen cloth. capacity. As a general rule, for every
Screen life of fine mesh screens 10% increase in viscosity, there is a
varies widely from design to 2–5% decrease in throughput capaci-
design, even under the best of con- ty. Figure 3-11 shows the
relationship of mud weight, viscosity,
ditions, because of differences in
and screen mesh on shaker capacity.
operating characteristics. Screen life
can be maximized by following
these general precautions:
• Keep screens clean.
• Handle screen carefully when
installing.
• Keep screens properly ten-
sioned.
• Do not overload screens.
• Do not operate shakers dry.
SCREEN CAPACITY
Screen Capacity, or the volume of Figure 3-11 Shaker Capacity v. Mud Weight,
Viscosity, and Screen Mesh
mud which will pass through a
screen without flooding, varies
widely depending on shaker model Mud type also has an effect on
and drilling conditions. Drilling rate, screen capacity. Higher viscosities
mud type, weight and viscosity, bit generally associated with oil-base
type, formation type, screen mesh — and invert emulsion mud usually
all affect throughput to some degree. result in lower screen throughput
3.12
than would be possible with a water- usable screen area of a screen
base mud of the same mud weight. panel by corrugating the screen sur-
Some mud components such as syn- face, similar to the surface of a
thetic polymers also have an adverse pleated air filter or oil filter. 3-D
effect on screen capacity. As a result, screen panels are most effective
no fine mesh screen can offer a stan- when installed as the submerged,
dard throughput for all operating feed-end screen on linear-motion
conditions. shakers to take full advantage of
Due to the many factors involved the additional screen area. Past the
in drilling conditions, mud charac- fluid end point, a three-dimensional
teristics and features of certain screen tends to “channel” the
models, capacities on fine screen drilled solids and increases solids
shakers can range from 50 to 800 bed depth and the amount of liquid
GPM. Multiple units, most common- carried off the screen surface.
ly dual or triple units, can be used Using a flat screen at the discharge
for higher throughput requirements. end of the shaker eliminates chan-
Cascade shaker arrangements, with neling, increases cuttings dryness,
scalping shakers installed upstream and decreases fluid loss.
from the fine screen shakers, can
also increase throughput. STANDARDIZATION
Standardization of screen cloth
THREE-DIMENSIONAL designations has been recommend-
SCREEN PANELS ed by the API committee on
To increase screen capacity with- Standardization of Drilling Fluid
out increasing the size or number Materials, in API RECOMMENDED
of shale shakers, three-dimensional PRACTICE 13E (RP13E), THIRD
screen panels are available. The EDITION, MAY 1, 1993. The pur-
design of these 3-D, Pinnacle™ pose for this practice is to provide
shaker screens: standards for screen labeling of
• Provides even distribution of shale shaker screen cloths. The pro-
fluid across the screen surface cedures recommended for labeling
• Eliminates unwanted fluid loss allow a direct comparison of sepa-
near the screen edges ration potential, the ability to pass
• Improves dryness of solids dis- fluid through a screen, and the
charge amount area available for screen-
• Allows the use of finer screens ing.
The API screen labeling includes
3-D screen panels increase the of the following:
3.13
1. Manufacturer’s designation; These designations give the end
2. Separation Potential and user a more accurate assessment of
3. Flow Capacity. solids removal capability and liquid
throughput capacities of competi-
The Manufacturer’s designation tive screens.
contains the individual company’s
procedures for naming their 3.3 SHALE SHAKERS
screens. It may include the type of The first line of defense for a prop-
screen panel, composition and erly maintained drilling fluid has
other data required by the manufac- been, and will continue to be, the
turer. shale shaker. Without proper screen-
The API separation potential is ing of the drilling fluid during this
reported in the terms of three “Cut” initial removal step, reduced effi-
points. The term “Cut” point is not ciency and effectiveness of all
the same as the traditional cut downstream solids control equip-
point. The “Cut” point allows a ment on the rig is virtually assured.
ranking of a screen’s separation The shale shaker, in various
potential that can be used to com- forms, has played a prominent role
pare screen performance. Three in oilfield solids control schemes
values (D50, D16, and D84) imply the for several decades. Shakers have
opening sizes and variation in evolved from small, relatively sim-
opening size of the screen. ple devices capable of running only
Flow capacity is the rate at which the coarsest screens to the models
a shaker can process mud and of today. Modern, high-perfor-
solids. Under constant conditions, a mance shakers of today are able to
shale shaker has a flow capacity use 100 mesh and finer screens at
that depends upon screen conduc- the flowline in most applications.
tance and area. The area available This evolutionary process has
for screening is the net unblocked taken us through three distinct eras
area, in square feet, available for of shale shaker technology and per-
fluid passage through the screen formance as shown in Figure 3-12.
panel. Conductance defines the These eras of oilfield screening
ease of passage of a fluid through a development may be defined by
piece of wire cloth. Conductance is the types of motion produced by
calculated from the mesh count and the machines:
wire diameters of the screen. • Elliptical, “unbalanced” design
Transmittance is the product of • Circular, “balanced” design.
conductance times panels area. • Linear, “straight-line” design
3.14
transport with the basket in a flat,
horizontal orientation, as shown in
Figure 3-12, B. This design often
incorporates multiple decks to split
the solids load and to allow finer
mesh screens, such as 80–100
square mesh (150–180 micron)
screens.
The newest technology produces
linear, or straight-line, motion,
Figure 3-12, C. This motion is
developed by a pair of eccentric
shafts rotating in opposite direc-
tions. Linear motion provides
superior cuttings conveyance and is
able to operate at an uphill slope to
provide improved liquid retention.
Better conveyance and longer fluid
retention allow the use of 200
Figure 3-12 Shale Shakers square mesh (74 micron) screens.
Today, shale shakers are typically
The unbalanced, elliptical motion
separated into two categories: Rig
machines have a downward slope
Shakers and Fine Screen Shakers.
as shown in Figure 3-12, A. This
slope is required to properly trans-
RIG SHAKERS
port cuttings across the screen and
off the discharge end. However, the The rig shaker is the simpler of
downward slope reduces fluid two types of shale shakers. A rig
retention time and limits the capaci- shaker (also called “Primary Shale
ty of this design. Optimum Shaker” or “Coarse Screen Shaker”)
screening with these types of shak- is the most common type of solids
ers is usually in the 30–40 mesh control equipment found on drilling
(400–600 micron) range. rigs. Unless it is replaced by a fine
The next generation of machine, screen shaker, the rig shaker should
introduced into the oilfield in the be the first piece of solids control
late 1960s and early 1970s, pro- equipment that the mud flows
duces a balanced, or circular, through after coming out of the
motion. The consistent, circular hole. It is usually inexpensive to
vibration allows adequate solids operate and simple to maintain.
3.15
MUD TANK
(POSSUM BELLY)
MOTOR
VIBRATOR ASSEMBLY
BELT
GUARD
SCREEN
BASKET
ASSEMBLY
3.16
Figure 3-14 Particle Removal by Rig Shaker Screens
right of the 10 mesh line is con- screen shakers remove cuttings and
fined, because it is limited by the other larger solids from drilling
size of the page. In actual usage, mud, but are designed for greatly
this area is unlimited. This means improved vibratory efficiency over
that a 10 mesh screen will remove simple rig shakers. They are con-
all particles larger than 1910 structed to vibrate in such a way
microns — it doesn’t matter if they that they can use screens as fine as
are the size of BBs, marbles or 150–200 mesh and still give reason-
baseballs — they will be removed able screen life.
and discarded by a 10 mesh screen. They are versatile pieces of equip-
Rig shakers are generally ade- ment and can operate on all types
quate for top hole drilling and for of mud. Figure 3-15 shows the
shallow and intermediate depth range of particle sizes separated by
holes when backed up by other the screens commonly used with
solids control equipment. For deep- fine screen shakers.
er holes and when using expensive A fine screen shaker can be
mud systems, fine screen shakers installed on the rig in one of four
are preferred. ways:
1. Instead of the conventional rig
FINE SCREEN SHAKERS shaker for use from top hole to
The fine screen shaker is the total depth, if it is of a design
more complex and versatile of the capable of using coarse
two types of shale shakers. Fine screens as well as fine screens.
3.17
Figure 3-15 Fine Screen Shaker Particle Separation
3.18
Shakers with screens stacked in sion rails to be sure they are in
series (Figure 3-16 F) have a coarse good condition and clean
screen above a finer screen, with the • Position the panel on the deck
finer screen being the controlling and inspect the screen to be
mesh size. The operating theory is sure it lays flat
that the top screen will remove • Install both rails loosely to the
some of the cuttings from the mud hookstrip
to take part of the load off the bot- • Push one side of the screen
tom screen and thereby increase against the positioning blocks,
overall screening efficiency. if present; and fully tighten the
screen against these blocks
SCREEN TENSIONING • Evenly tighten the tension bolts
MECHANISMS on the other side
Shakers are designed to use either • Torque to the manufacturer’s
a hookstrip or a rigid panel screen. recommended setting
Hook strip screens are made with-
out a rigid frame and can Rigid panel screen installation
prematurely fail if installed and should proceed as per the manufac-
allowed to operate with uneven turer’s instructions. Panel screens
tension. The shaker manufacturer’s can usually be installed or replaced
instructions for screen installation much quicker than a hookstrip
should be followed, but the follow- screen since the cloth is already
ing steps may apply: pretensioned and the mechanical
• Inspect the supports and ten- devices lock the panel with much
less manual effort.
3.19
VIBRATOR MECHANISMS more than justify the higher operat-
Vibrator Mechanisms vary widely ing cost. This is especially true
in design and placement and great- when expensive mud systems are
ly affect the throughput efficiency used.
of fine screen shakers. Most mod- Besides periodic lubrication, fine
ern shakers utilize linear motion screen shakers require the same
vibration with the vibrator mecha- minimum maintenance as rig shak-
nism mounted above the screen ers while making a trip:
bed. One important advantage of • Wash down screens.
linear motion is positive con- • Check screen tension.
veyance of cuttings across the • Shut down shaker when not
screen surface even when the sur- drilling to extend screen life.
face is at a positive angle. This • Dump and clean possum belly.
generally allows the use of an
uphill sloped screen deck, greatly In addition, frequent checks must
increasing throughput capacity and be made for screen plugging and
cuttings dryness. blinding, screen flooding and bro-
Most vibrators are electrically ken screens. All will occur more
operated, although a few are frequently on fine screen shakers
hydraulically operated. In some than on coarse mesh rig shakers.
units the vibration-inducing eccen-
tric weights are separated from the GENERAL GUIDELINES
drive motor, while in others the General rules in operating shale
eccentric weights and motor form shakers — whether coarse screen
an integral assembly. In some units, rig shakers or fine screen shakers
the nature of the vibratory motions — which have not already been
can be easily modified to take mentioned, include the following:
advantage of specific solids-convey- • Use the finest mesh screen
ing characteristics, but most units capable of handling the full
have a fixed vibratory motion. volume from the flow line
under the particular drilling
MAINTENANCE conditions. This will reduce
Because of their greater complexi- solids loading on downstream
ty and use of finer mesh screens, hydrocyclones and screens,
fine screen shakers generally improving their efficiency.
require more attention than rig Several screen changes, nor-
shakers. Nonetheless, their more mally to progressively finer
effective screening capabilities mesh screens over the course
3.20
of the hole, are quite common. arator is the Mud Cleaner or Mud
• Large cuttings which settle in Conditioner (Figure 3-17).
the mud box (possum belly) of Mud cleaners were developed in
the shaker should never be the early 1970s to remove fine
dumped into the mud system. drilled solids from weighted mud
(Dump them into the sump or without excessive loss of barite and
waste pit.) fluid. They have also proved valu-
• Except in extenuating circum- able tools in closed systems and
stances (such as the presence other “dry” location” applications.
of lost circulating material), all These devices use a combination of
mud should be screened. This desilting hydrocyclones and very
includes make-up mud hauled fine mesh vibrating screens
in from other locations. (120–400 mesh) to remove fine
• Unless water sprays are drilled solids while returning valu-
absolutely necessary to control able mud additives and liquids back
screen blinding, water should to the active mud system.
not be used on the screen sur- Traditional mud cleaners use mul-
face while drilling. Water tiple 4” or 5” cyclones, mounted
sprays tend to wash smaller over a vibrating screen, and are
cuttings through the screen able to effectively process 400–600
which would otherwise be GPM. The process capacity is limit-
removed by their clinging to ed by screen capacity and its ability
larger particles (piggy-back to discard “dry” solids. With the
effect). introduction of linear motion vibrat-
ing screens, the capacity of the
For a more complete analysis of mud cleaner screen has been great-
different types of screens and shak- ly increased. This, in turn, allows
ers, ask your local Brandt / EPI™ the use of additional hydrocyclones
representative for copies of the lat- and higher, overall process capaci-
est Product Bulletins. ties.
The combination of hydrocy-
3.4 MUD CLEANERS AND clones and linear-motion vibrating
MUD CONDITIONERS screens is called a Mud Conditioner
In many cases, combinations of to differentiate these machines from
vibratory screening and settling/ earlier mud cleaners. Mud condi-
centrifugal force are used together tioners often combine both
to provide an effective separation. desander and desilter cones mount-
The most familiar combination sep- ed above the screen deck to take
3.21
full advantage of the higher process
capacity, usually 1000–1500 GPM,
and reduce the overall size and
weight of the unit, when compared
to mud cleaners.
After removal of large cuttings
with a shaker, feed mud is pumped
into the mud cleaner/conditioner’s
hydrocyclones with a centrifugal
pump. The overflow from the
cyclones is returned to the mud
system. Instead of simply discarding
the underflow, the solids and liquid
exiting the bottom of the cyclones
are directed onto a fine screen.
Drilled solids larger than the screen
openings are discarded; the remain-
ing solids, including most barite in
a weighted system, pass through
the screen and are returned to the
mud system.
The cut point and amount of mass
solids removed by a mud cleaner/
conditioner depends primarily on
the mesh of the fine screen used,
Figure 3-18. Since there are many
designs of mud cleaners/condition-
ers available, performance and
economics will vary with machine
and drilling variables.
APPLICATIONS
Mud cleaners/conditioners should
be considered in these applications:
1. Whenever the application
requires finer screens than the
existing shaker can handle
Figure 3-17 Mud Cleaners and Mud Conditioners
2. Unweighted OBM
3.22
Figure 3-18
Particle Removal by Mud Cleaner Screens
3.23
to make the proper choice. Also, When used for this purpose, the
because of the cut points produced screen underflow from the mud
by some “modern” layered screens, cleaner/conditioner is often divert-
the use of mud cleaner/condition- ed to a separate steel waste pit for
ers may be indicated downstream vacuum truck disposal. This may
of linear motion shakers. seem counterproductive, but since
Salvage of the liquid phase of an a vacuum truck can only carry a
unweighted drilling mud often cost- limited amount of sand because of
justifies use of a mud cleaner/ the over-the-road weight restric-
conditioner when the fluid phase of tions, whenever a vacuum truck
the mud or disposal is expensive. must haul normal full-flow desilter
Compared to desanders and desil- waste, the waste must be diluted
ters, whose cyclone underflow may with rig water to reduce density.
be as much as 15 bbl/hr or more, The operator is then billed for the
mud cleaners/conditioners can haulage of a vacuum truck load
achieve efficient solids removal comprised largely of rig water. On
while returning most liquid back to the other hand, since most of the
the active mud system. Use of ultra- solids are removed in semi-dry
fine screens (200 to 325 mesh) form by the mud cleaner/condition-
significantly improves solids control er screen, the remaining solids in
in any high-value fluid system. the screen underflow are dilute
An increasingly important applica- enough to be hauled away without
tion of mud cleaners/conditioners is watering them back. Vacuum truck
the removal of drilled solids from loads often can be reduced to a
unweighted water-base mud in small fraction of those required
semi-dry form. This system is com- with full-flow desilting.
monly used in areas where This approach to dry-solids dis-
environmental restrictions prohibit posal can be carried further by
the use of earthen reserve pits, and using a centrifuge with a mud
expensive vacuum truck waste dis- cleaner/conditioner to form a
posal from steel pits is the “closed” system which eliminates
alternative. The mud cleaner/condi- discarding of any fluid. These sys-
tioner is used to discard drilled tems are being used increasingly in
solids in semi-dry form which is areas where liquid mud waste must
classified as legal landfill in most be hauled a significant distance and
areas and is subject to economical is subject to a high disposal fee.
dry-haul disposal techniques (dump In a closed system, underflow
truck or portable waste containers). from the mud cleaner/conditioner
3.24
screen is diverted to a holding tank lost circulation materials.
and then centrifuged, which results Another mud cleaner/conditioner
in disposal of very fine, semi-dry application is the clean up of
solids and return of liquid to the workover and completion fluids. In
active system. Such a system virtu- order to reduce costs associated
ally eliminates the need for reserve with this expensive task, a mud
pits, minimizes dilution, eliminates cleaner running one or two ultra-
vacuum truck services for disposal fine screens (200 over 325 mesh)
of liquid mud, and meets environ- can be used to remove most of the
mental constraints when drilling solids before they reach cartridge
within ecologically sensitive areas. type filters.
One special mud cleaner/condi- This application can significantly
tioner application is the use of a reduce filter replacement costs,
double-deck unit for salvage of reduce downtime in changing fil-
coarse lost circulation material ters, and allow larger volumes of
(LCM). Usually when running LCM, fluid to be cleaned at a faster rate.
the shale shaker is bypassed and
drilled solids build up rapidly in the INSTALLATION
mud, necessitating a high level of Installation of the mud
dilution and new mud. Use of a cleaner/conditioner is made down-
two-deck mud cleaner/conditioner stream of the shale shaker and the
allows salvage of the LCM while degasser. The same pump used to
minimizing the increase in solids feed the rig’s desander or desilter is
content. often reconnected to feed the mud
Within the mud cleaner/condi- cleaner/conditioner when weight
tioner, a coarse top screen is used material is added. (Most mud clean-
to pre-screen the mud and remove er/conditioners are designed to also
the lost circulation material. This function as desilter on unweighted
material is discharged back into the mud by rerouting the cone under-
active system for recirculation flow or by removing or blanking off
downhole. The drilled solids, mud the screen portion of the unit. The
additives and liquid phase pass mud cleaner/conditioner may then
through the top screen onto the be used to replace or augment the
lower, finer mesh screen, where the rig’s desilter during top hole
drilled solids are separated out and drilling.)
discarded. The cleaned mud then Follow these guidelines when
flows back into the mud system installing mud cleaner/conditioners
and is re-blended with the salvaged to allow peak efficiency:
3.25
• Size the mud cleaner/condi- GENERAL GUIDELINES
tioner cyclones to process To operate mud cleaner/condi-
110–125% of the full circulating tioners at maximum efficiency,
flow rate. remember these fundamentals:
• Take the mud cleaner/condi- • Operate mud cleaners/condi-
tioner suction from the tioners continuously on the full
compartment receiving fluid circulating volume to achieve
processed by the degasser maximum drilled solids
(Weighted Muds). removal.
• When using mud conditioners • Operate mud cleaners/condi-
that have both desander and tioners within the limits of the
desilter cones, use a separate screen capacity. A mud clean-
feed pump for the desander er/conditioner with a cyclone
cones and another feed pump throughput of 800 GPM is of
for the desilter cones. The little value if the cone under-
desander cone suction should flow exceeds the screen
be from the degasser discharge capacity, resulting in flooding
compartment. The desilter and high mud additive losses.
cone suction should be from • Feed the cone underflow to the
the desander discharge com- screen at a single point.
Multiple feed points on the
partment.
screening surface minimize use
• Keep all lines as short and
of the available screen area
straight as possible.
and reduce overall capacity
• Install a guard screen with
and efficiency.
approximately 1/2” openings at
• Screen throughput is reduced
the suction to prevent large by increased solids content and
trash from entering the unit viscosity. The cyclone under-
and plugging the cones. flow plays a critical role in
• Position the mud cleaner/con- overall mud cleaner/condition-
ditioner on the pit high er efficiency. It is often
enough so the overflow mani- desirable to modify the perfor-
fold will gravity-feed fluid into mance characteristics of the
the next downstream com- cones to decrease the amount
partment at an angle of of ultra fines in the cone under-
approximately 45°. flow. This minimizes near-size
• Avoid vertical overflow dis- screen plugging and barite loss
charge lines from hydrocyclones. due to “piggy-backing”.
3.26
• Do NOT judge screen efficien- Earlier mud cleaner designs with
cy simply on the basis of 12–16 cones over a single screen
cuttings dryness or color. The bed have not proven to be practi-
total amount of drilled solids in cal: the ultra-fine mesh screens
the discarded material, along simply cannot handle the under-
with the ratio of barite to flow volume from the cones.
drilled solids, must be deter- One exception to this is the mud
mined to correctly evaluate conditioner; a linear-motion shaker
economic performance. coupled with a manifold of proper-
• A technique for measuring and ly designed hydrocyclones yields a
calculating these values is high-performance Mud Cleaner/
given in Appendix B of this Conditioner with sufficient capacity
handbook. (Note: This tech- for even the largest drilling rigs.
nique is also important when Follow these general guidelines
using 100–mesh, or finer, for correct mud cleaner/conditioner
screens on shakers since these operation:
screens can also remove apprecia- • Run the mud cleaner/condi-
ble amounts.) tioner continuously while
• Select the number of cones to drilling and for a short period
be operated and the particular of time while making a trip for
mesh screen to be used “catch-up” cleaning.
according to drilling condi- • Start up the shaker portion of the
tions. As a general rule, use mud cleaner/conditioner before
the finest mesh screen possible engaging the feed pump(s).
(to process the full circulating • Shut down the feed pump(s)
rate) and size the number of before turning off the vibrating
cones accordingly. screen portion of the mud
cleaner/conditioner. Permit the
In some instances, a number of screen to clear itself, then rinse
cones will have to be blanked off in the screen with water or oil
order for the desired screen mesh to sprays before shutting down
be used. This may involve an experi- the screen portion of the unit.
mental determination of the number • For peak efficiency, operate
of cones and screen mesh to opti- the cones with a spray rather
mize performance. In some cases, than a rope discharge. This is
more than one mud cleaner/condi- just as important with a mud
tioner will be needed. The following cleaner/conditioner as with
example illustrates the point: desilters and desanders.
3.27
• Check cones regularly for bot- MAINTENANCE
tom plugging or flooding, since Maintenance of mud cleaners/
a plugged cone allows solids conditioners generally combines the
to return to the mud system. If requirements of desilters and fine
a cone bottom is plugged, screen shakers:
unplug it with a welding rod • Periodic lubrication
or similar tool. If a cone is • Check screen tension
flooding, the feed is partially • Inspect the screen to ensure it
plugged or the bottom of the is free of tears, holes, and
cone may be worn out. dried mud before start up
• When a significant amount of • Shut down unit when not cir-
culating to extend screen life
barite is added to increase mud
• Check feed manifold for plug-
weight, shut down the mud
ging of cyclone feed inlets
cleaner/conditioner for one or
• Check cyclones for excessive
two full circulations. This permits wear and replace parts as nec-
the fresh barite to thoroughly essary
mix with the system and reduce
losses over the screen. 3.5 SEPARATION BY
• Use low-volume sprays on the SETTLING AND
screen surface to reduce CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
“piggy-backing” only if 1) this Using vibrating screens to remove
liquid addition to the mud is drilled solids from mud uses only
permissible, and 2) the resul- one characteristic of solids particles
tant reduction in barite discard — their size. Another factor which
outweighs the resultant reduc- affects separation is particle density.
tion in drilled solids discard. Solids control devices which take
advantage of both particle size and
This must be determined
particle density speed up the set-
experimentally on a case-by-
tling process by application of
case basis.
centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stoke’s Law
In some cases, adding a small as the basis for their operation.
stream of cleaned mud from the Stoke’s Law defines the relationship
hydrocyclone overflow (reflux) pro- of factors governing the settling
vides the same reduction in velocity of particles in a liquid. This
“piggy-backing” without reducing relationship may be stated in its
the overall efficiency of the unit. simplest form as:
3.28
• Larger particles (of the same greatly reduces the waste water
density) settle more rapidly remediation treatment costs.
than smaller ones.
• High density solids settle 3.6 SAND TRAPS
more quickly than low density A sand trap (Figure 3-19) is a set-
ones. tling tank, usually the first
• High acceleration and low vis- compartment of the first pit in the
cosity speed up the settling rate. mud system. A shale shaker would
normally sit on top of the sand trap
Settling pits, hydrocyclones, and and discharge into it.
centrifuges all utilize this principle Sand traps can serve an important
in their operation. Settling pits sim- role in solids control by protecting
ply use the force of gravity to downstream equipment against the
separate solids. The larger and/or results of torn shale shaker screens
heavier a solid is, the faster it will or by-passed shakers by removing
settle through fluid in a settling pit. large particles which could plug
There is no way to speed up this cyclones or other equipment down-
natural settling process other than stream. In normal operation they
reducing the viscosity of the fluid, also play a minor solids removal
or flocculating the solid particles role by settling out a portion of the
with the addition of chemicals. coarse drilled solids which pass
Settling pits are often large and through the shaker screen.
require closure or remediation. The Normally, sand traps should have
reduction in waste mud achieved a top weir over which mud can
through efficient solids control flow into the next compartment, a
3.29
slanted bottom, and a quick-open- settling process. Feed energy is
ing, quick-closing dump valve or transformed into centrifugal force
gate so that settled solids can be dis- inside the cyclone to accelerate par-
charged with minimum fluid loss. In ticle settling in accordance with
some highly sensitive environments, Stoke’s Law. In essence, a cyclone
the extra liquids lost from dumping is a miniature settling pit which
the sand trap cannot be allowed and allows very rapid settling of solids
the desander suction is arranged to under controlled conditions.
allow processing of the sand without Hydrocyclones are important in
creating a lot of liquid waste. solids control systems because of
their ability to efficiently remove
3.7 HYDROCYCLONES particles smaller than the finest
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as mesh screens. They are also uncom-
cyclones or cones) are simple plicated devices, which make them
mechanical devices, without mov- easy to use and maintain.
ing parts, designed to speed up the A hydrocyclone (see Figure 3-20)
LIQUID DISCHARGE
CLEANED DRILLING MUD
(OVERFLOW)
DRILLING MUD
3.30
consists of a cylindrical/conical applied to the cone inlet.
shell with a small opening at the Centrifugal pumps must be prop-
bottom for underflow discharge, a erly sized for cones to operate
larger opening at the top for liquid efficiently. Centrifugal pumps are
discharge through an internal “vor- constant energy (head) devices
tex finder”, and a feed nozzle on and not constant pressure
the side of the body near the cylin- devices. Feed head is constant
drical (top) end of the cone. regardless of mud weight; pres-
Drilling mud enters the cyclone sure varies with mud weight.
using energy created by a centrifu- Although centrifugal pump theory
gal feed pump. The velocity of the and sizing exercises are beyond the
mud causes the particles to rotate scope of this text, if you are not
rapidly within the main chamber of able to properly size your centrifu-
the cyclone. Heavy, coarse solids gal pump to create 75 feet of inlet
and the liquid film around them head to your set of cyclones, it is
tend to spiral outward and down- highly recommended that you con-
ward for discharge through the tact the Technical Services Staff at
solids outlet. Light, fine solids and Brandt / EPI™ for assistance.
the liquid phase of the mud tend to Remember, more errors in hydrocy-
spiral inward and upward for dis- clone applications are made with
charge through the liquid outlet. centrifugal pumps, rather than with
Design features of cyclone units the cyclones themselves.
vary widely from supplier to suppli- The size of oilfield cyclones com-
er, and no two manufacturers’ monly varies from 4” to 12”. This
cyclones have identical operating measurement refers to the inside
efficiency, capacity or maintenance diameter of the largest, cylindrical
characteristics. section of the cyclone. In general
In the past, cyclones were com- — but not always — the larger the
monly made of cast iron with cone, the coarser its cut point and
replaceable liners and other wear the greater its throughput. Typical
parts made of rubber or cyclone throughput capacities are
polyurethane to resist abrasion. listed in Figure 3-21.
Newer designs are made entirely of Manifolding multiple cyclones in
polyurethane, and are less expen- parallel can provide sufficient
sive, last longer, and weigh less. capacity to handle the required cir-
Most well designed oilfield culating volume plus some reserve
cyclones operate most efficiently as necessary. Manifolding may ori-
when 75 feet of inlet head (±5 ft) is ent the cyclones in a vertical
3.31
CONE
SIZE 4Ó 5Ó 6Ó 8Ó 10Ó 12Ó
(I.D.)
CAPACITY
50Ð75 70Ð80 100Ð150 150Ð250 400Ð500 400Ð500
(GPM)
FEED
PRESSURE 30Ð40 30Ð40 30Ð40 25Ð35 20Ð30 20Ð30
(PSI)
CONE
SIZE 4Ó 5Ó 6Ó 8Ó 10Ó 12Ó
(I.D.)
CUT
POINT 15Ð20µ 20Ð25µ 25Ð30µ 30Ð40µ 30Ð40µ 40Ð60µ
(MICRONS)
3.32
mud and operated at 75 feet ±5 feet
of inlet head.
3.33
Figure 3-24
Particle Removal by Desander Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)
remove the high volumes of solids • Keep all lines as short and
associated with extremely fast straight as possible with a min-
drilling of a large diameter hole. imum of pipe fittings. This will
Desanders are installed down- reduce loss of head on the
stream from the shale shaker and feed line and minimize back-
degasser. The desander removes pressure on the overflow
sand sized particles and larger discharge line.
drilled solids which have passed • Do not reduce the diameter of
through the shaker screen and dis- the overflow line from that of
cards them along with some liquid the overflow discharge mani-
into a waste pit. The partially clean fold.
mud is discharged into the next pit • Direct the overflow line down-
downstream. ward into the next downstream
compartment at an angle of
INSTALLATION approximately 45°. The over-
When installing a desander, follow flow discharge line should not
these general recommendations: be installed in a vertical posi-
• Size the desander to process tion — doing so may cause
110–125% of the total mud cir- excessive vacuum on the dis-
culation rate. charge header and pull solids
3.34
through the cyclone overflow, MAINTENANCE
reducing the cyclone’s efficien- Maintenance of desanders normal-
cy. ly entails no more than checking all
• Keep the end of the discharge cone parts for excessive wear and
line above the surface of the flushing out the feed manifold
mud to avoid creating a vacu- between wells. Large trash may col-
um in the line. lect in feed manifolds which could
• Position the underflow trough cause cone plugging during opera-
to easily direct solids to the tion. Preventive maintenance
waste pit. minimizes downtime, and repairs
• Install a low equalizer line to are simpler between wells than dur-
permit backflow into the ing drilling.
desander suction. Operating Use of desanders is normally dis-
desanders at peak efficiency is continued when expensive
a simple matter, since most materials such as barite and poly-
desanders are relatively mers are added to a drilling mud,
uncomplicated devices. because a desander will discard a
high proportion of these materials
Here are a few fundamental prin- along with the drilled solids.
ciples to keep in mind: Similarly, desanders are not gener-
• Operate the desander unit at ally cost effective when an oil-base
the supplier’s recommended mud is in use, because the cones
feed head (usually around 75 also discard a significant amount of
feet). Too low a feed head the liquid phase.
decreases efficiency, while
excessive feed head shortens 3.9 DESILTERS
the life of cyclone wear parts. A desilter uses smaller hydro-
• Check cones regularly to cyclones (usually 4” or 5” ID) than
ensure the discharge orifice is a desander and therefore generally
not plugged. removes smaller particles. The
• Run the desander continuously smaller cones enable a desilter to
while drilling and shortly after make the finest particle size separa-
beginning a trip for “catch-up” tion of any full flow solids control
cleaning. equipment — removing solids in
• Operate the desander with a the range of 15 microns and larger
spray rather than a rope dis- (Figure 3-25). This makes it an
charge to maintain peak important device for reducing aver-
efficiency. age particle size and removing
3.35
Figure 3-25
Particle Removal by Desilter Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)
abrasive grit from unweighted mud. • Take the desilter suction from
The cyclones in desilter units the compartment receiving
operate on the same principle as fluid processed by the
the cyclones used on desanders. desander.
They simply make a finer cut, and • Do NOT use the same pump to
the individual cone throughput feed both the desander and
capacities are less than desander desilter. If both pieces of
cones. Multiple cones are usually equipment are to be operated
manifolded in a single desilter unit at the same time, they should
to meet throughput requirements. be installed in series and each
Desilters should be sized to process should have its own centrifugal
110–125% of the full rig flow rate. pump.
• Keep all lines as short and
INSTALLATION straight as possible.
Installation of desilters is normally • Install a guard screen with
downstream from the shale shaker, approximately 1/2” openings at
sand trap, degasser and desander, the suction to the desilter to
and should allow ample space for prevent large trash from enter-
maintenance. Here are some funda- ing the unit and plugging the
mentals for installing desilters: cones.
3.36
• Position the desilter on the pit Appendix B for comparing two
high enough so the overflow desanders will work to compare the
manifold will gravity-feed fluid efficiencies of competing desilters
into the next downstream com- operating on the same rig.
partment at an angle of
approximately 45°. Remember GUIDELINES
— no vertical overflow dis- To operate desilters at maximum
charge lines. efficiency, follow these basic guide-
• Keep the end of the discharge lines:
line above the surface of the • Operate the cones with a spray
mud to avoid creating a vacu- discharge. Never operate the
um in the line. desilter cones with a rope dis-
• Install a low equalizer line for charge since a rope underflow
backflow to the desilter’s suc- cuts cone efficiency in half or
tion compartment. worse, causes cone plugging,
• Position the underflow trough and increases wear on cones.
to easily direct solids to the Use enough cones and adjust
waste pit. the cone underflow openings
to maintain a spray pattern.
Running a desander ahead of a • Operate the desilter unit at the
desilter takes a big load off the supplier’s recommended feed
desilter and improves its efficiency. head. This is generally
If the drilling rate is slow and the between 70–80 feet of head.
amount of solids being drilled is Too much energy will result in
only a few hundred pounds per excessive cone wear.
hour, then the desander may be • Check cones regularly for bot-
turned off (to save fuel and mainte- tom plugging or flooding, since
nance costs) and the desilter may a plugged cone allows solids
be used to carry the total desand- to return to the mud system. If
ing/desilting load. Appendix C a cone bottom is plugged,
includes a chart to calculate the unplug it with a welding rod
pounds per hour of solids generat- or similar tool. If a cone is
ed for a range of hole size and rate flooding, the feed is partially
of penetration. plugged or the bottom of the
Operating efficiencies of competi- cone may be worn out.
tive desilters vary widely according • Run the desilter continuously
to differences in design features. while drilling and also for a
The same technique described in short while during a trip. The
3.37
extra cleaning during the trip ciable amount of barite, because
can reduce overload conditions barite particles fall within the silt
during the period of high size range. Desilters are therefore
solids loading immediately not recommended for use with
after a trip. weighted mud. Similarly, since
hydrocyclones discard some
MAINTENANCE absorbed liquid along with the
A desilter’s smaller cyclones are drilled solids, desilters are not nor-
more likely than desander cones to mally used with oil-base mud,
become plugged with oversized unless another device (centrifuge or
solids, so it is important to inspect mud cleaner/conditioner) is used to
them often for wear and plugging. “deliquor” the cone underflow.
This may generally be done
between wells unless a malfunction 3.10 DECANTING
occurs while drilling. The feed CENTRIFUGE
manifold should be flushed Centrifuges for oilfield applica-
between wells to remove trash. tions were first introduced in the
Keep the shale shaker well main- early 1950s. These early units were
tained — never bypass the shaker adapted from existing industrial
or allow large pieces of material to decanting centrifuges. In the mid-
get into the active system. 1960s, a perforated rotor type
A desilter will discard an appre- machine was developed which
SCROLL
SCROLL FEED CHAMBER
BOWL
WEIRS
FEED PIPE
DRILLING
MUD
3.38
does not perform like a pure wall, forming a layer. These solids
decanter. Commonly called “barite are pushed by a screw conveyor
recovery” centrifuges, these early across a drainage deck, or beach.
designs were limited in capacity Dewatering actually takes place on
and application. Today, the cen- the beach, with the decanted solids
trifuge is even more important part discharged through a series of
of solids control. In addition, the underflow ports. A gear box
increased use of low-solids mud changes the relative speed of the
and environmental dewatering conveyor to the bowl, causing them
applications require higher process to rotate at slightly different rates.
volumes, greater clarification and This speed differential is required
solids capacity, and additional fine to convey and discharge solids.
solids removal. The bowl and conveyor are rotat-
Equipment selection is decided by ed at speeds between 1500 and
site specific requirements. Proper 4000 rpm depending on bowl diam-
system selection is the first step to eter. This rotation develops
effective solids control. centrifugal force sufficient to settle
solids along the inner surface of the
SEPARATION PROCESS bowl wall. A gearbox is used to
A Decanting Centrifuge is so rotate the conveyor and bowl at
named because it Decants, or slightly different speeds (slower or
removes, free liquid from separated faster). This speed differential con-
solids. A decanting centrifuge con- veys and discharges solids from the
sists of a conveyor screw inside a machine.
rotating bowl, see Figure 3-26. Mud, (sometimes diluted with
Decanting centrifuges operate on water), is pumped into the convey-
the principle of exposing the or hub through the feed tube. As
process fluid to increased “G- the conveyor rotates, centrifugal
forces”, thus accelerating the force pushes the feed mud out the
settling rate of solids in the fluid. A feed ports into the bowl. The
rotating bowl creates high G-forces heavy, coarse particles in the mud
and forms a liquid pool inside the are forced against the inner surface
bowl. of the bowl, where the scraping
The free liquid and finer solids motion of the conveyor blades
flow toward the larger end of the moves them toward the solids dis-
centrifuge and are removed through charge ports. A drainage deck,
the effluent overflow weirs. The called the beach, is where dewater-
larger solids settle against the bowl ing of the solids actually takes
3.39
place. The deliquified solids are required to compensate for increas-
then discharged through a series of ing viscosity, generally associated
underflow ports. with increasing mud weight, in
The light, fine solids tend to order to maintain satisfactory sepa-
remain in suspension in the pools ration efficiency. The raw mud feed
between the conveyor flights and rate is substantially decreased as
are carried out the overflow ports mud weight increases.
along with the liquid phase of the In field operation, the decanting
mud. The operating principle is centrifuge is fitted with a housing
similar to that of the cyclone, but it over the bowl, liquid and solids
is mechanical rotation rather than collection hoppers, skid, feed slurry
fluid head which induces the cen- pump, raw mud and dilution liquid
trifugal force required to accelerate connections, power source, meters
the particle settling rate. Residence and controls.
time of fluid in the bowl and a
more “gentle” separation environ- WEIGHTED MUD
ment differentiate separation in a APPLICATIONS
centrifuge from that of a cyclone. The classic application of cen-
Centrifuges make the finest cut of trifuges while drilling takes
any separation device used on the advantage of their ability to make a
rig, usually 2–5 microns. very fine cut — on the order of
Bowl sizes in common oilfield 5–10 microns — when treating
applications include diameters of weighted water-base mud. In this
14”, 15”, 18”, and 24”. Larger 24” application, centrifuges are used
diameter units generally have the intermittently to process a small
highest liquid throughput and solids portion of the volume circulated
tonnage capacity. from the well bore to reduce the
In unweighted mud applications, amount of colloidal-sized and
feed mud capacity can range from improve the flow properties of the
25–250 gpm, depending on unit mud. Viscosity can be effectively
capability and fluid requirements. controlled by discarding a relatively
Solids tonnage rates range from small amount of colloidal size solids
1.25 tons/hour to 8 tons/hour. and replacing the discarded liquid
In weighted mud applications, with fresh make-up water.
feed mud capacity rarely exceeds To remove these colloidal solids,
25 GPM. Total liquid throughput the liquid fraction from the
may be as high as 40 GPM, includ- decanter (or the lighter slurry frac-
ing dilution liquid. Dilution liquid is tion from the perforated cylinder
3.40
centrifuge) is discarded. The sand- the centrifuge — to control viscosi-
size and silt-size semi-dry solids ty by removal of colloidal size
fraction from the decanter (or the particles. Centrifuges should be run
heavier slurry fraction from the per- when viscosity reaches the opera-
forated cylinder centrifuge) is tor-established maximum, and the
returned to the active system. machine’s operation should be
Installation of a centrifuge is usual- stopped when viscosity reaches the
ly downstream from all other solids established minimum.
control equipment. Ideally, suction The maximum and minimum lim-
for a centrifuge mud feed would be its should be established as part of
taken from the same pit or compart- the overall mud program. Viscosity
ment which receives the discharge will normally creep up when cen-
from a mud cleaner/conditioner. trifuges are shut down due to the
The centrifuge underflow (solids) size degradation of mud solids,
should be discharged to a well- hence the need for restarting the
stirred spot in the pit for thorough unit. Both over-centrifuging and
mixing with whole mud before the under-centrifuging should be avoid-
solids have a chance to settle out in ed, as the economics of operation
the bottom of the pit. This is espe- are greatly reduced under these cir-
cially important with a decanter, cumstances.
which discharges damp solids, and When centrifuging a weighted
of lesser importance with a perfo- mud, bentonite and chemicals must
rated cylinder centrifuge, which be added back to the mud system.
discharges a pumpable slurry. With The amount of replacement ben-
either type of machine, the under- tonite may be calculated exactly
flow discharge should not be too from mass balance equations, but a
close to the rig pump suction. The good rule of thumb is to add about
overflow (liquid/colloidal solids) one sack of bentonite per hour of
gravity-feed down a constantly centrifuge operation. “Under-cen-
sloping chute or pipe to waste. trifuging” simply will not achieve
Sufficient working space should be the desired reduction in viscosity.
provided for routine maintenance Other applications of decanting
and operating adjustments to the centrifuges have become more
centrifuge. important in recent years because of
Operation of centrifuges in this the decanter’s ability to remove free
application is generally intermittent liquid from the solids discharge. As
rather than continuous. This again part of a “closed loop”, the decanting
relates to the standard purpose of centrifuge is used to dewater the
3.41
under-flow from hydrocyclones and ing more popular for processing
remove ultra-fine particles from the unweighted oil mud, especially if 1)
active mud system. Multiple cen- the mud has been brought in from
trifuges are not uncommon, operated another location and may contain a
either in parallel or in series. large amount of fine drilled solids,
Chemical enhancement (through the 2) slow, hard drilling with a gradual
use of coagulants, flocculants, and buildup of ultra-fine solids is antici-
other chemicals) is becoming more pated or 3) the liquid mud phase is
popular as an economical way to valuable.
reduce dilution requirements and
overall waste volume for haul-off WEIGHTED OIL-BASE
and disposal. MUD APPLICATIONS
The main difference of centrifuge In weighted, oil-base mud applica-
use in these applications versus tions, decanting centrifuges are
their use for viscosity control in
operated in series. The first unit
weighted mud is the continuous
returns the coarse solids fraction
use of the centrifuge and the rout-
(weight material ) to the active sys-
ing of the two discharge streams.
tem, with the light, liquid fraction
UNWEIGHTED MUD being routed to a holding tank (rather
APPLICATIONS than being discarded as in a classic
weighted mud application). A second
In the classic weighted mud appli-
unit, often a higher capacity machine,
cation the solids discharge
(containing the majority of the strips out the solids and discards
weighting material) is returned to them, returning the effluent to the
the mud system. The liquid effluent active system.
(containing the majority of the col- This process is not as effective as
loidal size solids) is discarded. a single unit for viscosity control —
As part of a “closed loop”, larger a large portion of the colloidal size
high capacity (75–250 GPM) solids are returned to the active
decanting centrifuges (and some- mud system in the effluent stream
times standard centrifuges) are used of the second unit — but the efflu-
to maximize fine solids removal. ent stream from the first unit is too
The coarser solids fraction is dis- valuable to discard, especially with
carded in dry form, while the liquid synthetic oil muds. Usually the
and colloidal solids fraction is coarse solids fraction is discarded
returned to the mud system. and the base fluid is retained for re-
Decanting centrifuges are becom- use.
3.42
OPERATING PROCEDURES by mechanical solids control equip-
Operating procedures will vary ment.
from model to model, but a few
universal principles apply to almost
MUD GUNS
all centrifuges: For many years Mud Guns (see
• Before starting a centrifuge, Figure 3-27) were used as the sole
rotate the bowl or cylinder by means of agitation. These devices
hand to be sure it turns freely. usually carry mud from a down-
• Start up the centrifuge before stream compartment and spray it at
starting the mud feed pump high velocity into an
and dilution water feed. upstream compart-
• Set the raw mud and dilution ment to keep solids
feed rates according to the suspended.
manufacturer’s recommenda- However, the true
tions (usually variable with mixing effect of mud
mud weight). guns tends to be
• Remember to turn the feed and localized around the
dilution water off before the point where the noz-
machine is stopped. zle spray discharges,
Centrifuges are relatively easy to leaving dead spots in
other areas of the
operate, but they require special
tank. Mud guns also
skills for repair and maintenance.
increase the load on
Rig maintenance of centrifuges is
downstream solids Figure 3-27
limited to routine lubrication and
control equipment, Mud Gun
speed adjustment of the unit.
since each nozzle may add 100—
3.11 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT 200 GPM of mud into the tank
above and beyond the normal flow
from the well.
AGITATION/MIXING
All compartments in an active MECHANICAL AGITATORS
mud system other than the sand Mechanical Agitators (see Figure
trap must be agitated in order to 3-28) provide more thorough mix-
suspend solids and maintain a con- ing of pits without the problems
sistent mixture throughout the associated with mud guns. Agitators
surface system. Suspension of the use an electric motor to drive
solids prevents their settling and impeller blades which flow the
keeps them in the active mud sys- mud in a pattern throughout the
tem so that they can be separated tank.
3.43
cy when pumping gas-cut mud, and
the cones will not function properly
if feed head fluctuates or if there is
gas in the incoming mud. Also,
recirculation of gas-cut mud is dan-
gerous and could result in a
blowout, since the density of gas-
cut mud is lighter than the mud
weight that should be maintained in
the well bore.
There are three basic methods of
degassing which can be utilized
separately or in combination. The
three degassing techniques are:
atmospheric, vacuum and cyclonic.
ATMOSPHERIC DEGASSERS
Figure 3-28 Mechanical Agitator
Atmospheric Degassers sit in the
Given proper tank design, agitator mud tank and consist of an elevat-
sizing, and impeller placement, this ed spray chamber and a submerged
method of agitation prevents set- centrifugal pump. The gas-cut mud
tling, enhances the efficiency of is pumped to the spray chamber at
solids removal devices, and main- high velocity through a disc valve.
tains a well blended mud system. The mud strikes the inside wall of
the spray chamber with enough
DEGASSERS force to drive most of the
After passing through a shale entrapped gas out of the mud. The
shaker and a sand trap, all drilling removed gas is usually discharged
mud should be directed through a to atmosphere at pit level and the
degasser, see Figure 3-29. Degassers degassed mud returned to the
are often essential to the solids active system. These devices are
removal process to ensure the simple to operate and maintain, but
proper performance of hydrocy- their effectiveness is often limited
clones used in downstream solids
by the ability of the centrifugal
control devices. The centrifugal
pump to handle gas-cut mud. A
pumps that feed the cyclones have
second method of degassing is pro-
difficulty maintaining their efficien-
vided by the use of a vacuum.
3.44
Figure 3-29 Degassers
3.45
objects from being drawn into • Check all fittings for air leaks.
the degassing chamber. Locate • If the unit uses a hydraulic sys-
the screen about one foot tem, check it for leaks, proper
above the pit bottom and in a oil level, and absence of air in
well-agitated spot. the system.
• There should be a high equal-
izer line between the suction DRYING SHAKERS
and discharge compartment. A drying shaker, or dryer, is a
The equalizer should be kept vibrating screen separator used to
open to allow backflow of remove free liquid from cuttings
processed mud to the suction prior to discharge and recover the
side of the degasser. liquid for re-use. Drying shakers are
• Route the liquid discharge pipe usually installed to process the cut-
to enter the next compartment
tings discharged from primary
or pit below mud level to pre-
scalping and/or fine screen shakers.
vent aeration.
A typical drying shaker is a linear-
• Install the gas discharge line to
motion, multi-screen unit, with a
safely vent the separated gas to
feed hopper in place of the tradi-
atmosphere or to a flare line.
tional back tank. Drying shakers are
optimized to provide maximum
Maintenance of degassers varies
considerably depending on make retention time and cuttings dryness.
and model. In general, the follow- Large hole sizes or high penetration
ing guidelines apply: rates may require more than one
• Check to make sure the suction drying shaker to provide acceptable
screen is not plugged. cuttings dryness and liquid recovery.
• Routinely lubricate any pumps Shale shakers are often the cause
and other moving parts and of excess mud loss during drilling
check for wear. operations, primarily due to screen-
• Keep all discharge lines open ing too fine for drilling conditions
and free from restrictions, such and the design of some shakers.
as caused by solids buildup This mud loss can greatly increase
around valves. mud costs and site clean-up costs,
• If the degasser utilizes a vacu- especially when oil-base muds,
um, keep it at the proper OBM, or synthetic-base muds, SBM,
operating level, according to are used. One characteristic of SBM
the manufacturer’s recom- is the increased amount of liquid
mended range for the mud retained on the cuttings, compared
weight and process rate. to WBM or conventional OBM.
3.46
The drying shaker is designed to amount of oil remaining on the cut-
expose wet drilled cuttings to an tings!
additional vibrating screen surface Since the amount of oil remaining
and separate some of the bound on the cutting is a function of expo-
liquid coating the surface of the sure time, screen deck length and
solids. The liquid is then returned deck angle will greatly influence
to the active system or transferred cuttings dryness. Screen deck
to a storage tank for future use. length determines the distance a
cutting must travel prior to dis-
DRYING SHAKER DESIGN charge and deck angle influences
The first drying shakers were retention time — the longer the
“high-G” units, operating at 6.5 to 8 screen deck and the steeper the
Gs. Prevalent thinking was that the deck angle, the greater the reten-
additional impact force provided by tion time. However, longer screen
the higher G-force would improve decks may not fit the available
cuttings dryness. Recent field stud- space and too steep a deck angle
ies indicate this is not necessarily will result in cuttings grinding and
true. unacceptable build-up of fine
Oil content on cuttings is primari- solids.
ly a function of retention time on Field tests indicate the optimum
the screen surface and the exposure dryer design provides about 4–5 Gs
of the cutting to the vibrational of force, with a deck design that is
force of the shaker. The G-force flat at the feed end to reduce cut-
greatly affects the speed at which tings grinding and maximize
cuttings move from the feed end of usable screen area. The discharge
the screen surface to the discharge screens should be sloped uphill at
end. At 4 Gs, the conveyance rate is 2.5° to 5° to increase retention time
close to 1 inch per second, while at and maximize cuttings dryness.
7 Gs the conveyance rate is about 5
inches per second. INSTALLATION
Given a screen length of 24 inch- • Locate the drying shaker(s) at a
es and operation at 4 Gs, a cutting lower level from the main lin-
will take approximately 24 seconds ear shakers and other solids
to travel from the feed end of the control equipment. Feed to
screen to the discharge end. the drying shaker should be
Increasing the G-force to 7 G’s through open hopper sized to
reduces the exposure time to 6 sec- eliminate solids build-up or
onds and will actually increase the plugging. Cuttings should be
3.47
evenly deposited as close to than the screen mesh of the
the feed end of the drying drying shaker. The recovered
shaker as possible to maximize liquid should be processed
usable screen area and cuttings through a decanting centrifuge
dryness. to remove ultra-fine solids
• Provide slides or conveyors to before the mud is returned to
direct “dry” cuttings to solids the active system or storage
collection bins or discharge tank. In some installations, the
chutes decanting centrifuge may be
• Supply a flooded pump suction eliminated, but only after care-
in the liquid collection tank for ful consideration of cuttings
transfer by pump to the desired size and their effect on fluid
storage or processing tank. properties.
• The mesh of the screens on the
drying shaker should be close 3.12 UNITIZED SYSTEMS
to, or finer than, the screens Since 1976, several solids control
on the main shakers to prevent manufacturers have developed
the re-introduction of separat- complete packages of skid-mounted
ed solids to the active system. solids control devices, including all
* Use three-dimensional, Pin- supporting tanks, piping, pumps,
nacle™ screen panels at the motors and accessories. These “uni-
feed end of the dryer to usable tized” systems maximize solids
increase screen area. The mid- control efficiency, ease transporta-
dle screen panel may be either tion and installation, and often
a 3-D or flat panel, depending provide a very high efficiency sys-
on deck angle and desired tem for ecologically sensitive
fluid end point. The discharge drilling sites.
end screen should be a flat Components of unitized systems
screen panel to minimize cut- can vary depending on manufactur-
tings bed depth and maximize er and the particular drilling
liquid recovery. application, but most include one
• Adjust screen deck angle or more of the basic separation
design to properly convey devices installed in series: fine
solids, reduce liquid loss, and screen shaker, degasser, desander,
prevent cuttings grinding. desilter, mud cleaner/conditioner,
• The liquid recovered from the and centrifuge. Desilting require-
drilled cuttings will contain ments are usually met by blanking
base fluid, plus any solids finer off the screens on the mud clean-
3.48
Figure 3-30 Brandt/EPI™ ISCS unitized System
3.49
importance of solids control in solidification, or cuttings discharge
deep drilling and the growing con- into water tight containers for trans-
cern over environmental impact of port to approved waste facilities.
mud waste disposal, these systems In addition to their primary goal,
will be used more often in the “closed loop” systems minimize
future. drilled solids remaining in the
drilling fluid. This reduces dilution
3.14 HIGH EFFICIENCY requirements, waste volume, and
SOLIDS REMOVAL drilling problems. Therefore,
SYSTEMS “closed loop” systems have many
The goal of high efficiency solids applications other than environ-
removal systems, often called mental ones.
“closed loop” systems, is to limit The benefit of a “closed loop”
waste discharge to disposable solids system comes from increased solids
and clear water. These systems removal efficiency with unweighted
combine the equipment found in fluids, including clear brines, and
Section 3.12 with chemically- reduced discharge volume with
enhanced solids removal and weighted fluids. This performance
specialized solids handling tech- has proven extremely effective in
niques. The water is often recycled environmentally sensitive areas or
on location for building new mud, whenever cuttings and liquid mud
as rig wash water, or used for irri- must be hauled from the location
gation. A “closed loop” system prior to disposal. This system pro-
often includes multiple shale shak- vides best results when combined
ers and centrifuges to achieve a with constant, on-pit attention and
high efficiency of performance in supervision. Solids Removal
the large upper hole sections of the Efficiency of 75–95% is typical, with
well where wastes and circulating a 50–55% Solids Discharge
volumes are the greatest. Concentration.
Enhanced solids removal is Proper installation and operation
accomplished with chemical addi- are equally important. Here are a
tion to “pre-treat” the fluid prior to few guidelines to keep in mind:
screening or centrifugation. Pre- • Fines stay with the liquid; that
treatment can include pH is, the smallest particles (col-
adjustment, flocculation/coagula- loidal sized) usually remain
tion, or similar treatment. with the liquid phase of the
Solids handling techniques mud, while the larger particles
include washing cuttings to remove — sand, cuttings, etc. — are
excess chlorides or residual oil, removed from the liquid.
3.50
• Size each piece of full-flow valve within 5 feet of suction
solids control equipment, of a centrifugal pump, as this
except the centrifuges, to han- will drastically reduce the life
dle 110–125% of circulating of the pump.
volume (in order to handle • For maximum efficiency,
backflow within compartments, cyclones should emit a spray
volume from mud guns, etc.). discharge rather than a rope
• Always use the finest mesh discharge.
screen possible that will meet • Use only as many cones on a
throughput and screen life mud cleaner/conditioner as
requirements. required to meet flow capacity,
• Often when a solids control in order to extend screen life
device fails to perform, as it and to avoid flooding the
should, the cause is improper screen.
installation, not equipment • Remember size constraints and
malfunction. possible sloshing and spillage
• Install equipment in proper in rough seas when designing
sequence: as the mud moves offshore systems.
downstream, each device • Special winterizing measures
removes progressively smaller — a shed around the pits,
particles. Never try to make a drains in pumps, steam lines,
single device remove all parti- etc. — may be required in
cle sizes — it is better to allow areas of extreme cold in order
each device to remove its par- to ensure proper functioning of
ticular size range within an the solids control equipment.
overall solids control system. • Size it, install it, operate it
• Each piece of solids control RIGHT!
equipment should discharge
into the next compartment 3.15 BASIC ARRANGEMENT
downstream from where its RULES
suction is taken. Mechanical solids control is the
• All compartments other than most cost-effective method to con-
the sand trap should be agitat- trol drilled solids. The benefits of
ed, preferably by mechanical proper solids control are discussed
agitators. in detail in Section 2. Proper solids
• Keep all piping as short and control requires:
straight as possible. • Proper planning before the
• Never install a 90° elbow or well begins
3.51
• Proper selection, installation, • Upstream Flow Through
and operation of available Equalizer – If the flow into the
equipment suction compartment is greater
• Routine monitoring of fluid than the rate of flow processed
properties to optimize perfor- by the equipment, then mud is
mance flowing downstream through
• Sequential Treatment – It fol- the equalizer. In other words,
lows from previous recom- the flow through compartment
mendations that the solids con- equalizers should always be
trol equipment should be from the discharge to the suc-
arranged so that each piece of tion. If it is not then mud is
equipment removes succes- bypassing the equipment.
sively finer solids. • Dedicated Feed Pumps –
• Compartment Mixing – To pro- Manifolding pumps and equip-
vide a uniform solids load to ment so that multiple
the equipment each compart-
configurations are available
ment, except the sand trap,
depending on valve positions
should be well stirred. If mud
is always a mistake. There
guns are used they should be
should be only one button to
arranged so that no flow
push to begin the pump and
bypasses the solids control
the discharge valve opened
equipment. Agitators are
preferable. slowly to begin operation of
• Arrangement – Each piece of the solids control unit.
solids control equipment must • Use a separate centrifugal
be arranged so that the suction pump for each hydrocyclone
is taken from a compartment device (do not use the same
upstream of the discharge pump for more than one piece
compartment, i.e., there must of equipment).
be a wall or division with an
equalizer opening between the Equipment selection is decided by
suction and discharge, even if site-specific requirements. Proper
it is boards placed in the tank system selection is the first step to
temporarily. effective solids control.
3.52
4.0 Equipment and Services for Solids Control and
Waste Management
COMPANY PROFILE On-site Technical Support
Pilot Studies
Project Proposals
4.1 Scope of Services:
Process Recommendations
Brandt/EPI™ specializes in the Project Installation and
design, manufacture, and service of Start-Up
solid/liquid separation systems, System and Equipment
related equipment, and site remedi- Design
ation services for exploration, Site Remediation Services
production, and industrial applica- Bioremediation
tions. We have the technical Dewatering Systems
expertise to provide engineering Landfarming
services, system design and opera- Pond Closures
tion, and proprietary technologies Slurrification and Injection
to our clients throughout the world. Sludge Fixation
For over 20 years, Brandt/EPI per- Soil/Sand washing
sonnel have been providing Waste minimization
industry with solid solutions to sep- Water Treatment
aration and remediation problems.
Our diversified experience and 4.2 Business Relationships:
proven track record allow us to We believe in long-term partner-
offer a wide range of project capa- ships with clients and vendors, and
bilities including: place strict emphasis on providing
Equipment and Systems cost-effective products and services
Vibrating Screen Separators to meet the needs of our clients,
Hydrocyclone Separators regulatory agencies, our employees,
Centrifugal Separators and the community. Emphasis on
Dewatering Units quality and innovative solutions has
Filtration Units established Brandt/EPI as a perfor-
Integrated Systems mance-oriented company with
Other Products strong bottom-line focus.
Technical and Engineering
Services 4.3 Certifications:
Equipment Quality products and services are
Recommendations our priority. Through its parent
4.1
company, Brandt/EPI maintains organizations such as the American
several corporate certifications Petroleum Institute, Society of
including ISO 9001, API, ASME, Petroleum Engineers, American
DNV, Gos-Standard and Gosgor- Institute of Chemical Engineers,
technadzor. American Association of Drilling
Engineers, International Association
4.4 Personnel Resources:
of Drilling Contractors, National
Brandt/EPI has established a rep- Utility Contractors Association, and
utation for professional, consistent, others.
safe performance and innovative
solutions to client needs. Our pro- PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
fessionals are experienced in Brandt/EPI specializes in
solid/liquid separations, site reme- field-proven separation systems for
diation, design engineering, a variety of applications. These
petroleum geology, chemical pro- include exploration and production,
cessing, environmental law, and petrochemical, stone dewatering,
finance. This expertise provides the pulp and paper, clay processing,
ability to offer a wide variety of and municipal sludge. High-perfor-
products and services, a positive mance screen separators,
working environment, and the hydrocyclones, and centrifuges are
financial capabilities to develop available as separate units or as
components of custom-designed
long-term relationships with clients,
systems. Brandt/EPI also provides
suppliers, and sub-contractors.
quality replacement screen panels
Brandt/EPI and its affiliated com-
with a wide range of screen cloth
panies have over 400 operations for all screen units. Brandt/EPI pro-
and technical support personnel vides a full range of site
strategically located in local service remediation services through our
centers throughout the world. own operations and in partnership
Many personnel hold industry certi- with Remediation Management,
fications in HAZWOPER, Process Services, Inc. We have successfully
Safety, Offshore Operations, H2S, closed over 1,000 surface pits to
and CPR. Brandt/EPI also maintains Louisiana Rule 29-B standards or
a wide network of technical experts better in over eighteen years of site
through participation in industry remediation.
4.2
system (-5° to +5°), and screen
changes are quick with the exclu-
sive screen latches. A single-
motor/sealed gearbox drive system
reduce downtime and maintenance
costs. The ATL-1000 is only 93”
from end to end, but has a full 35.8
sq.ft. of screen area. Multiple units
can be used to increase capacity.
4.3
screens flat, the discharge end other designs. The adjustable angle
screens tilt uphill to improve cut- (+5° to -10°), 33.7 sq.ft. screen deck
tings dryness and increase capacity includes a unique dewatering
without the excessive pool depths screen panel and a small-footprint
found with other designs. Deck design. The dual Vibra-motor drive
angle is easily adjusted with the system is simple, efficient, and
pinned jacking system (-5° to +5°), requires no maintenance. Multiple
and screen changes are quick with units may be used to increase
the exclusive screen latches. A sin- capacity.
gle-motor/sealed gearbox drive
system reduce downtime and main-
tenance costs. The ATL-1200
measures only 93” from end to end,
but has a full 25.0 sq.ft. of screen
area. Multiple units can be used to
increase capacity.
4.4
The ATL-CS provides a total of 65 area is 56.3 sq.ft. Multiple units may
sq.ft. of screen area and uses be used to increase capacity.
rugged hook-strip screens on the
scalping decks and Blue Hex SM Linear Motion Drying Shakers
screen panels on the lower deck to
improve efficiency and reduce ATL Drying Shaker
screen costs. Multiple units may be
The ATL Drying Shaker is a com-
used to increase capacity. If
pact “low-G” drying shaker. The ATL
desired, combination stainless/car-
Dryer has proved to be superior to
bon steel or full carbon steel
larger, “high-G” designs due to
construction are available.
longer retention time on the screen
surface and less liquid retained on
the cuttings. The lower “G” forces
also cause significantly less particle
size degradation of the cuttings.
Cuttings and fluids from the primary
rig shakers are fine screened by an
adjustable linear screen deck result-
ing in drier solids and cleaner
reclaimed base mud. The recovered
fluid is captured in an agitated tank
and is returned to the active system
by an integral centrifugal pump.
Figure 4-5
Pump operations are automatic and
LCM-2D Cascade Linear Motion Screen Separator controlled by a float valve switch
mechanism. If desired, the recovered
LCM-2D Cascade Separator fluid may be centrifuged before it is
The LCM-2D Cascade (patent returned to the active system.
pending) combines the fine screen-
ing ability and simplicity of the
LCM-2D with a circular motion
scalping shaker to screen fine,
sticky clays at high flowrates in a
single, modular unit. The LCM-2D
Cascade uses the same screens on
the upper scalping deck and the
lower linear unit to reduce screen
inventories and costs. Total screen Figure 4-6 ATL Drying Shaker
4.5
Conditioners may be configured as
a two-stage separator with either
desander or desilter cones only, or
as a three-stage separator with both
desander and desilter cones to pro-
vide up to 1500 GPM process
capacity in a single unit. The most
popular models are described here;
other configurations are also avail-
able.
4.6
liquid waste volume. If desired, the
cone underflow may be discarded
directly to waste. Total screen area
is 25.0 sq.ft.
4.7
low to moderate capacities of mate-
rials requiring coarse screen
separations, 30 to 50 mesh or larg-
er. A rugged, single motor design is
combined with unbalanced, ellipti-
cal motion to provide years of
trouble-free operation. The stan-
Figure 4-11 Tandem Screen Separator dard separator may also be used as
a scalping shaker to reduce equip-
ty and efficient separation are ment costs. Standard Separators are
achieved because the top screen available in single, dual, and triple
separates large solids from the mud units.
and improves the separating perfor- Junior units are available for
mance and screen life of the workover and similar operations.
bottom screen. The reliability, low
maintenance requirements and Mud Cleaners
quiet, dependable operation have
Brandt/EPI Mud Cleaners are a
made these machines industry stan-
field-proven, two-stage separator
dards for over 20 years. Tandem
designed to process up to 600 GPM
Separators are available in single,
over a single basket. Their horizon-
dual, and triple units. Junior units
tal screen deck and circular motion
are available for workover and sim-
provide excellent conveyance of
ilar operations.
solids, especially sticky clays. The
reliability, low maintenance require-
4.8
ments and quiet, dependable oper- more efficient solids separation.
ation have made these machines The support grid also prevents
industry standards for over 20 small tears from spreading across
years. Mud Cleaners are available in the entire screen surface. When a
single or dual units and with one or tear does occur, it can be easily
two pre-tensioned (PT) screen repaired with Brandt/EPI’s exclu-
decks. Mud Cleaners are available sive screen plugs. Finally, the
with 10, 12, 16, or 20 Desilter bonding process results in a screen
Cones. panel that is impervious to degrada-
tion from high temperatures,
4.7 Screen Panels chemicals, or oils.
4.9
when used in offshore (floater) 4.8 Hydrocyclone Units
applications to reduce the effects of
swell and heave. Pinnacle™ screen Desanders
panels are available for most popu- Available in 500 GPM, 1000 GPM,
lar fine screen shakers in several and 1500 GPM models, Brandt/EPI™
combinations of screen layers and Desanders offer excellent high tem-
mesh size, from 84 mesh to 250 perature tolerance, resistance to
mesh. abrasion, and low-cost replacement.
* Pinnacle is a trademark of Advanced Wirecloth, Inc. They incorporate superior involute
feed entry, preferred flanged design
PT Screen Panels for tight, leak-proof performance,
all-polymer construction, and stan-
PT screen panels are used on
dard Victaulic® connections. These
Brandt/EPI™ Mud Cleaners. This features make them a popular
two-panel screen consists of one or choice for retrofit of existing units.
more layers of fine-mesh screen Each desander cone is 12” diameter
cloth, pretensioned and bonded to with a 2-1/8” diameter, fixed solids
a metal frame for strength and long discharge apex for maximum solids
screen life. PT screens are available removal. 1-3/4” and 1-1/2” apex
sizes are also available. For extreme-
from 80 mesh to 325 mesh, in mar-
ly abrasive conditions, a molded-in
ket grade and tensile bolting cloths. ceramic insert may be specified.
Hook-Strip Screen Panels
Brandt/EPI™ also supplies a full
line of hook-strip screens available
in single-layer or multi-layer config-
urations. Hook-strip screen panels
are available from 8-mesh to 500-
mesh, and may be manufactured
from square-mesh market grade or
tensile bolting cloths, proprietary
oblong or rectangular weaves, and
the latest, high-conductance weaves
for special applications. Urethane
screens, equivalent to 50-140 mesh
cloths are also available. Figure 4-15 Desander
4.10
Desilters
Available to process 60 gpm to
1440 gpm, Brandt/EPI™ Desilters
offer excellent high temperature tol-
erance, resistance to abrasion, and
low-cost replacement. They incor-
porate involute feed entry,
Figure 4-18 Decanting Centrifuge
preferred flanged designs for tight,
leak-proof performance, all-poly-
mer construction, and standard 4.9 Centrifuges
Victaulic® connections. These fea-
Brandt/EPI™ offers several mod-
tures make them the preferred
els of reliable, high-performance
choice for both contractors and
centrifuges to meet your two-phase
operators. Each desilter cone is 4”
liquid/solid separation requirements
diameter with an adjustable solids
— fine solids removal from
discharge apex for maximum solids
unweighted muds, viscosity control
removal. All desilter cones have a
(barite recovery) for weighted
molded-in ceramic insert to reduce
muds, and dual centrifuge systems
wear and extend the life of the
for synthetic oil base muds and
cone.
other critical applications. All
Brandt/EPI™ decanting centrifuges
can be used in both unweighted
and weighted mud applications. All
units feature high capacity contour
bowls, hard-faced conveyor feed
ports and scroll flight tips, hard-
faced solids discharge ports, and
variable pond depth orifices. For
safe operation, all units include
safety shut-down devices, explo-
sion-proof electrics, and heavy-duty
guards over all rotating compo-
Figure 4-16 Desilter
nents.
4.11
weighing up to 26 ppg. The SC-1 designed for ultra fine solids
can also process up to 150 gpm of removal from unweighted muds at
unweighted muds, removing up to process rates up to 160 GPM and 5
6 tons per hour (TPH) of low gravi- TPH. Top recommended bowl
ty solids. speed is 3250 RPM. Stainless steel
construction and sintered tungsten
SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge carbide wear tiles provide years of
The SC-4 centrifuge has a 24” x trouble-free operation.
40” bowl and a double-lead con- The HS3400 is available in all-
veyor designed for maximum solids electric, hydraulic main drive, or
tonnage removal (up to 8 TPH) all-hydraulic (main and back drive)
and process rates up to 250 gpm configurations. The all-electric drive
for unweighted muds. The SC-4 is provides simple, reliable perfor-
also an excellent dewatering cen- mance. The hydraulic drive systems
trifuge and barite recovery offer additional separation versatili-
centrifuge due to its 59:1 gearbox. ty and flexibility to optimize
If desired, an electric back drive to solids/liquid separation over a wide
vary conveyor/bowl speed ratio is variety of drilling conditions.
available as an option.
4.12
capacity and sharper separations —
up to 250 GPM and 8 TPH. The
HS5200’s all-hydraulic drive system
can be easily adjusted for optimum
performance in all fluid processing
conditions. Main bowl speed is infi-
nitely variable up to the maximum
4200 RPM, and the bowl/ conveyor
differential is also adjustable
between 1 RPM and 100 RPM.
Figure 4-21 SC-35HS Decanting Centrifuge
Stainless steel construction and
designs. Compared to other “high- tungsten carbide wear tiles along
speed designs, the SC-35HS the entire scroll length provide
centrifuge’s 15” x 48” contour bowl years of trouble-free operation.
and the proprietary gearbox pro-
vide several advantages — higher
“G-forces at a given speed, higher
solids capacity (6 TPH), higher
flowrates (up to 180 GPM), finer
separations, and greater settling
area in a smaller, more compact
footprint. Top recommended speed
is 3,500 RPM. Stainless steel con-
struction and tungsten carbide wear
tiles provide years of trouble-free Figure 4-23 HS-5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge
4.13
Figure 4-24 Roto-Sep Centrifuge
distance away from the solids Figure 4-26 Inside the DWU-250
4.14
impeller blades for complete mixing
action. Their low profile minimizes
headroom requirements and pro-
vides stability and safety. Brandt/
EPI agitators use a single-reduction,
worm/worm gear drive for higher
efficiency, dependable service, and
smooth vibration-free operation.
The Agitator Sizing Chart for
Drilling Muds, another Brandt/EPI
innovation, simplifies proper agita-
tor sizing and selection, and is
Figure 4-28 Vacuum Degasser located in Appendix D.
4.15
4.15 Integrated Systems
Closed Loop
Processing Systems
All Brandt / EPI™ equipment can
be integrated into systems designed
for specific applications. We have
over 20 years’ experience design-
ing, manufacturing, and operating
systems for “Closed Loop” process-
ing of drilling fluids, dewatering
systems, cuttings wash systems,
Figure 4-30 Portable Rig Blower
product classification systems, and
these blowers are used to disperse other waste reduction/management
potentially dangerous gasses and systems. Brandt / EPI equipment is
bothersome insects. Available in currently in service throughout the
three sizes — 15,000 cfm, 25,000 world, providing excellent results in
cfm, and 40,000 cfm — Brandt/EPI land and offshore installations,
Blowers move high volumes of air remote areas, processing plants,
with minimal noise or vibration. To in-plant installations, and site reme-
ensure safe operation, all blowers diation projects.
feature non-sparking aluminum Brandt / EPI Closed Loop Mud
blades, heavy-gauge safety guards Systems (CLMS) are custom-
and explosion-proof electrics. designed for your specific
Blowers are available in floor- application, based on operational,
mounted, wall-mounted, or hanger- environmental, and economic
mounted units. needs. A typical CLMS may include
4.16
one or more primary Screen Trenchless Technology
Separators, Drying Shakers, Mud Processing Systems
Conditioner, and Decanting Brandt/EPI CLMS are also rapidly
Centrifuge. Dual centrifuge installa- becoming the preferred choice for
tions for special applications — Trenchless Technology Mud
such as weighted oil base muds Systems. We have successfully com-
and synthetic oil- or water-base pleted over 75 trenchless projects in
drilling fluids — are also readily North America, ranging from small
available. diameter fiber-optic cable installa-
tions to large natural gas pipeline
Coiled Tubing (CT)
projects. We have also provided
Processing Systems
systems and operators for horizon-
CT Processing Systems are tal wells to neutralize underground
designed for the specific require- contamination plumes and other
ments of coiled tubing operations, environmental remediation projects.
both drilling and workover. Their
modular design makes it easy to Live Oil Systems
select the total mud volume, type
Brandt/EPI offers a proprietary
and number of fluid processing
equipment, mixing equipment, and system to process three-phase
tank configuration. All compart- solids/water/oil separations when
ments are mechanically agitated to drilling underbalanced through pro-
prevent settling of weighting mate- ducing zones. The Brandt/EPI “Live
rials and maintain a homogenous Oil” System is a modular tank sys-
fluid mixture. The integrated tem, complete with pressure control
degasser (not shown) is specially and solids separation equipment.
designed to remove large amounts Water and oil are separated and
of entrained gas safely and effec- recovered in separate tanks for
tively. future re-use or transportation.
4.16 Remediation
Management Services
Remediation Management
Services, a Brandt/ EPI company,
provides a full range of site remedi-
ation services throughout the world.
In over eighteen years of site reme-
diation, we have successfully closed
Figure 4-32 Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing System
over 1,000 surface pits to Louisiana
4.17
4.17 Technical and
Engineering Services
Brandt/EPI™ offers a full range of
technical and engineering services
to ensure optimum application and
performance of separation and
other, related equipment. These ser-
vices range from periodic, on-site
Figure 4-33 Site Remediation Services inspections to complete design pro-
posals and continuous on-site
Rule 29-B standards or better. technical support, depending on
Techniques available include: project and client requirements.
• Closed loop mud systems Technical and engineering services
• Chemically Enhanced include:
Dewatering • Project pre-planning
• Landfarming / landspreading • Rig surveys
• Bioremediation • Project recommendations
• Cuttings slurrification and • On-site system operation and
injection systems maintenance
• Sludge stabilization and • Brandt’s exclusive RECAP™
fixation Report (Removal Efficiency
• Soil/sand washing Cost Analysis Program)
• Surface pit closure • CAD-based engineering
• Waste minimization • PC-based particle size analysis
• Water treatment • Pilot testing
• Construction equipment • Technical education and
• Pump rental training
• Water Discharge Permit No. 5259 Any Brandt/EPI™ product may be
custom-manufactured to meet your
Each service typically includes all project requirements. All equipment
necessary excavation equipment, can be supplied in full carbon steel,
process equipment, tanks, transfer carbon/stainless steel combination,
pumps and related equipment, or full stainless steel in a variety of
chemicals, power source, labor, finishes and colors. Explosion-proof
onsite testing and analytical data, electrical components are standard,
site closure, and necessary state or but other styles may be requested.
federal permits, reports, and other Call your local Brandt/EPI represen-
documentation. tative for a quotation.
4.18
APPENDICES
Glossary ..................................................................................................................A.2
Standard Calculations........................................................................................B.1
Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ....B.5
Equipment Selection
A.1
GLOSSARY
LEGEND
+ API Bul 13C
- API Bul D11
* IADC Mud Equipment Manual
A ANTIFOAM -
A substance used to prevent foam by
ADSORBED LIQUID greatly increasing the surface tension.
The liquid film that adheres to the sur- Compare: DEFOAMER.
faces of solids particles which cannot
APERTURE +
be removed by draining, even centrifu-
An opening. In a screen surface, the
gal force.
clear opening between wires. See relat-
AERATION* ed term: MESH.
The mechanical incorporation and dis-
APEX
persion of air into a drilling fluid See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
system. If not selectively controlled, it OPENING.
can be very harmful.
APEX VALVE
AIR CUTTING See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
See Preferred Term: AERATION OPENING.
AIR LOCK API SAND
A condition causing a centrifugal pump Solids particles in a drilling fluid that
to stop pumping due to a ball of air (or are too large to pass through a U.S.
gas) in the impeller center that will not Standard 200 Mesh Screen (74 micron
let liquid enter (usually caused by aera- openings). See related term: SAND
tion). CONTENT.
AMPLITUDE + APPARENT VISCOSITY -
The distance from the mean position to The viscosity a fluid appears to have
the point of maximum displacement. In on a given instrument at a stated rate
the case of a vibrating screen with cir- of shear. It is a function of the plastic
cular motion, amplitude would be the viscosity and the yield point. See also:
radius of the circle. In the case of VISCOSITY, PLASTIC VISCOSITY, and
straight-line motion or elliptical motion, YIELD POINT.
amplitude would be one-half of the AXIAL FLOW*
total movement of the major axis of the Flow from a mechanical agitator in
ellipse; thus one-half stroke. See relat- which the fluid first moves along the
ed term: STROKE. axis of the impeller shaft (usually down
A.2
toward the bottom of a tank) and them That portion of a shale shaker contain-
away from the impeller. ing the deck upon which the screen(s)
is mounted; supported by vibration iso-
B lation members connected to the bed.
BACKPRESSURE + BEACH
The pressure opposing flow from a Area between the liquid pool and the
solids separation device. See related solids discharge ports in a decanting
term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE. centrifuge or hydrocyclone.
BALANCE (as a Hydrocyclone)* BED *
To adjust a balanced design hydrocy- Shale shaker support member consist-
clone so that it discharges only a slight ing of mounting skid, or frame with or
drip of water at the underflow open- without bottom, flow diverters to direct
ing. screen underflow to either side of the
BALANCE DESIGN skid and mountings for vibration isola-
(Hydrocyclone) tion members.
A hydrocyclone designed so it can be BENTONITE
operated to discharge solids when A hydratable colloidal clay, largely
there are solids to separate, but will made up of the mineral sodium mont-
automatically minimize liquid discharge morillonite, used in drilling fluids to
when there are no separable solids. create viscosity. See related term: GEL.
BALANCE POINT * BLADE
(of a Hydrocyclone) See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
That adjustment at which exactly no
liquid will discharge at the underflow BLINDING +
opening, yet any greater opening at all A reduction of open area in a screen-
would result in some liquid discharge. ing surface caused by coating or
plugging. See related terms: COATING,
BARITE, BARYTES PLUGGING.
Natural barium sulfate, used for
increasing the density of drilling fluids. BLOWOUT -
The barite mineral occurs in many col- An uncontrolled escape of drilling
ors from white through grays, greens, fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well
and reds to black, according to the caused by the formation pressure being
impurities. API standards require a min- greater than the hydrostatic head of the
imum of 4.2 average specific gravity. fluid in the hole.
BARREL (API) BOTTOM (Cyclone)
A unit of measure used in the petrole- See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
um industry consisting of 42 U.S. OPENING.
gallons.
BOTTOM FLOODING
BASKET The behavior of a hydrocyclone when
A.3
the underflow discharges whole mud outward from the center of rotation.
rather than separated solids. See related term: G-FORCE.
BOUND LIQUID CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR +
See Preferred Term: ADSORBED LIQ- A general term applicable to any
UID. device using centrifugal force to short-
en and/or to control the settling time
BOWL +
required to separate a heavier mass
The outer rotating chamber of a
from a lighter mass.
decanting centrifuge.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
C A device for moving fluid by means of
a rotating impeller which spins the
CAKE THICKNESS - fluid and creates centrifugal force.
The measurement of the thickness of
the filter cake deposited by a drilling CENTRIFUGE
fluid against a porous medium most A centrifugal separator, specifically: a
often following the standard API filtra- device rotated by an external force for
tion test. Cake thickness is usually the purpose of separating materials of
reported in 32nds of an inch. See relat- various specific gravities and/or particle
ed term: WALL CAKE. sizes or shapes from a slurry to which
the rotation is imparted primarily by
CAPACITY rotating bowl.
The maximum volume rate at which a
solids control device is designed to CERAMICS
operate without detriment to separa- A general term for heat-hardened clay
tion. See related terms: FEED products which resist abrasion: used to
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE extend the useful life of wear parts in
CAPACITY. pumps and cyclones.
CASCADE CHOKE *
Fluid movement on a single deck, mul- An opening, aperture, or orifice used to
tiple screen sloping shale shaker basket restrict a rate of flow or discharge.
which flow is parallel to screens. CIRCULATION -
CAVING * The movement of drilling fluid from
Caving is a severe degree of sloughing. the suction pit through pump, drill
pipe, bit, annular space in the hole,
See related term: SLOUGHING.
and back again to the suction pit. The
CENTIPOISE (cp) time involved is usually referred to as
A unit of viscosity equal to 1 gram per circulation time.
centimeter-second. The viscosity of
CIRCULATION RATE -
water at 20°C is 1.005 cp.
The volume flow rate of the circulation
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE + drilling fluid, usually expressed in gal-
That force which tends to impel matter lons or barrels per minute.
A.4
CLAY-SIZE, CLAY decanting centrifuge, a hollow hub
(Particles) with flutes designed to move the
Any solids particles less than 2 microns coarse solids out of the bowl.
in diameter. Natural clay particles are
CROWN
commonly (but not limited to) a
hydrous silicate of alumina, formed by The curvature of a screen deck or the
the decomposition of feldspar and difference in elevation between its high
other aluminum silicates. Clay minerals and low points.
are essentially insoluble in water but CUT POINT
disperse into extremely small particles A general term for the effectiveness of
as a result of hydra-small particles as a a liquid-solids separation device
result of hydration, grinding, or velocity expressed as the particle size that is
effects. removed from the feed stream at a
COARSE (Solids) + given percentage under specified oper-
Solids larger than 2000 microns in ating conditions. See related term:
diameter. MEDIAN CUT.
COATING CUTTINGS
A condition wherein undersize particles Small pieces of formation that are the
cover the openings of a screening sur- result of the chipping and crushing
face by virtue of stickiness. See related action of the bit. Field practice is to call
term: BLINDING. all solids removed by the shaker screen
“cuttings,” in spite of the fact that such
COLLOIDAL (Solids)
solids may include sloughed materials
Particles so small that they do not settle
out when suspended in a drilling fluid. and may be smaller than the screen
Commonly used as a synonym for openings.
“clay.” CYCLONE
CONE See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
D
CONTAMINATION
The presence in a drilling fluid of any DECANTING CENTRIFUGE +
foreign material that may tend to harm A centrifuge which continuously
the desired properties of the drilling removes solids that are coarse enough
fluid. to be separated from their free liquid.
A.5
DEFOAMER - becomes embedded in the filter cake,
Any substance used to reduce or elimi- resulting in a non-uniform distribution
nate foam by reducing the surface of pressure around the circumference
tension. Compare: ANTIFOAM. of the pipe. The conditions essential for
sticking require a permeable formation
DEGASSER
and a pressure differential across the
A device that removes entrained gas
filter cake and drill string.
from a drilling fluid.
DILUENT
DENSITY Liquid added to dilute or thin a drilling
Matter measured as mass per unit of fluid.
volume expressed in pounds per gallon
(lbs/gal), pounds per square inch per DILUTION
thousand feet of depth (psi/1000 ft.), Increasing the liquid content of a
grams per liter (g/l), and specific gravi- drilling fluid by addition of water or oil.
ty. Density is commonly referred to as DILUTION RATIO *
“weight.” Ratio of volume of dilution liquid to the
DESAND volume of raw mud in the feed to a liq-
To remove the API sand from drilling uid-solids separator.
fluid. DILUTION WATER
DESANDER Water used for dilution of water-base
A hydrocyclone capable of removing drilling mud.
the API sand (particles greater than 74 DIRECT-INDICATING VISCOMETER
microns) from a drilling fluid. See VISCOMETER, DIRECT INDICAT-
DESILT ING.
To remove most particles larger than DISCHARGE SPOUT OR LIP
15-20 microns from a drilling fluid. Extension at the discharge area of a
DESILTER screen. It may be vibrating or stationary.
A hydrocyclone capable of remov- DISPERSANT
ing most particles larger than 15-20 Any chemical which promotes disper-
microns from a drilling fluid. sion of particles in a fluid.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE DISPERSE *
(Hydrocyclone) To separate in component parts.
The difference between the inlet and Bentonite disperses by hydration into
outlet pressures measured near the inlet many smaller pieces.
and outlet openings of a hydrocyclone.
DISPERSION (of Aggregates)-
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (Wall) Disintegration of aggregates. Dispersion
STICKING increases the specific surface are of
Sticking which occurs because part of solids resulting in an increase in viscos-
the drill string (usually the drill collars) ity and gel strength.
A.6
DIVIDED DECK + of a hydrocyclone caused by operating
A deck having a screening surface lon- with a dry bottom.
gitudinally divided by partition(s).
DYNAMIC
DOUBLE FLUTE + The state of being active or in motion;
The flutes or leads advancing simultane- opposed to static.
ously at the same angle and 180° apart.
E
DRILLED SOLIDS
Formation particles drilled up by the EDUCTOR
bit. See related term: LOW SPECIFIC A device using a high velocity jet to
GRAVITY SOLIDS. create a vacuum which draws in liquid
or dry material to be blended with
DRILLING IN drilling mud.
The operation during the drilling proce-
dures at the point of drilling into the EFFECTIVE SCREENING AREA
producing formation. The portion of a screen surface avail-
able for solids separation.
DRILLING MUD OR FLUID
A circulating fluid used in rotary drilling EFFLUENT
to carry cuttings out of the hole and See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW.
perform other functions required in the ELASTOMER
drilling operation. See related term: Any rubber or rubber-like material
MUD. (such as polyurethane).
DRILLING OUT ELEVATION HEAD
The operation during the drilling proce- The pressure created by a given height
dure when cement is drilled out of the of fluid. See related term: HEAD.
casing before further hole is made or
completion attempted. EMULSIFIER or EMULSIFYING
AGENT
DRILLING RATE A substance used to produce an emul-
The rate at which hole depth progress- sion of two liquids which ordinarily
es, expressed in linear units per unit of would not mix.
time (including connections) as
feet/minute or feet/hour. See related EMULSION
term: PENETRATION RATE. A substantially permanent mixture of
two or more liquids which do not nor-
DRY BOTTOM mally dissolve in each other. They may
Referring to a hydrocyclone, an adjust- be oil-in-water or water-in-oil types.
ment of the underflow opening that
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL
causes a dry beach, usually resulting in
DIAMETER (ESD) +
severe plugging.
The theoretical dimension usually
DRY PLUG referred to when the sizes of irregularly
The plugging of the underflow opening shaped small particles are discussed.
A.7
These dimensions can be determined FILTER CAKE
by several methods, such as: settling The suspended solids that are deposit-
velocity, electrical resistance, and light ed on a porous medium during the
reflection. See related term: PARTICLE process of filtration, such as the stan-
SIZE. dard API fluid loss test. It may also
refer to the solids deposited on the wall
F of the hole. See related term: WALL
CAKE.
FEED, or FEED SLURRY
A mixture of solids and liquid entering FILTER CAKE THICKNESS
a liquid-solids separation device, A measurement of the solids deposited
including dilution liquid if used. on filter paper in 32nds of an inch dur-
ing the standard 30-min. API filter test.
FEED CAPACITY * This term also refers to the cake
The maximum feed rate that a solids deposited on the wall of a hole.
separation device can effectively han-
dle, dependent upon particle size, FILTER PRESS
particle concentration, viscosity, and A device for determining fluid loss of a
drilling fluid.
other variables. See related terms:
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE FILTRATION
CAPACITY. The process of separating suspended
solids from their liquid by forcing the
FEED CHAMBER +
latter through a porous medium. Two
The part of a device which receives the
types of fluid filtration occur in a well:
mixture of diluents, mud and solids to
dynamic filtration while circulating, and
be separated. static filtration when at rest.
FEED HEAD FILTRATION RATE
The pressure (expressed in feet of See FLUID LOSS.
head) exerted by the drilling fluid in a
header. See related term: HEAD. FINE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
FEED HEADER + 44-74 microns.
A pipe, tube, or conduit to which two
or more hydrocyclones are connected FINE SCREEN SHAKER
and from which they receive their feed A vibrating screening device designed
slurry. for screening drilling fluids through
screen cloth finer than 40 mesh.
FEED OPENING
See Preferred Term: INLET. FISHING
Operations on the rig for the purpose
FEED PRESSURE + of retrieving sections of pipe, collars,
The actual gauge pressure measured as junk, or other obstructive items which
near as possible to, and upstream of, are in the hole and would interfere
the inlet of a device. with drilling.
A.8
FLIGHT + FREE LIQUID
On a decanting centrifuge, one full turn The layer of liquid that surrounds each
of a spiral helix, such as a flute or separate particle in the underflow of a
blade of a screw-type conveyor. hydrocyclone. The thickness of this
film depends upon the cyclone and the
FLOCCULATING AGENT
viscosity of the fluid.
A substance, such as most electrolytes
and certain polymers, that causes floc- FUNNEL VISCOSITY -
culation. The time, in seconds, for a quart (or
liter) of drilling mud to flow out the
FLOCCULATION bottom of a Marsh Funnel. Used in the
Loose association of particles in lightly field as a rough measure of apparent
bonded groups, or non-parallel associa- viscosity. See related terms: MARSH
tion of clay platelets. In drilling fluids, FUNNEL, APPARENT VISCOSITY.
flocculation results in thickening gela-
tion.
G
FLOODING GAS-CUT (Mud)
The effect created when a screen or Drilling fluid containing entrained gas.
centrifuge is fed beyond its capacity.
Flooding may also occur on a screen as GEAR RATIO +
a result of blinding. On a decanting centrifuge, the ratio of
the outer bowl speed to the difference
FLUID LOSS - in speed between the outer bowl and
Measure of the relative amount of fluid the screw conveyor, normally
loss (filtrate) through permeable forma- expressed as the number of revolutions
tions or membranes when the drilling of the outer bowl for a given difference
fluid is subjected to a pressure differen- of one complete revolution between the
tial. For standard API filtration-test outer bowl and the screw conveyor.
procedure, see API RP 13B.
GEAR UNIT +
FLUTE On a centrifuge, a reduction device
The curved metal blade wrapped connected to the rotating bowl and dri-
around a shaft as on a screw conveyor ving the conveyor at a slightly different
in a centrifuge. rate.
FOAM GEL -
A light frothy mass of fine bubbles A term used to designate high col-
formed in or on the surface of a liquid; loidal, high-yielding, viscosity-building
usually caused by entrained air or gas. commercial clays, such as bentonite
and attapulgite clays.
FORMATION DAMAGE -
Damage to the productivity of a well GEL STRENGTH
resulting from invasion into the forma- The ability or the measure of the ability
tion by mud particles or mud filtrate. of a colloid to form gels. Gel strength
A.9
is a pressure unit usually reported in HOOK STRIPS +
lbs/100 sq. ft. It is a measure of the The hooks on the edges of a screen
same interparticle forces of a fluid as section which accept the tension mem-
determined by the yield point under ber.
dynamic conditions.
HOPPER
GEL STRENGTH, INITIAL See MUD HOPPER.
The measured initial gel strength of a
HORSEPOWER
fluid is the maximum reading (deflec- A measure of the rate at which work is
tion) taken from a direct-reading done. Motor nameplate horsepower is
viscometer after the fluid has been the maximum steady load that the
allowed to sit for 10 minutes. motor can pull without damage.
G-FORCE * HYDRATION
The acceleration of gravity (32.2 The act of a substance to take up water
ft/sec/sec, 9.8 m/sec/sec). Multiplied by means of absorption and/or adsorp-
acceleration due to centrifugal force is tion; usually results in swelling,
usually expressed as 1G, 2G, 3G, dispersion and disintegration into col-
11,000G etc. loidal particles.
GUMBO * HYDROCYCLONE
Any relatively sticky shale formation A liquid-solids separation device which
encountered while drilling. utilizes centrifugal force to speed up
GUNNING THE PITS settling. Drilling fluid is pumped tan-
Agitation of the drilling fluid by means gentially into a cone and the rotation of
of mud guns. the fluid provides centrifugal force to
separate particles by mass weight - the
H heavier solids being separated from the
light solids and liquid.
HEAD
The height (in feet) of a column of HYDROCYCLONE SIZE *
fluid necessary to develop a specific The maximum inside working diameter
pressure. Commonly used to refer to of the cone part of a hydrocyclone.
the pressure put out by a centrifugal
pump. I
A.10
persion of formation clays and shales LIQUID *
through chemical and/or physical Fluid that will flow freely, takes the
means. See INHIBITOR (mud). shape of its container.
INHIBITOR (mud) - LIQUID-CLAY PHASE
Substances generally regarded as See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW
drilling mud contaminants, such as salt
LIQUID DISCHARGE
and calcium sulfate, are called
See Preferred Terms: OVERFLOW
inhibitors when purposely added to (Hydrocyclones); UNDERFLOW
mud so that the filtrate from the drilling (screens).
fluid will prevent or retard the hydra-
tion of formation clays and shales. LIQUID FILM
The liquid surrounding each particle
INLET discharging from the solids discharge of
The opening through which the feed cyclones and screens. See related term:
mud enters a solids control device. FREE LIQUID.
INTERMEDIATE (Solids) + LOST CIRCULATION
Particles whose diameter is between The result of whole mud escaping into
250-2000 microns. a formation, usually in cavernous, fis-
INVERT OIL-EMULSION MUD - sured, or coarsely permeable beds,
An invert emulsion is a water-in-oil evidenced by the complete or partial
emulsion where fresh or salt water is failure of the mud to return to the sur-
the dispersed phase and diesel, crude, face as it is being circulated in the
or some other oil is the continuous hole.
phase. Water increases the viscosity LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS
and oil reduces the viscosity. (LCM)
Materials added to drilling fluid to con-
L trol mud loss by bridging or plugging
LEAD the lost circulation zone.
In a decanting centrifuge, the slurry LOW SILT MUD
conducting channel formed by the An unweighted mud that has all the
adjacent walls of the flutes or blades of sand and high proportion of the silts
the screw conveyor. removed and has a substantial content
LIGNOSULFONATES of bentonite or other water-loss-reduc-
ing clays.
Organic drilling fluid additives derived
from by-products of sulfite paper man- LOW SOLIDS MUDS
ufacturing process from coniferous Low solids muds are unweighted
woods. Commonly used as dispersants water-base muds containing less than
and anti-flocculants. In large quantities, 10% drilled solids (1-4% is a normal
may be used for fluid-loss control and range). They are used whenever it is
the shale inhibition. desirable to increase penetration rate.
A.11
In general, the lower solids content in MESH
a mud, the faster a bit can drill. The number openings per linear inch
in a screen. For example, a 200 mesh
LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
screen has 200 openings per linear
Drilled solids of various sizes, commer-
inch.
cial colloids, salts, lost circulation
materials, i.e., all solids in drilling fluid, MESH COUNT
except barite or other commercial The count is the term most often used
weighting materials. Typical S.G. is 2.6. to describe a square or rectangular
mesh screen cloth. A mesh count such
M as 30 x 30 (or often 30 mesh) indicates
MANIFOLD (Cyclone) a square mesh, while a designation
A piping arrangement through which such as 70 x 30 mesh indicates a rec-
liquids, solids or slurries from one or tangular mesh.
more sources can be fed to or dis- MESH EQUIVALENT
charged from a solids separation As used in oilfield drilling applications,
device. the U.S. Sieve number which has the
MARSH FUNNEL same size opening as the minimum
An instrument used in the field to opening of the screen in use.
determine funnel viscosity of a drilling MICRON (µ)
fluid. See related term: FUNNEL VIS- A unit of length equal to one thou-
COSITY. sandth of a millimeter; used as a
MASS measure of particle size.
The effective weight of a particle, con- MUD
sidering both its specific gravity and Mud is the term most commonly given
particle size. to drilling fluids; used for circulating
out cuttings and many other functions
MECHANICAL AGITATOR while drilling a well.
A device used to mix, blend, or stir flu-
ids by means of a rotating impeller MUD ADDITIVE -
blade. Any material added to a drilling fluid to
achieve a particular purpose.
MEDIAN CUT *
In separating solids particles from a MUD BALANCE -
specific liquid-solids slurry under speci- A beam-type balance used in determin-
fied conditions, the effectiveness of the ing mud density. It consists primarily of
separation device expressed as the par- a base, graduated beam with constant-
ticle size that reports 50% to the volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge and
overflow and 50% to the underflow. counterweight.
MEDIUM (solids) + MUD BOX
Particles whose diameter is between The feed compartment on a shale shak-
74-250 microns. er into which the mud flow line
A.12
discharges, and from which the mud is solids to the mud is by means of the
either fed to the screens or is bypassed. mud hopper. Some other devices for
Also called Backtank or Possum Belly. mixing are: eductors, mechanical agita-
tors, electric stirrers, mud guns, and
MUD CLEANER
chemical barrels.
A solids separation device which com-
bines several manifolded hydrocyclones MUD PIT -
and a fine mesh vibrating screen to Earthen or steel storage facilities for the
remove valuable mud additives and liq- surface mud system. Mud pits which
uids to the active mud system. vary in volume and number are of two
MUD CONE types: circulating and reserve. Mud test-
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE. ing and conditioning is normally done
in the circulating pit system.
MUD ENGINEER -
One versed in drilling fluids whose MUD PUMPS
duties are to manage, implement, and See RIG PUMPS.
maintain the various types of oilwell MUD SCALES
mud programs. See MUD BALANCE.
MUD FEED + MUD STILL
Drilling fluid, with or without dilution, See RETORT.
for introduction into a liquid-solids sep-
arator. N
MUD GUNS NEAR SIZE
A system of pumps and piping in The material very nearly the size of a
which drilling mud is pumped through screen opening, generally considered
nozzles at a high velocity. Used for as plus or minus 25% of the opening.
mixing, blending and stirring the mud
pits.
O
MUD HOPPER * OBLONG
A device used for mixing mud chemi- (Mesh)
cals and other products into a fluid Screen cloth having more wires per
stream. It usually consists of a mud jet, inch in one direction than in another.
an open top hopper, and downstream For example, 70 x 30 mesh has 70
venturi.
wires per inch in one direction and 30
MUD HOUSE - wires per inch in the other direction.
A structure at the rig to store and shel- (Also called “rectangular” mesh.)
ter sacked materials used in drilling
OIL-BASE MUD
fluids.
A drilling fluid containing oil as its liq-
MUD MIXING DEVICES uid phase, usually including 1-5%
The most common device for adding water emulsified into the system.
A.13
OPEN AREA trates the formation, expressed in linear
See PERCENT OPEN AREA. units, i.e., feet/minute or feet/hour. See
related term: DRILLING RATE.
OVERFLOW
The discharge stream from a centrifugal PERCENT OPEN AREA
separation device that contains a higher Ratio of the area of the screen open-
percentage of liquids than does the ings to the total area of the screen
feed. surface.
OVERFLOW HEADER * PERFORATED CYLINDER
In hydrocyclone operation, a pipe into CENTRIFUGE +
which two or more hydrocyclones dis- A mechanical centrifugal separator in
charge their overflow. which the rotating element is a perfo-
rated cylinder (the rotor) inside of and
OVERLOAD +
concentric with an outer stationary
To feed separable solids to a separating
cylindrical case.
device at a rate greater than its solids
discharge capacity. PERFORATED ROTOR +
The rotating inner cylinder of the per-
OVERSIZE (Solids)
forated cylinder centrifuge.
Particles, in a given situation, that can
be separated from the liquid phase by PERMEABILITY
centrifugal force or which will not pass Normal permeability is a measure of
through the openings of the screen in the ability of a formation to allow pas-
use. sage of a fluid.
PLASTICITY
P The property possessed by some
PARTICLE solids, particularly clays and clay slur-
In drilling mud work, a small piece of ries, of changing shape or flowing
solid material. under applied stress without develop-
ing shear planes or fractures; that is, it
PARTICLE SIZE
deforms without breaking.
Particle diameter, usually expressed in
microns. See related term: EQUIVA- PLASTIC VISCOSITY
LENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER. Plastic viscosity is a measure of the
internal resistance to fluid flow attribut-
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION +
able to the amount, type, and size of
The fraction or percentage of particles
solids present in a given fluid. When
of various sizes or size ranges. See
using a direct-indicating viscometer,
related term: SIEVE ANALYSIS.
plastic viscosity is found by subtracting
PARTICLE SURFACE AREA the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm
See SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA. reading.
PENETRATION RATE PLUGGING (Screen Surface)
The rate at which the drill bit pene- The wedging or jamming of openings
A.14
in a screening surface by particles, pre- RAW MUD
venting passage of undersize material. Mud, before dilution, that is to be
See related term: BLINDING. processed by solids removal equip-
ment.
POLYMER
A synthetic mud additive used to main- RECTANGULAR OPENING (Screen
tain viscosity, control fluid loss and Cloth)
maintain other desirable mud properties. See OBLONG MESH.
POLYURETHANE RETENTION TIME (Screen) +
A high performance elastomer polymer The time any given particle of material
used in construction of hydrocyclones is actually on a screening surface.
for its unique combination of physical
properties, especially abrasion, tough- RETENTION TIME + (Centrifugal
ness and resiliency. Separators)
The time the liquid phase is actually in
POOL the separating device.
The reservoir or pond of fluid, or slur-
ry, formed inside the wall of RETORT
hydrocyclones and centrifuges and in An instrument used to distill oil, water,
which classification or separation of and other volatile material in a mud to
solids occurs due to the settling effect determine oil, water, and total solids
of centrifugal force. content in volume-percent. Also called
“mud still”.
PORTS +
The openings in a centrifuge for entry RHEOLOGY
or exit of materials. Usually applied in The science that deals with deforma-
connection with a descriptive term, i.e., tion and flow of matter.
feed ports, overflow ports, etc. RIG PUMPS (or Mud Pumps)
PRESSURE HEAD * The reciprocating, positive displace-
Pressure within a system equal to the ment, high pressure pumps used to
pressure exerted by an equivalent circulate drilling fluid through the hole.
height of fluid (expressed in feet). See RIG SHAKER
related term: HEAD. A general term for a shale shaker using
coarse mesh screen.
R
ROPE DISCHARGE
RADIAL FLOW * The characteristic underflow of a
Flow from a mechanical agitator in
hydrocyclone operating inefficiently
which fluid moves away from the axis
and so overloaded with separable
of the impeller shaft (usually horizon-
solids that not all the separated solids
tally toward a mud tank wall).
can crowd out the underflow opening,
RATE OF PENETRATION causing those that can exit to form a
See PENETRATION RATE. slow-moving, heavy, rope-like stream.
A.15
(Also referred to as “rope” or “rope solids which may get past the shale
underflow.”) shaker.
ROTARY DRILLING SCREEN CLOTH
The method of drilling wells that A type of screening surface, woven in
depends on the rotation of a drill bit square or rectangular openings. See
which is attached to a column of drill related term: WIRE CLOTH.
pipe. A fluid is circulated through the
SCREENING
drill pipe to flush out cuttings and per- A mechanical process which accom-
form other functions. plishes a separation of particles on the
RPM * basis of size, through their acceptance
Revolutions per minute. or rejection by a screening surface.
SCREENING SURFACE
S The medium containing the openings
SALT-WATER MUDS - for passage of undersize material.
A drilling fluid containing dissolved salt SCROLL
(brackish to saturated). These fluids See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
may also include native solids, oil,
and/or such commercial additives as SETTLING VELOCITY
clays, starch, etc. The velocity a particle achieves in a
given fluid when gravity forces equal
SAMPLES - the friction forces of the moving parti-
Cuttings obtained for geological infor- cle.
mation from the drilling fluid as it
emerges from the hole. They are SHALE
washed, dried, and labeled as to the Stone of widely varying hardness,
depth. color, and compaction that is formed of
clay-sized grains.
SAND CONTENT
The sand content of a drilling fluid is SHALE SHAKER
the insoluble solids content retained on A general term for devices which use a
a 200-mesh screen. It is usually vibrating screen to remove cuttings and
expressed as the percentage bulk vol- other large solids from drilling mud.
ume of sand in a drilling fluid. This test SHEAR (Shearing Stress)
is an elementary type in that the An action, resulting from applied
retained solids are not necessarily silica forces, which causes or tends to cause
and may not be altogether abrasive. two contiguous parts of a body to slide
relatively to each other in a direction
SAND TRAP
parallel to their plane of contact - as in
The first compartment and the only
particles within a mud.
unstirred compartment in a well-
designed mud system; intended as a SIEVE
settling compartment to catch large See Preferred Term: TESTING SIEVE.
A.16
SIEVE ANALYSIS the soluble salts of sodium, calcium,
A measurement of particle size and and magnesium. The total suspended
percentage of the amount of material in and dissolved solids content is com-
various particle size groupings. See monly expressed in percent by volume.
related term: PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIB-
SOLIDS DISCHARGE +
UTION.
That stream from a liquid-solids separa-
SILT tor containing a higher percentage of
Materials whose particle size generally solids than does the feed.
falls between 2 microns and 74 SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY
microns. A certain portion of dispersed The maximum rate at which a liquid-
clays and barite falls into this particle solids separation device can discharge
size range as well as drilled solids. solids without overloading.
SIZE DISTRIBUTION SPECIFIC GRAVITY
See Preferred Term: PARTICLE SIZE The weight of a particular volume of
DISTRIBUTION. any substance compared to the weight
SLOUGHING of an equal volume of water at a refer-
A situation in which portions of a forma- ence temperature.
tion fall away from the walls of a hole, SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
as a result of incompetent unconsolidat- The effective surface area per unit of
ed formations, high angle of repose, weight of some sample or grouping of
wetting along internal bedding planes, particles of matter, usually expressed in
or swelling of formations caused by fluid units of area per units of weight such
loss. See related term: CAVING. as square feet per pound, or acres per
SLURRY pound, square meters per gram, etc. It
A mixture or suspension of solid parti- can be a valuable indicator of the
cles in one or more liquids. amount of liquid certain particles can
attract and retain on their surface.
SOLIDS +
All particles of matter in the drilling SPEED +
fluid, i.e., drilled formation cuttings, The frequency at which a vibrating
barite, etc. screen operates, usually expressed in
RPM or CPM; the bowl rpm of a
SOLIDS CONTENT decanting centrifuge; the rotor rpm of a
The total amount of solids in a drilling perforated cylinder centrifuge.
fluid as determined by distillation,
SPRAY DISCHARGE
including both the dissolved and the
The underflow of hydrocyclones when
suspended (or undissolved) solids. The
not overloaded with separable solids.
suspended-solids content may be a
combination of high and low specific SPUDDING IN -
gravity solids and native or commercial The starting of the drilling operations
solids. Examples of dissolved solids are of a new hole.
A.17
SPUD MUD - TEST SIEVE
The fluid used when drilling starts at A cylindrical or tray-like container with
the surface, often a thick bentonite a screening surface bottom of standard
lime slurry. aperture.
SPURT LOSS * THINNER -
The flux of fluids and solids which Any various organic agents (tannins,
occurs in the initial stages of any filtra- lignins, lignosulfonates, etc.) and inor-
tion before pore openings are bridged ganic agents (pyrophosphates,
and a filter cake is formed. tetraphosphates, etc.) that are added to
a drilling fluid to reduce the viscosity
STROKE and/or thixotropic properties.
The distance between the extremities
of motion; viz., the diameter of a circu- THIXOTROPY -
lar motion. See related term: The ability of a fluid to develop gel
AMPLITUDE. strength with time. That property of a
fluid which causes it to build up a rigid
STUCK - or semirigid gel structure if allowed to
A condition whereby the drill pipe, cas- stand at rest, yet can be returned to a
ing, or other devices inadvertently fluid state by mechanical agitation.
become lodged in the hole.
THRUST
SUMP The force that pushes on the mud as
A pit or tank into which a fluid drains on a shale shaker screen.
before recirculation or in which wastes
gather before disposal. TOTAL DEPTH (or TD) -
The greatest depth reached by the drill
SURGE LOSS bit.
See Preferred Term: SPURT LOSS.
TOTAL HEAD *
SWABBING The sum of all heads within a system
When pipe is withdrawn from the hole (Total Head = velocity head + pressure
in viscous mud or if the bit is balled, a head + elevation head.)
low pressure is created below the bit.
U
T
ULTRA-FINE (Solids) +
TENSIONING + Particles whose diameter is between 2-
The stretching of the screening surface 44 microns.
within the vibrating frame.
UNDERFLOW
TENSION RING (Hydrocyclone)
A rigid hoop surrounding a stretched The discharge stream from centrifugal
screen cloth used for maintaining separators that contains a higher per-
screen tension and mounting the centage of solids than does the feed.
screen to a shaker frame. See general term: SOLIDS DISCHARGE.
A.18
UNDERFLOW (Screen) VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICATING -
The discharge stream from a screening Commonly called a “V-G meter.” The
device which contains a greater per- instrument is a rotational-type device
centage of liquids than does the feed. powered by means of an electric motor
or handcrank, and is used to determine
UNDERFLOW HEADER +
the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity,
A pipe, tube, or conduit into which
yield point, and gel strengths of drilling
two or more hydrocyclones discharge
fluids. The usual speeds are 600 and
their underflow.
300 rpm. See API RP 13B for opera-
UNDERSIZE (Solids) tional procedures.
Particles that will, in a given situation,
VISCOSITY -
remain with the liquid phase when
The internal resistance offered by a fluid
subjected to centrifugal force, or will
to flow. This phenomenon is attributable
pass through the openings of the
to the attractions between molecules of a
screen in use.
liquid, and is a measure of the combined
UNWEIGHTED (Mud) effects of adhesion and cohesion to the
A drilling fluid which has not had sig- effects of suspended particles, and to the
nificant amounts of high gravity solids liquid environment. The greater this
added and whose density and whose resistance, the greater the viscosity. See
density is generally less than 11 pounds related terms: APPARENT VISCOSITY,
per gallon. PLASTIC VISCOSITY.
VORTEX +
V
A cylindrical or conical shaped core of
VELOCITY HEAD * air or vapor lying along the central axis
Head (relating to pressure when multi- of the rotating slurry inside a hydrocy-
plied by the density of the fluid) clone.
created by the movement of a fluid,
equal to an equivalent height of static VORTEX FINDER
fluid. A hollow cylinder extending axially
into the barrel of a hydrocyclone. The
VENTURI * overflow exits from the separating
Streamlining up to a given pipe size chamber through the vortex finder, and
following a restriction (as in a jet in a the vortex is centered in the hydrocy-
mud hopper) to minimize turbulence clone by the hole in the vortex finder,
and pressure drop. hence the name.
V.G. METER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICAT- W
ING.
WALL CAKE -
VIBRATING SCREEN The solid material deposited along the
A screen with motion induced as an wall of the hole resulting from filtration
aid to solids separation. of the fluid part of the mud into the
A.19
formation. See related terms: CAKE mud, usually by the addition of weight
THICKNESS, FILTER CAKE. material.
WALL STICKING WETTING -
See Preferred Term: DIFFERENTIAL The adhesion of a liquid to the surface
PRESSURE STICKING. of a solid.
WATER-BASE MUD WIRE CLOTH +
The conventional drilling fluid contain- Screen cloth of woven wire.
ing water as a the continuous phase.
WORKOVER FLUID -
WATER FEED + Any type of fluid used in the workover
Water to be added for dilution of the operation of a well.
mud feed into a centrifugal separator.
See related term: DILUTION WATER. Y
WEIGHT (Mud Weight) YIELD
In mud work, weight refers to the den- As applied to drilling mud, a term
sity of a drilling fluid. This is normally used to define the quality of a clay by
expressed in lbs/gal or specific gravity. describing the number of barrels of a
See related term: DENSITY. given centipoise slurry that can be
made from a ton of the clay.
WEIGHT MATERIAL
Any of the heavy solids (specific gravi- YIELD POINT
ty of 4.3 or more) used to increase the The resistance to initial flow, represent-
density of drilling fluids. This material ing the stress required to start fluid
is most commonly barite but can be movement. This resistance is due to
galena, etc. In special applications, electrical charges located on or near
limestone is also called a weight mater- the surfaces of the particles. The values
ial (even though its specific gravity is of the yield point and thixotropy,
2.6). respectively, are measurements of the
same fluid properties under dynamic
WEIGHTED (Mud)
and static states. The Bingham yield
A drilling fluid to which heavy (over
value, reported in lbs/100 sq. ft, is
4.3 specific gravity) solids have been
determined by the direct-indicating vis-
added to increase its density.
cometer by subtracting the plastic
WEIGHT UP * viscosity from the 300-rpm reading.
To increase the weight of a drilling
A.20
STANDARD CALCULATIONS
I. MUD VOLUME
• Annular volume in bbl = hole volume - capacity and displacement of drill pipe
B.1
III. SOLIDS DETERMINATION
• Correct for oil: For each 1% of oil, add 0.1 to % solids by volume
• Correct for NaCl: For each 10,000 ppm salt, deduct 0.3% solids by vol-
ume. Ignore if salt content is less than 10,000 ppm. Convert Cl ppm to
salt ppm (* 1.65)
B. Weighted Muds
1. Freshwater muds
Sa = (12 * Dm) - Vw
Vs
OR
B.2
C. Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing
barite, S.G. = 4.2
Vlg = Vsc - Vb
Vlg = Vsc - Vh
B.3
Field Calculations to Determine
Total Solids Discharge
Note:
This method is only a quick approximation of solids removal rate and
should be used only for unweighted muds or where quick comparisons
need to be made on a mud system to see what results when conditions
change, i.e., is solids removal rate increasing, decreasing, or staying
the same?
Example:
D = 12.3 #/gal
R = 8 sec
(D - 8.3) * 1450 =
R
(12.3 - 8.3) * 1450 =
8
4 * 1450 = 725 #/hr
8
B.4
Field Calculations to Determine
High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge
B.5
SOLIDS CONTROL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Example:
Given:
Feed Rate = 30 gpm
Underflow Density = 17.0 ppg
Feed Density = 10.0 ppg
Effluent Density = 9.0 ppg
Total Low Gravity Solids = 6%
Mud Cost = $15./bbl
Disposal Cost = $10./bbl
Equipment Cost per Day = $600
Underflow Rate, Vu = ?
B.6
1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.
2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.
3) Calculate the equipment effectiveness & cost, compared to dilution
4) Calculate economic benefits
B.7
2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.
a) Dilution: Assume the 9.0 ppg fluid is the desired fluid. It contains
5% solids. The equivalent dilution required to treat the solids
removed is the volume removed divided by the desired fraction of
solids.
B.8
b) Mechanical Treatment Cost =[Liquid Volume Lost * (Mud Unit Cost +
Disposal Unit Cost)] + Equipment Cost
$ = $71.25 - $1,750
$ = $(1,678.75)
B.9
Method for Comparison of
Cyclone Efficiency
Where: D = Density
V = Volume Rate
UF = Underflow
CASE #1: When DUF1 = DUF2 Then higher VUF = Greater Efficiency,
since a greater volume of solids is
being removed at the same
liquid/solids ratio.
CASE #2: When VUF1 = VUF2 Then higher DUF = Greater Efficiency,
since more solids (and less liquid) are
being removed in the same underflow
volume.
CASE #3: When one cone has higher DUF and higher VUF, then that cone
is operating at significantly greater efficiency.
Note: When none of the above conditions occur, or for specific numerical
accuracy, See Appendix A.
B.10
Conversion Constants and Formulas
A. Conversion Constants
Specific Gravity (SG) Water ............................................1.0
1 Gallon of Water ............................................................8.34 lb
1 cu. ft. of Water..............................................................62.4 lb
1 Barrel (42 gallons) of Water.........................................350 lb
100’ Column of Water Exerts Hydrostatic
Pressure of.....................................................................43.3 psi
Clay (SG=2.5)...................................................................875 ppb
Barite (SG=4.3) ................................................................1506 ppb
Calcium Carbonate (SG=2.7) ..........................................945 ppb
1 Barrel (42 Gallons) .......................................................5.6146 cu ft
1 Cubic Foot ....................................................................7.48 gal
B. Conversion Formulas
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
sp gr (specific gravity) ..............62.4 ............pcf (pounds/cubic feet)
sp gr .............................................8.34 ..........ppg (pounds/gallon)
ppg (pounds/gallon)...................0.052 ........psi/ft
bbl (barrels) .................................0.157 ........m3 (cubic meters)
bbl ..............................................42.0 ............gal
bbl ................................................5.615 ........ft3 (cubic feet)
ft3 (cubic feet) ..............................0.0283 ......m3
ft3 ..................................................7.48 ..........gal
gal (gallons).................................0.00379 ....m3
lb (pounds)..................................0.454 ........kg (kilograms)
miles.............................................1.609 ........km (kilometers)
ft (feet) .........................................0.305 ........m (meters)
in. (inches)...................................2.54 ..........cm (centimeters
psi (pounds/in2)...........................6.895 ........kPa (kilo-Pascals)
psi.................................................0.069 ........bar
psi.................................................0.07 ..........kg/cm2
kg/m.............................................0.01 ..........kP/m
sp gr .......................................1000.0 ............kg/m3
ppg (pounds/gallon) ...............119.8 ............kg/m3
ppg ...............................................0.1198 ......kg/liter
pcf (pounds/cubic feet) ............16.02 ..........kg/m3
ppb (pounds/barrel) ...................2.85 ..........kg/m3
psi/ft ...........................................22.61 ..........kPa/m
C.1
Density of Common Materials
C.2
Hole Capacities
HOLE
DIAMETER CAPACITY CAPACITY
(INCHES) (BPF) (GPF)
4 3/4 .0219 .92
5 5/8 .0307 1.29
5 7/8 .0335 1.41
6 .0350 1.47
6 1/8 .0364 1.53
6 1/4 .0379 1.59
6 1/2 .0410 1.72
6 5/8 .0426 1.79
6 3/4 .0442 1.86
6 7/8 .0459 1.93
7 3/8 .0528 2.22
7 5/8 .0564 2.37
7 3/4 .0583 2.45
7 7/8 .06.2 2.53
8 3/8 .0681 2.88
8 1/2 .0701 2.94
8 5/8 .0722 3.03
8 3/4 .0734 3.12
9 1/2 .0876 3.68
9 5/8 .0899 3.78
9 7/8 .0947 3.98
10 5/8 .1096 4.60
12 1/4 .1456 6.12
13 1/2 .1769 7.43
14 3/4 .2112 8.87
17 1/2 .2973 12.49
26 .6563 27.56
C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Fast Rates
C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Slow Rates
C.5
C.6
er
at
50 W
&
lids
y So
avit
40 Gr
w
Lo n
s ing m solid
s
onditio
30 tu maximu Go od C
ten d s in ds
on u
d M sol i ater
s C
o f Fiel inimum d s &W
lid ang
e m oli
So te R ty S
20 i m a G ravi
rox Hig
h
App sing
n t u
onte
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10 So
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
MUD WEIGHT - LBS/GAL
Pre-well Project Checklist
Drilling Program: What are the hole size, casing points, and washout factors?
What is the expected rate of penetration?
What type bit?
What is the mud program?
Are there any environmental restrictions?
What rig is being considered?
Any anticipated hole problems?
Equipment and
Vendor Capability: What size and type of solids need removal?
What equipment is already installed?
What is its process rate and expected removal efficiency?
Are there sufficient mud compartments?
Is the equipment installed properly?
What additional equipment is needed?
What is expected downtime?
What are the power and fuel requirements?
What rig modifications are required?
What is vendor experience and safety record?
Is H&S Plan available?
Environmental
Issues: What are the preferred mud treatment and disposal options?
What are preferred cuttings treatment and disposal options?
Is analytical testing required?
D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons
SCREEN SCREEN SEPARATION POTENTIAL, IN µ CONDUCTANCE
CLOTH TYPE DESIGNATION D16 D50 D84 IN KD/MM
MARKET 10x10 1678 1727 1777 49.68
GRADE CLOTH 20x20 839 864 889 15.93
30x30 501 516 531 8.32
40x40 370 381 392 4.89
50x50 271 279 287 2.88
60x60 227 234 241 2.40
80x80 172 177 182 1.91
100x100 136 140 144 1.44
120x120 114 117 120 1.24
150x150 102 105 108 1.39
200x200 72 74 76 0.68
250x250 59 62 63 0.78
325x325 43 44 45 0.44
TENSILE 20 1011 1041 1071 0.93
BOLTING 30 662 681 700 24.33
CLOTH 40 457 470 483 11.63
50 357 368 379 7.94
60 301 310 319 5.60
70 261 269 277 5.25
80 218 224 230 3.88
94 175 180 185 2.84
105 160 165 170 2.77
120 143 147 151 2.51
145 116 119 122 2.03
165 104 107 110 1.86
200 84 86 88 1.49
230 72 74 76 1.30
EXTRA FINE 24 508 715 824 20.69
CLOTH, 38 317 429 528 11.86
3-LAYERED 50 234 324 390 6.77
70 171 234 274 4.73
84 131 181 223 3.62
110 107 151 185 3.00
140 86 118 143 2.38
175 66 95 113 1.86
210 57 81 100 1.67
250 51 72 85 1.45
HIGH 45 270 353 379 9.81
CONDUCTANCE 50 216 274 301 7.66
CLOTH, 60 184 240 267 5.75
3-LAYERED 70 158 208 221 5.01
80 145 186 192 4.08
100 112 142 154 3.00
125 92 120 131 2.53
150 78 107 117 2.15
180 62 85 93 1.82
200 52 69 77 1.55
230 47 60 69 1.27
265 39 50 55 0.96
310 35 45 51 0.82
D.2
Brandt/EPI Vibrating Screen Separators
MODEL MOTION DECKS SCREENS/ SCREEN DECK TYPE SCREEN SCREEN VIBRATOR G-FORCE WEIR DIMENSIONS WEIGHT, COMMENTS
DECK ANGLE TYPE AREA, SQ FT HEIGHT LXWXH LBS
ATL-1000 L 2 1/3 A O/F H/P 10.8/25 G 4.2 43 93x71x64 4,300 Scalping deck, also avail-
able as drying shaker
ATL-1200 L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 40 93x71x49 4,100 Low profile ATL
ATL-CS C/L 3 1/1/3 F/F/A O/U/F H/H/P 20/20/25 B/G 4.9/4.2 79 93x77x87 8,000 Cascade tandem over ATL
ATL-CS/LP C/L 3 1/1/3 F/F/A O/U/F H/H/P 20/20/25 B/G 4.9/4.2 67 93x77x74 7,750 Low profile cascade shaker
Tandem C 2 1 F U/U H 20/20 B 4.9 38 79x72x52 2,865 Dual, triple, and quad
available
Standard E 1 1 F U H 20 B 2 36.25 79x64x44 1,800 Dual units available
Motion L = linear, C = circular, E = unbalanced elliptical Screen Type H = hook strip screen, P = pre-tensioned panel
Screens/deck number of screen panels in each deck, beginning with the top deck Screen Area Total screen area, beginning w/ top deck. If Pinnacle® screens are used, multiply area X 1.4
Screen Angle F = fixed, A = adjustable Vibrator B = belt, G = gear box, C = canister direct drive
Deck Type O = overslung screens, U = underslung screens, F = flat G-Force Total acceleration, beginning with the top screen basket.
D.3
D.4
Brandt/EPI Mud Conditioners
ATL-16/2 L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 40 115x77x93 7,500 1000 gpm, three-stage mud
conditioner
ATL-2800 L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 40 122x77x92 7,500 1680 gpm, two-stage mud
conditioner
LCM-2D L 1 3 A O P 33.7 C 2.5-6.4 52 130x80x90 6,335 1000 gpm, three-stage mud
MC conditioner
Brandt/EPI Hydrocyclones
MODEL DIAMETER, INLET TYPE CONSTRUCTION UNDERFLOW FEET FLOW RATE, COMMENTS
INCHES ADJUSTMENT HEAD GPM
Desander 12.2 Circular involute Poly Fixed, available in 1.5”, 75 495 Three piece cone, available as 1, 2, or 3-cone units,
1.75”, and 2.125” apex upright or canted header configuration
Desilter 3.9 Rectangular Poly w/ ceramic Adjustable 75 66 Two piece cone, available in 4-32 cone units
involute liner 0.125” to 0.69”
D.5
Brandt/EPI Decanting Centrifuges
D.6
BOWL SIZE, ROTATING SPEED RANGE, GEARBOX BOWL/CONVEYOR RPM/ CAPACITY, MUD DIMENSIONS WEIGHT, LBS
MODEL BOWL TYPE DRIVE COMMENTS
IN ASSY RPM RATIO DIFFERENTIAL G-FORCE WT/GPM LXWXH
SC-1 18x28 Contour CS E 1350-2000 80:1 Fixed/ 1350/466 9.0/150 103x46x32 3,920 Barite recovery, viscosity
double lead 2000/1022 10.0/70.0 control 6 TPH (tons per
17.0/20 hour) solids capacity
CF-1 18x28 Contour CS E 1600-2000 40:1 Fixed/ 1600/654 9.0/90 111x63x61 4,700 Barite recovery, viscosity
single lead 1650/696 12.0/60 control 4 TPH (tons per
2000/1022 16.0/30 hour) solids capacity
18.0/25
SC-2 18x30 Contour CS E 1350-2250 59:1 Fixed/ 1350/466 9.0/150 116x53x61 4,500 Barite recovery, viscosity
double lead 2250/1294 control 6 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity
CF-2 24x38 Contour CS E 1400-2000 80:1 Fixed/ 1400/668 9.0/175 130x66x63 7,500 Unweighted muds, dewa-
single lead 2000/1363 12.0/60 tering 6 TPH (tons per
16.0/30 hour) solids capacity
18.0/25
SC-4 24x40 Contour CS E 1150-1950 59:1 Fixed/ 1150/451 9.0/250 135x62x93 7,200 Excellent all-purpose cen-
double lead 1350/621 trifuge, 8 TPH (tons per
1950/1296 hour) solids capacity
HS3400 14x49.5 Contour SS E 1750-4000 52:1 Fixed/ 1750/609 9.0/160 98x69x46 4,100 Rugged high speed
H 1750-4000 Variable single lead 2400/1145 12.0/75 decanter. 5 TPH (tons per
Variable/ 2900/1672 15.0/20 hour) solids capacity
single lead 3500/2435 18.0/10
4000/3181
SC-35HS 15x48 Contour SS E 1750-3250 59:1 Fixed/ 2000/852 9.0/150 120x61x60 6,105 High capacity, high speed
H 1750-3250 Variable single lead 2500/1331 12.0/45 decanter. 6 TPH (tons per
Variable/ 3000/1917 15.0/30 hour) solids capacity
single lead 3250/2100 18.0/20
HS5200 16x49.5 Contour SS H 1750-4000 Variable Variable/ 2000/909 9.0/250 95x69x40 7,720 8 TPH (tons per hour)
single lead 2500/1420 solids capacity
3000/2045
3500/2784
4000/3636
4200/4000
Rotating Assy CS = Carbon steel, SS = Stainless steel Drive E = electric, H = hydraulic
Selection of Agitator Size and Number
Select the right size agitator by first locating the tank width on the right
side of the graph. A recommended impeller diameter is shown across the
left side. This impeller size is correlated to the mud weight and the
required horsepower. Simply follow a horizontal line from the impeller
diameter to the curve showing the heaviest anticipated mud weight. Now
locate the nearest vertical line to the right of this point and note the
required horsepower at the top of the graph.
Example:
Agitators are required for a 10-foot-wide tank, 30 feet long, to maintain
weighting materials in suspension for a 12 lbs/gal mud:
Find the tank width (10 ft) and the recommended corresponding
impeller diameter (36 in) on the graph. Follow a horizontal line from the
impeller diameter to the curve of the given mud weight (12 lbs/gal mud —
use the curve on the next higher mud weight). From the intersection of the
mud weight curve and the impeller diameter, locate the nearest vertical
line to the right and note the horsepower at the top of the graph.
This particular application will require a 7.5-hp size Brandt Agitator for
each 10 feet of tank length — a total of three 7.5-hp agitators.
D.7