Wave propagation Technique

Non Destructive Testing of

Pavements
• Seismic Techniques Associated with time
measurements
• Surface loading tests associated with
deflection measurements

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 WAVE PROPAGATION
TECHNIQUE
• Siesmic Techniques
Dropping of hammer on pavement surface surface and
body waves
• Principal
Generate waves using vibratory loads, identifying and
measurement of waves that propogate through the media.
• Use
to determine E of both insitu pavement layers &
laboratory specimens
• Assumption
Medium material behaves as a linear elastic isotropic
material

Wave types
• Three types of waves are generated
– P wave – primary, compression or dilitational wave or
longitudinal waves
- body waves (traverse through the body of medium)
Uses – to find thickness of individual layers which change in
density
Characteristics – body waves propagate radially outward from
the source
- compression waves appear first in a travel time record of
wave motion hence known as primary wave\
- P waves travel faster than S & R waves. P-wave velocity varies
with the degree of saturation of a porous medium
Equipment required for generation – Electro magnetic vibrator
Wave velocity Vp = √(λ L + 2G)/γm
Where λ = Lame’s constant = μE /[ (1+ μ)(1-2 μ)]
G = shear modulus = E / [2(1+ μ)]
(γm= density
E = {(1+ μ) (1-2 μ) Vp 2(γm /g)

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 - S wave – secondary shear or distortional wave, transverse
waves
- body waves
Uses – to find viscous & damping effects of individual layers
Equiment required – electromagnetic or torsional vibrator
Characteristics – particles displacements of s waves are
horizontal or transverse to the direction of wave propogation
- More difficult to generate
- Travel slower than P-wave and appear later in travel time
recordafter P-wave
- Wave velocity less than P wave velocity
- Have same velocity in saturated and unsaturated medium
because fluid cannot transmit shearing motion
- Vs = Gs / γ
- E = 2 (1+ μ) Vs 2(γm /g)

– R wave – Rayleigh wave (surface waves – traverse

on the surface of medium)
» Less affected by reflections & refractions
» Used in determining E & H of pavement layers
» Great significance in ultrasonic & seismology
• Characteristics – can be easily generated
• Propagate along the surface of homogenious semi infinite
medium with no loss of energy away from the surface
• Velocity of R wave nearly equal to S wave velocity
particularly for poissons ratio - μ = 0.25 & above
• R wave have both horizontal & vertical component which
vary with depth
• Amplitude of R wave decays quickly with depth, at a depth
of one wave length the amplitude of particle motion is only
30% of the original amplitude of the surface
• VR = L f or VR = f 360d/θ
• E = 2 (1+ μ) VR 2(γm /g) / α2
• α = VR / Vs

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Relationship between P & R wave velocities to the S
wave velocity as a function of poisson’s ratio

• Vs is independent of μ of the medium

but Vp is highly dependent on the μ
• VR is slightly dependent on μ, but for
most practical situations it is
assumed that Vs = VR
• Proportionality constant α = VR / Vs
from graph for μ = 0, α = 0.875 while
μ = 0.5, α = 0.955

Basis for E determination is to know the velocity of any of the 3

waves since all methods yield same modulus, but most convenient
is to determine surface wave velocity
V = Lf
Method – apply vibratory load of frequency f to the surface,
resulting wavelength is obtained by using an oscilloscope,
electrical pickup devices, and phase marking of wave form.
No. of waves, n occuring at a given distance x is measured and
plotted to yield avg wave length for different frequencies
L1 = x/n1, v1=L1f1
L2 = x/n2, v2=L2f2
As frequency increases resulting wavelength is decreased
In an ideal uniform elastic medium = v = f1L1 = f2L2 = f3L3….fnLn
This in each material the wave velocity is frequency dependent and
the resulting modulus can be determined by any of the wave
equations

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In case of layered pavements majority of R wave
travels at a depth equal to LR. Thus avg
material property E is typical of the material
at a depth of one half LR
As f is increased LR decreases and the measured
properties are those near the surface
As f is decreased LR increases and the measured
properties are typical of deeper layers
Hence in layered structures high frequency
vibrators are used for determine surface
properties while low frequency devices are
used to determine subgrade properties

Methods of wave propagation

Techniques
• Steady state vibratory tests
• Seismic (impulse) tests

Steady state vibratory tests – to determine R waves

Elastic properties of all the pavement layers may be determined by
measuring the velocity and wave length over a wide frequency range
of 5 to 50000Htz.
Vibrators used – mechanical vibrators for low frequency range of 5 to
100 htz to obtain the properties of lower layers
Electromagnetic vibrator for high frequency range to obtain the material
properties of top layers

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 Steady state vibratory tests
• Procedure –
• A vibrator is placed on the pavement surface at a
constant frequency and set of equipments are also
placed as shown.
• A measuring tape is set up in the direction of the
measurement to be observed.
• A transducer is placed on the pavement surface
as near to vibrator as possible.
• Using a phase marking circuit and an
oscilloscope, the sine wave is monitored and the
phase mark is adjusted until it is at a peak or
trough point on the sine wave.

Steady state vibratory tests

• Once this is done the transducer is moved away gradually and the phase
mark shifts away from its position until it coincides with succeeding peak or
trough. When this is obtained the distance is noted
• The distance between the phase mark coinciding with successive peaks or
troughs is one wave length. In order to obtain an avg value of wavelength the
transducer is moved to sufficient distance to record several wavelengths.
• The velocity of Rayleigh wave is then determined by
VR = Lf
The frequency is then changed and the procedure is repeated until adequate
information is obtained
Lower frequencies (<200 Hz)– to produce longer wave lengths – details of lower
layers

Equipments used – DEGEBO or Lazan Vibrator o produce Rayleigh waves

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 Improvements to steady state vibratory
technique
• In the steady state vibratory technique the transducer
is moved to a particular distance that gives an exact
wave length which is tedious as the distance has to be
searched. This has been avoided by providing a
circular time base on the oscilloscope.
• The display on the oscilloscope consists of a simple
bright spot whose position on the circular time base
indicates the relative phase difference betn vibrations
at the oscillators and at the pickup.
• The circular time base makes one complete revolution
per cycle of the applied vibration so that the spot on
the oscilloscope display moves once around a
graduated circle as the transducer is moved at a
distance of one wave length

Improvements to steady state vibratory

technique

Another procedure involves mounting two or

more transducers on the pavement surface at
known distance apart. (CERF).
The phase difference betn the two transducers is
continuously recorded. The data is recorded
on the magnetic tape
L = wave length = 360d / θ, d- spacing betn
transducers, θ – measured phase difference
betn transducers for distance d

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 Impulse (Seismic Technique)
• Conducted to determine velocity of compression waves which can be
used with S or R waves to compute poisson’s ratio
• When soil mass is subjected to impulse loading compression waves
are transmitted and upon contact with a denser material like rock,
these waves are either reflected or refracted.
• When a brief impulse is produced the first arrival near the
disturbance can be considered to be compressional wave and by
measuring the arrival at two different points on the surface the
compressional wave velocity can be determined.
• Drawback - difficulties to determine velocity in pavement systems
where high velocity pavement layers overlie lower velocity layers. In
this case only velocity of the higher velocity upper layers can be
measured. Since the wave signals travel faster in the dense upper
medium. The velocity of the non dense lower layers is not observed.

Laboratory methods
• Resonant column technique
• Cylindrical specimen are excited either by
longitudinal or torsional vibratory modes over a
range of frequencies
• The wave velocity through the column of soil can
be measured by resonant frequency
• From which the elastic constants like modulus of
elasticity and dynamic shear modulus can be
determined using mathematical relations.
• G = 16ft2 L2 (γm /g)
• E = 16fl2 L2 (γm /g)

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 Amplitude Ratio method
• Amplitude ratio R which is the ratio betn
displacement at the top & bottom of the specimen
is used
• Measurements of the amplitude ratio R and phase
shift Ø betn displacements at top & bottom of
specimen are computed as follows
• R = [sinh2 (ζk)+cos2θ]-1/2
• θ = tan-1 [tan ζ tanh (ζK)]
• Where ζ = dimensionless frequency facotr – wl/V
• K = coefficient of damping – tan δ/2

Complex modulus test

• To determine both linear visco elastic and
elastic properties of pavement materials.
• Complex modulus E* is defined as
complex no. that relates stress to strain for
a linear visco elastic material subjected to
sinusoidal loading

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 Deflection Basin
• Maximum deflection alone cannot be
considered as the criteria for assessing the
layer characterisitics and the method of
evaluation should be able to take the shape
of deflection profile of pavement under the
imposed load.

Analysis of deflection Bowl Basin

• Emperical Method
- some characteristic feature of the deflection bowl
basin is determined which is to be correlated to pavement
structural condition and deterioration
- maximum deflection (D max) proposed by Hveem
and others. Two pavements of same magnitude of
maximum deflection are not same in strength. The one
with lowest radius of curvature is subjected to greatest
stress hence it is the weakest.hence maximum deflection
alone cannot be used to evaluate the pavements
- Dia of deflection bowl – proposed by Nicholas.
Higher the dia , stronger the pavement. dia alone will not
define the shape of delfection bowl

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• Radius of curvature – proposed by Dehlen, can be measured using
dehlen curvature meter or theoretically determined from measured
deflection bowl.but this doesnot give the complete distribution of
stresses / strains on the pavement layers
• Bending Index – defined by Carey and Benkelman as the ratio of
radius of deflection basin to maximum deflection.
– Limitation – two pavements with same B.I can have different
stress strain condition. A B.I >800 indicates pavement in good
condition.
• Slope of deflection – defined by Kung as the slope of line joining the
point of maximum deflection to the point of inflexion of deflection
bowl.
-upto 0.3X10-3 – excellent
0.3 to o.7 X 10-3 – good
0.7 to 0.9 X 10-3 – critical
> 0.9 X 10-3 cracked
According to Rajagopal the slope of deflection bowl of pavements
in India ranges from 2.86 to 4.81 X10-3 which by Kungs criteria
should be in pathetic contition. However these pavemts have
been found to be in excellent conditions, indicating the
inadequacy of slope of deflection as a criteria.

• Deflection ordinate ratio proposed by Classen

and Ditmarsh, has the same limitations as above
• Spreadability defined as ratio of avg deflection of
deflection basin to its maximum deflection –
proposed by Vaswani and recommended by
Rufford.
• Although high spreadability is indicative of better
pavement condition, it is highly influenced by the
no. of ordinates used for computing avg
deflection and is inadequate in finding the
complete information about pavement structural
condition.

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• Area of deflection basin – proposed by Vasvani gives realistic picture
but it is rather difficult to measure particularly near the tail areas,
which contribute substantially to the total deflected area
• Layer curvature indices recommended by Kilareski and Horak are
recommended as adequate indicators of layers structural condition.
• They are particularly used with deflection basin measuring devices
like Dynaflect, road rater, FWD etc.
• The common layer curvature indices used are.
• Surface Curvature Index (SCI) = Δ0-Δr
• Where Δ0 – max deflection
Δr - deflection measured at a distance of 305 mm for road rater and 500 mm
for FWD
• Base Curvature Index (BCI) = Δ2-Δ3
-Δ2 = deflection at a distance of 610 mm
-Δ3= deflection at a distance of 915 mm
• Base Damage Index (BDI) = Δ1-Δ2
– Where Δ1 = deflection at 305 mm , Δ2 = deflection at a distance of 915
mm
• The Curvature & Damage Indices have been correlated with
pavement distress parameters like cracking and rutting and fairly
satisfactory correlation have been obtained.

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 Theoretical methods of Pavement
Design
• Elastic modulus of pavement layers computed from measured deflection
bowl ordinates using either classical theory of layered systems or numerical
technique like finite difference / finite element method.
Steps
1 first the layer moduli is prelimnarily assumed
2.Analysis of pavement system under given loading conditions is carried out to obtain
surface deflection ordinates
3. Theoretically computed and experimentally measured delection ordinates are compared
and if discrepancy is more than what is permissible the layer moduli are revised and
analysis is repeated.
4. Successive refinements in layer moduli is continued in every iteration till the
discrepancy betn measured and computed ordinates is within permissible lmits.
5. This procedure is called Back calculation technique
6. Basis for prelimnary assumption of layer moduli – E values obtained by plate load test in
field or by static or dynamic triaxial test in lab is generally used
7. This approach mainly given by Grant and walker and popularised by Dekiewit, cogil
hass and others

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