Essentials of foundation engineering

STRUCTURAL design of buildings for seismic loads is primarily concerned with structural safety
during major ground motions, but serviceability and the potential for economic loss are also of
concern. Seismic loading requires an understanding of the structural performance under large
inelastic deformations.
Seismic analysis is related to calculation of the response of a building or other structures under
earthquakes. It is a part of the process of structural design which includes earthquake
engineering or structural assessment and retrofit in regions where earthquakes are prevalent.
During earthquake many of the buildings collapse due to lack of understanding of the inelastic
behavior of structure. Elastic analysis gives only elastic capacity of the structure and indicates
where the first yielding occurs. It cannot give any information about redistribution of forces and
moments and failure mechanism. For study of inelastic behavior of structure nonlinear analysis
is necessary. The development of rational methodology that is applicable to the seismic design
of new structures using available ground motion information and engineering knowledge, and
yet is flexible enough to permit the incorporation of new technology as it becomes available has
been supported for sometimes now. This is the focus of several major research and
development efforts throughout the world. In majority of cases nonlinear analysis is used.
Static vs. dynamic analysis
Structural analysis is mainly concerned with finding out the behavior of a physical
structure when subjected to force. This action can be in the form of load due to the
weight of things such as people, furniture, wind, snow, etc. or some other kind of
excitation such as an earthquake, shaking of the ground due to a blast nearby, etc. In
essence all these loads are dynamic, including the self-weight of the structure because at
some point in time these loads were not there. The distinction is made between the
dynamic and the static analysis on the basis of whether the applied action has enough
acceleration in comparison to the structure's natural frequency. If a load is applied
sufficiently slowly, the inertia forces (Newton's first law of motion) can be ignored and
the analysis can be simplified as static analysis. Structural dynamics, therefore, is a type
of structural analysis which covers the behavior of structures subjected to dynamic
(actions having high acceleration) loading. Dynamic loads include people, wind, waves,
traffic, earthquakes, and blasts. Any structure can be subjected to dynamic loading.
Dynamic analysis can be used to find dynamic displacements, time history, and modal
analysis.
​Linear Static Analysis  
Nonlinear Static Analysis  
Linear Dynamic Analysis  
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis 
Linear vs. non-linear analysis
​A very simple definition of linear analysis would be that we design the
component(column, beam etc) or the whole structure such that even when maximum
design forces are applied to the structure, the displacement of the structure does not
exceed its elastic limit. So, your structure would always come back to its initial position
without any damage (since we have linear behaviour). Safest ! isn't it?

The problem that arises with linear analysis is, that when forces become large (in case of
earthquakes) the dimensions of the component or the whole building would become
huge. This is not an economic solution and nobody wants to spend more money.But
here comes non-linear analysis to our rescue.

Again, a very simple and brief definition of non linear analysis would be when we allow
our structure or component to sway (displace) more than the elastic limit and utilize its
non-linearity (material and geometric, although geometric non-linearity can be used in
linear analysis also). In this case we design the structure for reduced forces (seismic
force modification factors of Rd and Ro in Canada, R in USA) and thus allow more
deflection. Therefore, a component with smaller dimensions can resist the same forces
but sway a little more. In this way we can design more economical structures with
controlled damage.

Now, a more technical definition of linear/non-linear analysis. These are the types of
analysis which can be done with both concentrated plasticity models(non-linear springs)
and distributed plasticity models (FEM model or fiber sections) in some softwares.
1. First order elastic analysis ​- Here the equations of equilibrium are always
written in undeformed configuration and neither material nor geometric linearity is
used. Basically this is just designing the structure for linear behaviour.
2. Second order elastic analysis -​ Here the equations of equilibrium
are written in deformed configuration and only geometric non-linearity
is considered. This is also linear analysis, but it includes geometric
non-linearity (eg. P-Delta effects). Most of our current codes allow us to
do this type of analysis.
3. First order inelastic analysis -​ Here the equations of equilibrium
are written in undeformed configuration and material non-linearity is
considered (no geometric non-linearity since it is undeformed).

4. Second order inelastic analysis -​ Here the equations of equilibrium

are written in deformed configuration and both, material as well as
geometric non-linearity are considered. This is where the structure will
show maximum non-linear behaviour.

damping
resonance
​All buildings have a natural period, or resonance, which is the number of seconds it takes for the
building to naturally vibrate back and forth. The ground also has a specific resonant frequency. Hard
bedrock has higher frequencies softer sediments. If the period of ground motion matches the natural
resonance of a building, it will undergo the largest oscillations possible and suffer the greatest
damage.
frequency of earthquakes
time history analysis
Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis It is known as Time history analysis. It is an important
technique for structural seismic analysis especially when the evaluated structural
response is nonlinear. To perform such an analysis, a representative earthquake time
history is required for a structure being evaluated. Time history analysis is a step-bystep
analysis of the dynamic response of a structure to a specified loading that may vary with
time. Time history analysis is used to determine the seismic response of a structure
under dynamic loading of representative earthquake (Wilkinson and Hiley, 2006) (Tables
1 and 2)..

Also known as Time History Analysis(THA)

•To perform such an analysis, a representative earthquake time history is required for a structure
being evaluated.

• In this method, the mathematical model of the building is subjected to accelerations from
earthquake records that represent the expected earthquake at the base of the structure.

•The method consists of a step- by- step direct integration over a time interval.

response spectrum analysis

The result of a response spectrum analysis using the response spectrum from a ground motion is
typically different from that which would be calculated directly from a linear dynamic analysis using
that ground motion directly, since phase information is lost in the process of generating the response
spectrum.
In cases where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of significance to a community in
disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate, and more complex
analysis is often required, such as ​non-linear​ static analysis or dynamic analysis.
This approach permits the multiple modes of response of a building to be taken into account. This is
required in many building codes for all except for very simple structures. The response of a structure
can be defined as a combination of many special shapes (i.e. modes) that in a vibrating string
correspond to the "harmonics". Computer analysis can be used to determine these modes for a
structure. For each mode, a response is read from the design spectrum, based on the modal
frequency and the modal mass, and they are then combined to provide an estimate of the total
response of the structure. Modal combination methods are:
1. Absolute Sum Method (ASM) combines the modal results by taking the sum of their absolute
values.
2. Square Root of the Sum of the Squares (SRSS) combines the modal results by taking the square
root of the sum of their squares,
3. Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) method takes into account the statistical coupling
between closely spaced modes caused by modal damping and also it is a method that is an
improvement on SRSS for closely spaced modes
It should be noted that the result of a response spectrum analysis using the response spectrum from
a ground motion is typically different from that which would be calculated directly from a linear
dynamic analysis using that ground motion directly, since phase information is lost in the process of
generating the response spectrum. In cases where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of
significance to a community in disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer
appropriate, and more complex analysis is often required, such as non-linear static or dynamic
analysis.
​Response-spectrum analysis (RSA) is a linear-dynamic statistical analysis method which measures 
the contribution from each natural mode of vibration to indicate the likely maximum seismic 
response of an essentially elastic structure. Response-spectrum analysis provides insight into 
dynamic behavior by measuring pseudo-spectral acceleration, velocity, or displacement as a 
function of structural period for a given time history and level of damping. It is practical to envelope 
response spectra such that a smooth curve represents the peak response for each realization of 
structural period. Response-spectrum analysis is useful for design decision-making because it 
relates structural type-selection to dynamic performance. Structures of shorter period experience 
greater acceleration, whereas those of longer period experience greater displacement. Structural 
performance objectives should be taken into account during preliminary design and 
response-spectrum analysis.
rush over analysis
It is an analysis of the dynamic response of the structure at each increment of time, when its
base is subjected to a specific ground motion time history. Alternatively, recorded ground
motions database from past natural events can be a reliable source for time histories but they
are not recorded in any given site to include all seismological characteristics suitable for that
site. Recorded ground motions are randomly selected from analogous magnitude, distance and
soil condition category (bin); three main parameters in time history generation.
equivalent static analysis
All design against seismic loads must consider the dynamic nature of the load. However, for
simple regular structures, analysis by equivalent linear static methods is often sufficient. This is
permitted in most codes of practice for regular, low- to medium-rise buildings. It begins with an
estimation of base shear load and its distribution on each story calculated by using formulas
given in the code. Equivalent static analysis can therefore work well for low to medium-rise
buildings without significant coupled lateral-torsional modes, in which only the first mode in each
direction is considered. Tall buildings (over, say, 75 m), where second and higher modes can be
important, or buildings with torsional effects, are much less suitable for the method, and require
more complex methods to be used in these circumstances.

simplified code method nscp

Natural Structural Code of the

Philippines

Issued by The Board of Civil Engineering of the

Professional Regulation Commission

Revision 2010
STATIC FORCE PROCEDURE This procedure may be used for:
1. Regular/Irregular structures (​Table208-9​ and
208-10​) under Occupancy Categories (​Table
103-1​) in Seismic Zone 2 (​Figure 208-3​, ​Figure
208-4​);
2. Regular structures less than 75 m in height
with lateral force-resisting systems listed in
Table 208-11​;
3. Irregular structures less than five (5) stories
or 20 m in height;
4. Structures having a flexible upper portion
supported on a rigid lower portion where both
portions of the structure considered separately
can be classified as being regular, the average
story stiffness of the lower portion is at least
10 times the average story stiffness of the
upper portion and the period of the entire
structure is not greater than 1.1 times the
period of the upper portion considered as a
separate structure fixed at the base.
DESIGN BASE SHEAR:

V need not

exceed
where:
C​a​ : acceleration-controlled coefficient (see
Table 208-7​)
C​v​ : velocity-controlled coefficient (see ​Table
208-8​)
I:​ Importance Factor (see ​Table 208-1​)
W​ : Total Seismic Dead Load
R​ : numerical coefficient representative of the
inherent overstrength and global ductility
capacity of lateral-force resisting systems (see
Table 208-11​)
T​ : elastic fundamental period of the structure
in the direction under consideration
Lower limits for V:
 (for all
structures)

(additional limit
for Seismic Zone 4)

OTHER FACTORS AND PARAMETERS USED

TO OBTAIN THE DESIGN BASE SHEAR:
Seismic Zone Factor ​Z​ (see ​Table 208-3​ & ​Table
208-4​)
Near-Source Factors ​Na​ ​ and ​Nv​ ​ (see ​Table 208-4
and Table 208-5​)
Soil Profile Type (see ​Table 208-2​)
Seismic Source Type (see ​Table 208-6​)
Vertical Irregularities (see ​Table 208-9​)
Horizontal Irregularities (see ​Table 208-10​)

summary of applicability of analysis method

http://waset.org/publications/2699/comparative-study-of-the-static-and-dynamic-analysis-of-multi
-storey-irregular-building
http://www.buildingresearch.com.np/services/erd/erd6.php
http://www.sasparm.ps/en/Uploads/file/modulus%201.pdf

http://waset.org/publications/2699/comparative-study-of-the-static-and-dynamic-analysis-of-multi
-storey-irregular-building
https://www.quora.com/What-is-pushover-analysis-in-earthquake-resistant-design
http://www.ijscer.com/uploadfile/2015/0429/20150429075958589.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/Krishnagnr/seismic-analysis-68749433
https://caee.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Time-History-Analysis-Seminar.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/Krishnagnr/seismic-analysis-68749433
https://iisee.kenken.go.jp/net/seismic_design_code/philippines/philippines.htm
https://wiki.csiamerica.com/display/kb/Time-history+analysis+FAQ
http://www.sginstitute.in/activities/Civil/Day_6_2.pdf
https:/
/www.slideshare.net/asifzhcet/1893-2002-part-1
https://www.alacero.org/sites/default/files/u16/ci_23_-_24_the_pushover_analysis_explained.pd
f
http://articles.architectjaved.com/earthquake_resistant_structures/energy-dissipation-devices-for
-earthquake-resistant-building-design/