Chapter-I

Introduction and Plan of Work

1.1 Introduction

Gradient-index (GRIN) optics is the branch of optics covering optical effects produced by a

gradual variation of the refractive index in a material. Gradient index (GRIN) lens represents an

interesting alternative since the lens performance depends on the continuous change in the

refractive index within the lens material. Such variations are helpful in making lenses with flat

surfaces, or lenses that do not have the aberrations typical of traditional refractive lenses.

Controlled continuous variation in refractive index is the unique feature of GRIN elements. Like

other inventions, inspiration behind the development of GRIN optics is from the nature. Mirage

[1] is the best-known phenomenon of gradient index optics in nature. Change in air density due to

the change in temperature or altitude, generates layers of air with varying refractive indices which

bends the light in such a fashion that it appears to be originating from some other location away

from its original position. Another important example of GRIN in nature is eye. Exner [2] in

1889 showed that insect eye consist of an array of GRIN rods. Eye for different species are

adapted for seeing in day or night, short or long distance, or with a wide or narrow field of view.

Simple looking human eye has a crystalline lens with layered structure [3-4].

Such unusual properties of gradient index medium attracted the scientific workers to develop

a different kind of lens system. In 1854, J C Maxwell [5] suggested a lens with refractive index

distribution is of the form n(r )  n0 , that will allow for every region of space to be sharply
1  r a 
2

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imaged, known as the Maxwell’s fisheye lens. In 1905, R W Wood [6] used dipping technique to

create a gelatin cylinder with a refractive index gradient that varied symmetrically along the

radius. He showed that disks of these cylinder with flat faces act like converging or diverging

lens depending on whether the index decreases or increases along the radius. Luneburg [7]

discovered a lens with varying refractive index, which converge all rays of light onto a point

which is located on the other surface of the lens. Schott [8] was the first in producing Wood lens

in glass by placing molten glass into an iron tube and then suddenly chilling the tube from

outside. In 1956, Murthy showed mathematically that a plano-convex lens with hyperbolic

convex surface can be replaced by a laminated lens with axial refractive index gradient to reduce

spherical aberration [9].

However, the studies on gradient index lens were limited to theoretical analysis of light

propagation through inhomogeneous media and were sporadic in nature due to want of proper

fabrication technique. In 1969 at IEEE Conference on ‘Laser Engineering and Application’,

Nippon Sheet Glass (NSG) Corporation, Japan announced the commercial production of GRIN

rods under the name of Selfoc (an abbreviation of Self-Focusing) [10]. The studies in this field

got a new impetuous. Uchida et al. [10] reported the development of light focusing rods at NSG.

The real breakthrough came with Hamblen and Pearson’s discovery [11-13] of generating

refractive index variation in glass block by ion exchange technique, which was later confirmed by

NSG Corporation, Japan. The work was simultaneously initiated at the University of Rochester

under Sand and later under Moore [14] and at Eastman Kodak Company under Marchand [18].

Though the primary goal of these studies was to develop a new kind of lens system with

comparable efficiency of a normal lens system, but it was seen that the graded index lens systems

are more effective in some typical imaging applications. NSG Corporation developed radial

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GRIN lenses [14] that are widely used in optical printers [15], photocopier [16], facsimile lens

array [17-18], and medical endoscopes [19] and in optical fiber communications [20-23].

1.2 Refractive Index Gradients

There are three kinds of refractive index gradients, in general, that are produced in a GRIN

system. In axial GRIN, the refractive index varies continuously along the optical axis. Planes

perpendicular to the optical axis are the surface of constant index of refraction. In such a lens,

bending of light is very small and therefore they are mainly used to correct aberrations. An axial

GRIN with spherical surface is equivalent to an aspheric lens. The index of refraction for an axial

GRIN can be expressed as a function of ‘z’ along the optical axis as,

n ( z )  n 00  n 01 z  n 02 z 2  ....... (1.1)

where ‘n 00’ is the refractive index of the base glass and is constant. ‘n01’ is the linear term of

gradient and is the most important term in the axial GRIN profile. ‘n 02’ is an additional degree of

freedom which can be used to correct any of the third order monochromatic aberration except

Petzval curvature of field.

The second type of gradient is radial one. In radial GRIN, the refractive index distribution has

cylindrical symmetry. Refractive index is a function of radial distance ‘r’ from a fixed line of

constant refractive index, which is normally the optical axis as well as the axis of symmetry.

Surfaces of constant index are cylinders whose axis corresponds to the optical axis of the lens

systems. The refractive index polynomial takes the form of,

n ( r )  n 00  n10 r 2  n 20 r 4  ...... (1.2)

The coefficient of parabolic term specifies power ‘  ’ of the lens [24], introduced for a radial

GRIN of thickness or length‘t’ and is given by,

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   2 n10 t (1.3)

The length ‘t’ determines the focal length of the system. The power of a radial GRIN with

refractive index decreasing towards periphery can be made positive, negative or zero by varying

the length of the radial GRIN lens. The higher order terms in equation (1.2) give extra degrees of

freedom for aberration minimization. It is interesting to note that radial GRIN rod with nearly

parabolic profile and with refractive index decreasing towards periphery can be used as both

converging and diverging lens by changing its length.

The third type of gradient is spherical, which has the refractive index distribution symmetric

about a point, so that surfaces of constant indices are spheres. The two examples of these lenses

are already mentioned as Maxwell’s fisheye lens and Luneburg lens.

Axial, radial and spherical are the three main generally known GRINs, but by varying

geometrical symmetry it is possible to make rectangular or square GRIN or refractive index

profile with elliptic symmetry or any other symmetry that can be conceived.

1.3 Behavior of GRIN Optics

The question may arise that normal refractive lenses are developed to such an extent then

why one should opt for graded index one. Both homogeneous and GRIN systems have their

advantages and disadvantages. In normal refracting system, miniaturization of conventional

lenses requires high precision technology but it is possible to miniaturize GRIN lens down to

0.2mm in thickness or diameter without much difficulty. These lenses feature plane optical

surfaces and achieve focus using a continuous change in the refractive index within the lens

material. GRIN lenses eliminate complex geometries, such as aspheric surface features and can

be carefully designed for specific purpose. Because many of them have flat surfaces and hence
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these lenses are easy to use. These GRINs are comparable in performance to conventional

aspheric single lens system. Simple geometry of GRIN simplifies production and is therefore cost

effective. However, conventional homogeneous lenses of few centimeters in diameter are easily

fabricated, which is still a challenge to GRIN technologists even after more than forty years of its

extensive utilization in fiber and miniature optics.

One of the major differences between a homogeneous and gradient index lenses is in its

power calculation. In gradient index lens the power is given by the simple relationship of (±

2n10t). The corresponding power of a homogeneous lens is the refractive index multiplied by the

difference of curvatures. Thus, where in homogeneous lens the dependence of power is on

wavelength, in the case of the gradient index lens the dependence is on n 10. Therefore for

chromatic aberration evaluation in gradient index lens, the material to be chosen is not based on

Abbe numbers as in the case of homogeneous system design but on the basis of variation of

gradation in the refractive index, that is n 10. However, still much work is to be done in the field of

material development for obtaining achromatic GRIN system. Besides, in the design using

homogeneous lenses the curvatures, thickness, and the index of refraction of each component

optimize the performance, whereas in case of GRINs, aberration can be controlled by proper

choice of profiles. In a GRIN rod all meridional rays are sharply imaged if the index function has

the form [25].

n  n 00 sec h ( r ) (1.4)

where, n00 and  are constants, which on expansion and further calculation gives

5 n 2 10
n 20  (1.5)
6 n 00

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for minimum spherical aberration. A compromise for the correction of sagittal and tangential

field can be obtained when [26]

3 n102
n 20 
2 n 00 (1.6)

If such a lens is used as infinite conjugates, coma will be very large. But for a unit magnification

radial GRIN rod there is no need to correct coma or distortion. These unit magnification radial

GRIN rods are commercially used in photocopying, fax machines, couplers for single mode

fibers and in relays used in endoscopes and n20 is used either to correct the spherical aberration or

to achieve a compromise between sagittal or tangential fields. An array of unit magnification

radial GRIN lenses is used in photocopying and fax machines to form an image of an extended

object. Coma in a radial GRIN can be corrected by giving precise curvature to the flat ends.

1.4 Techniques of GRIN Element Fabrication

For commercial applications gradient index has only been made in glasses and polymers,

though a large number of materials including crystals, semiconductors etc. are proposed. This

thesis deals with glass only. Various techniques for creating change in refractive index within a

base element are known and utilized to fabricate GRIN elements. Some of them are discussed

below. The main features of a GRIN are the depth of gradient, the change in refractive index and

refractive index profile or profile shape.

1.4.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Technique: This is the most widely used technique in

the manufacture of preform of gradient index fiber as well as some specialty fibers [27-28]. In

this method, gaseous SiCl4 and oxygen doped with GeCl4 is flown either inside or outside a silica

6
tube and are reacted by direct heat, microwave treatment or plasma impulse. By changing the

composition of SiCl4 and GeCl4 each deposited layer creates the index of refraction in step.

1.4.2 Sol-Gel Process: The method is normally used for coating of glasses or polymers in small

quantities. Thin layers of glass can be produced by this method [29-31]. Starting materials are

alkoxides or soluble salts of Si, Ti, Al, Ge etc. Usually the gels are prepared in a plastic mould by

dissolving alkoxides with dilute hydrochloric acid in methanol. Water is added to initiate gelation

process. Gel is formed in few hours at room temperature, which is then converted into glass by

heat treatment. This process has two major advantages. Firstly, porous gel makes diffusing or

leaching faster, which facilitates the process and provides a possibility of generating large GRIN

profile and secondly, a large variety of cations can be made to migrate in gels through micro

pores. However, it is still a difficult task to retain the required GRIN profile and shape due to

cationic diffusion at the time of drying and sintering of gel.

1.4.3 Neutron Irradiation Method: In this method [32] neutrons are bombarded onto boron rich

glass. This creates a change in boron coordination and thus change in refractive index but for an

appreciable change there requires a large number of neutrons. Another disadvantage is that the

glass becomes radioactive.

1.4.4 Ion Stuffing Method: In this technique, the property of spinodal phase separation of boro-

silicate glass is utilized [33-34]. Boron rich phase is soluble to acid and is dissolved out of the

glass leaving a glass sponge. Then the glass is exposed to a bath from which ions or molecules

are made to diffuse into the material. The method can produce large change in refractive index in

a short period but uniform change is not achieved due to non-uniform phase separation.

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1.4.5 Ion Implantation Technique: Here a beam of ions like protons, nitrogen, oxygen, helium

or silicon is bombarded onto a glass substrate [35] and thereby a change in refractive index of the

glass takes place. One disadvantage of the method is that colour centers too are generated and it

requires very expensive ion accelerator. The technique however, is used for very special

application like in integrated optics where small refractive index variation and limited depth is

required.

1.4.6 Polymerization Technique: This technique is used in plastics where the material is

partially polymerized [36-37]. Monomer of organic material is differentially changed by the

irradiation of UV light. The important advantage of this method is that the gradient can be made

in large geometry with ease. But due to poor thermal properties of plastics, GRIN polymers so

made are not useful for optics at higher temperature.

1.4.7 Fused Layers Process: In this method, two different glasses having large refractive index

difference are first made to fine powder and then the GRIN element is obtained by fusing a

sequence of layers of mixture of two glasses [38-39]. Though the process appears to be simple

but formation of uniform gradient index throughout the sample by fusion is difficult.

1.4.8 Ion Exchange Technique: The most widely used method to produce graded index profile

in glass is the ion exchange technique. This method of generating GRIN profiles is the simplest

and easy to control. In this method glass sample is dipped in a molten salt bath containing cations

other than those present in the glass at a temperature closer to its transition temperature. The

monovalent cations from molten bath go into the glass exchanging the site occupied by

monovalent ions in the glass, thereby changing its composition and stress pattern. Two-step

process comprises of exchange of cations at the surface of the glass with the cations present in the

bath, and subsequent diffusion of exchanging cations inward generates GRIN profile in a glass.
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Advantage of ion-exchange process lies in the fact that the profile generated takes the shape of

the base glass when accomplished at a temperature that does not distort its shape, which is close

to or below glass transition temperature. The direction of diffusion is normal to the surface. For

generation of axial GRIN a plane glass plate is dipped in the molten bath and for radial GRIN a

glass rod is dipped in the salt bath.

Exchange is best achieved with monovalent cations, due to their high mobility in glass

structure. Refractive index can be made increasing or decreasing from the surface by proper

selection of exchanging cations. Diffusion in glass follows Fick’s law,

dC
 DcC
dt (1.7)

where, ‘C’ is the concentration of dopant in moles and ‘Dc’ is the inter-diffusion coefficient at the

temperature of exchange and depends upon the concentration of exchanging cations in the glass.

In the simplest case of diffusion concentration profile varies according to,

 x 
C ( x , t )  C 0 erfc  
 2 D C t  ` (1.8)

Ion exchange in glass is a two-step process. Firstly, the concentration of dopant cations

increases at the surface by ion exchange process, which then diffuse inward, replacing the

exchanging cations from the glass. As a result, there is a decrease in the rate of build-up at the

surface of the glass. The concentration Ct at the surface at time t can be expressed by,


C t  C 0 1  e  t  (1.9)

where, C 0 is the limiting concentration of doping ion and  is the exponential coefficient of

exchanging ion. The concentration profiles for axial diffusion will be [40],

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 1

cos x    2
C  D 
C  16  l 2 
 1n exp  DC 2n  12  2 t / 4l 2   2 n  1x 
 1  exp   t    cos 
n  0 2 n  14  l  D C  2 n  1 
C0 1
 2 2 2
2t 
 2  
cos l   
 DC  (1.10)

Things are more complicated when concentration dependency of diffusion is considered. In the

case of radial diffusion, corresponding diffusion equation is,

C 1   C 
  rD c 
t r r  r  (1.11)

A unique simple solution of the above equation has been developed in Ref. [41] using the method

of residual solution suggested by Philips [42].

Concentration profile with better accuracy and convergence can be expressed by the series,

1 3
  1  1 2
 2  3 2
 4 2  ..... (1.12)

where,   r and   t 2 , and that the diffusion equation takes the form of
r0 r0

C   C  1 C
  Dc   Dc
t       (1.13)

1, 2, 3 and 4 are computed from,

1   C 
1    D c

2 C   1  (1.14)
2
    C   2 
2   D c     Dc
C    1   C  (1.15)

3    C  2  2
  2   C  
3
3   D c    D c       D c 1
2 C    1  C  1    1   (1.16)

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    C  2  C   2 
2
 2 3  2  
2 4   D c   4
 Dc        D c (1 2   2 ) (1.17)
C   1  C 1  1    2  1  

with the boundary condition that at time zero, C is zero for all  values and is C 0 1  e  t  for

time greater than zero at the surface. These equations help in predicting ion-exchange parameters

for obtaining a desired radial GRIN profile. The graded index profiles reported in the present

thesis are fabricated using ion exchange method.

1.5 Effects of Relaxation

Interdiffusion causes structural relaxation due to the difference in cationic sizes. A number of

studies [43-47] experimentally showed the difference between the refractive index changes after

high temperature (above Tg) and low temperature (below Tg) ion exchange. It has been shown

that the relaxation of ion-exchange caused stresses defines the time dependence of inter-diffusion

coefficient Dc [44]. By definition, Dc is the proportionality coefficient of rate of concentration

change C / t and the concentration gradient C / x , provided that the conditions of electric

neutrality are maintained. In general, the density of the diffusing flux is not constant but depends

on the coordinate system, composition and time. As noted in [44] the effect of structural changes

related to stress relaxation is by an order of magnitude higher than the effect of these stresses

themselves on the rate of diffusion. The inclusion of relaxation process no longer retains the

Fick’s similarity [45] and diffusion process cannot be described by a simple parabolic equation of

type,

C   C  (1.18)
 DC
t x  x 

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 A new mathematical representation needs to be constructed to reflect the ideas of structural

relaxation [46]. In ion exchange and inter-diffusion mechanism, four processes are involved

namely, (i) ion exchange at the salt-melt boundary, described by equation (1.18), (ii) inter-

diffusion of exchanging ions within the initial non-relaxed glass network, causing a state of stress

(iii) relaxation of the glass structural network generally accompanied by (a) stress relaxation

within the diffusion layer, (b) a change in ionic mobility in the relaxed glass and (c) a change of

the ion exchange constant (C0) and (iv) inter-diffusion of exchanging ions within the relaxed

glass network. In view of this, Belyaev et al. [45, 47] has modified the mathematical

representation and solved it for some simple systems. As observed in [53], Fick’s diffusion law is

maintained at any time if the change in ionic mobility due to relaxation is negligible and the

concentration of exchanging cations at the glass surface is constant. If the starting time of

measurement corresponds to greater than a limiting value, the initial stage where Fick’s diffusion

takes place is lost and further progress compelled the process to be characterized by a wavelike

form of the concentration profile. This is due to different mobilities of the diffusing cations inside

the relaxed and non-relaxed networks.

Moreover, due to the anisotropic nature of the residual stresses after ion exchange the

resulting structure becomes birefringent [48, 51]. Analysis of stress in ion-exchanged structures

has been investigated and the resulting birefringence, surface damage (cracks, elevations, and

dips) and swelling have been observed and explained in ref. [49-52]. Typical values of

birefringence in K+- Na+ exchange, carried out in 350-400°C range is 1x10-3 whereas in the case

of Ag +- Na+ exchange no birefringence has been detected when low melt concentrations are used

[53]. Another factor which causes stress in ion-exchanged waveguides is the mismatch between

the thermal expansion coefficients of the exchanged and the un-exchanged materials. However,

12
this effect is very small [48,50] and can be neglected in comparison to the compositional stresses

unless the exchange is carried out above the stress relaxation temperature as in the case of Li+-

Na+ exchange in aluminosilicate glass [54].

1.6 Measurement of GRIN Profile

The most important aspect in the development of a gradient index optical system is to

characterize the optical properties of these materials. Maximum change in refractive index, shape

and depth of refractive index profile are the three basic parameters to be controlled during

fabrication of GRIN blanks. Techniques for such measurements are as diverse as the applications

such as Auto collimation [55-56], Moiré Patterns [57-59], Holography [60-61], Interferometry

[62-65], Modulation Ellipsometry [66] and Deflectometry [67].

1.6.1 Auto Collimation Method: This method can be used both in reflection and transmission

modes. No deviation of ray path takes place for homogeneous glass when seen in either

transmission or reflective mode. However, when GRIN glass plate is seen in transmission mode,

the rays passing through it will deviate from its primary direction. By measuring this deviation, it

is possible to measure linear variation in refractive index. In this method, data acquisition and

interpretation is quite cumbersome, especially where the refractive index variation is in more than

one direction [56].

1.6.2 Holographic Technique: In Holographic technique, the recording of the interference fringe

is made in a holographic plate, the resulting hologram is the record of both amplitude and phase.

The image of the object is reconstructed from the stored wave fronts in the hologram. For

measuring GRIN profile, first a hologram of the base glass is recorded and then the image is

superimposed onto the image of the GRIN element. A pattern of interference fringes will appear

13
upon reconstruction of the hologram. Difference in the pattern of interference fringes will appear

upon reconstruction of the hologram. The path length difference of the object beam before and

after superimposition can be calculated from the interference pattern and thus can be used to

interpret the GRIN profile [61]. The major drawback of the technique is that it records a large

number of data to determine the dimensional distribution and calls for rigorous computation.

1.6.3 Interferometric Technique; Various interferometric methods are commonly utilized in

measuring GRIN profiles. Mach-Zehnder interferometer [69] is one of the most popular methods

for measurement of GRIN profile. The relative index can be measured to a high accuracy in terms

of the path of the light ray. For a standard specimen of 2 mm thickness the number of fringes is

about 500 to 1000 and requires a sophisticated fringe counting arrangement. Moreover, the test

specimen is compared with a standard specimen, needing an involved alignment device.

The Twyman-Green Interferometer [68] is used to detect minute defects in optical elements

where collimated light from a point source is used. Cline and Jandar [69] surveyed the optical

quality of commercial and experimental Selfoc GRIN rod lenses using digital Twyman-Green

wave front interferometer developed by Bruning et al. [70]. This technique provides a very

accurate determination of wave front by direct detection of the phase. A linear variation of optical

path in the reference arm of the interferometer causes a sinusoidal intensity variation at the

detector. A relative phase change at each photodetector was determined by fitting the intensity

variation to a Fourier series. Though this method can be used to measure variation of refractive

index very accurately, but automatic data collection and interpretation is quite a difficult job.

In Shearing Interferometry, the wave front to be measured is compared with its sheared

version and hence it does not require any reference wave front. This type of interferometer is

used in measurement of chromatic aberration of large optical elements and systems [69-70], in

14
turbulent flow of gasses, liquids and plasmas [71]. Though, this method is quite reliable for

measuring gradient index profile, but selection of optimum shearing distance as well as

computation of the profiles from its deviation values are quite complex. Interferometric

measurements are suitable for slow changes in index.

1.6.4 Modulation Ellipsometry: This method [66] is based on Faraday effect of changes in the

state of polarization of light, is the absolute refractive index profile measurement technique, in

addition to the measurement of large changes in index. This method is sensitive in very small

changes in refractive index. Since Ellipsometry is a surface dependent measurement technique,

additional error may come into the picture due to surface phenomena not experienced by

transmission systems.

1.6.5 Deflectometry: The methods discussed above do not provide first order information of the

refractive index change when observed visually or recorded electronically. A new kind of

measurement technique is the deflectometric arrangement where interference between two

longitudinally shifted point sources is developed by SoodBiswas, Sarkar and Basuray [67]. They

reported a method for refractive index gradient measurement using the deflection of Newton’s

ring like circular fringes incident on the specimen. The fringe pattern was generated by the

interference of two longitudinally separated point sources using a birefringent lens. In this

method, light from a laser source after collimation using a microscopic objective, a pinhole and a

lens, is made incident on a birefringent lens placed between two polarizers. A birefringent lens,

having its optical axis perpendicular to its principal axis, has two focal lengths – one

corresponding to ordinary vibration and the other corresponding to the extraordinary vibration.

This is due to the existence of two discrete refractive index values in a birefringent medium for

ordinary and extraordinary rays. If the polarizer is placed at an angle of 45 degree to the optical

15
axis in front of the birefringent lens, then two orthogonally polarized light beams will be focused

at two longitudinally separated points. If an analyzer after the lens is placed in-plane or in-

crossed position with respect to the polarizer, the two beams with longitudinal shifts form

Newton’s ring like circular pattern. The sample, for which the refractive index profile is to be

measured, is placed in the path in a fashion so that the sample is fully illuminated then fringes

will diverge or converge according to the positive or negative gradient of the refractive index at

that point, respectively. Therefore, variation in refractive index is evaluated from the fringe

distortion.

Most of the methods discussed so far, are limited to relative profile measurements as they

basically measure the refractive index gradient.

1.7 Newer Developments in GRIN System

GRIN TECH, a Germany based company is also engaged in producing miniature cylindrical

GRIN lenses mainly for application in fiber optic communication by exchanging silver ions in a

special glass. A new method of producing index gradient in glass is GRADIUM glasses [72]

developed by Lightpath Technologies Inc. They use fusion technique in layers of optical glasses.

More and more developments and applications of GRIN lens system has been reported in the last

decade [73-81]. More recently, metamaterials have become widely appreciated as a means of

producing inhomogeneous media, in which the material properties vary in a controlled manner

[82-89]. Gradient index quasi-optical metamaterial devices have been demonstrated at microwave

frequencies in several experiments [90]. Besides, plastic GRIN lenses are also commercially

available for ophthalmic use [91-98]. However, in this work, study is limited to glass as it has

16
varied applications and is developed by ion-exchange technique, the widely used method for

fabrication of GRIN glasses.

Conventionally, gradient-index lenses have some form of symmetry, radial or axial

symmetry, and have a uniform optical power. Other symmetries like square and elliptic are also

important providing added performance abilities. Design principles for GRIN lenses are required

for understanding of such unconventional GRIN geometries of prime importance.

New design methods are required for designing such GRIN lenses. Understanding the process

of fabrication of gradient-index becomes even more valuable, with design methods for non-

symmetric, multifocal GRIN lenses. Currently, the index profiles available in GRIN media are

limited and information about anamorphic GRIN elements are still less.

1.8 Objective and Outline of the Thesis

This dissertation examines about developments and characterization challenges in GRINs and

presents effective methods for meeting them. This research extends the understanding of planer

and anamorphic GRIN element fabrication in silicate glass system and their characterization. In

summary, this dissertation develops techniques for development and characterization of

unconventional gradient-index elements and it continues efforts towards newer applications of

practical importance.

GRIN elements are fabricated using widely used ion exchange technique. Commercially

available glasses are not suitable for ion exchange. Suitable base glasses are hence developed for

ion exchange experiment and subsequently, development of GRIN elements are taken up in two

geometries. One is one dimensional variation in refractive index in square geometry, called

planer GRIN intended to be used for large focal length lamp covers and as planer wave guides.

17
The other one is having variation of refractive index in elliptic geometry, called anamorphic

GRIN intended to be used for anamorphic correction of beam from laser diodes. Both types have

great potential in imaging and communication applications.

It is therefore, evident that a thorough and systematic study, from the choice of substrate

material, substrate geometry to the nature of refractive index profile are important in design and

development of a specific GRIN lens. In the present work two kinds of GRIN elements as

mentioned above are developed. For this suitable substrate glasses are fabricated, ion exchange

experiments are carried out and GRIN profiles are measured. The study also includes the

mathematical formulation of the diffusion processes involved in both the geometries.

With this introduction, rest of the work is described in four more chapters. Chapter-II

describes the fabrication of base glass for ion exchange experiments for both rectangular and

elliptic GRIN. Chapter-III describes profile measurement method, characterization of rectangular

GRIN and its correlation to theoretically predicted profile. Chapter-IV discusses the fabrication

and the characterization of elliptic GRIN. The anamorphic properties of elliptic GRIN are

experimentally demonstrated. Chapter-V discusses the mathematical formulation and solution of

diffusion equation in elliptic geometry using angular and radial Mathieu functions. The

theoretical solution is correlated to the experimental results of Chapter-IV.

In conclusion, achievements and shortcomings are discussed and suggestions for future

research are made.

18
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