ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

 includes religious buildings intended for worship by Muslims and secular buildings built in a
predominately Islamic region or used by Muslims.

HISTORY
The architecture of the peoples of Islamic faith, also called Mohammedan, which from the 7th
century onward expanded throughout the Mediterranean world and as far as India and China,
producing a variety of great regional works and local decorative styles.
What today is known as Islamic architecture owes its origin to similar structures already
existing in Roman, Byzantine and Persian lands which the Muslims conquered in the 7th and
8th centuries.
Specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad's time,
inspired by the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.
The horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. Some suggest the
Muslims acquired this from the Visigoths in Spain but they may have obtained it from Syria
and Persia where the horseshoe arch had been in use by the Byzantines as early as the 5th
century.

CHARACTERISTICS
domes, horseshoe and round arches, tunnel vaults and rich ornaments, geometric because
of the ban on human and animal representation.
A new building type was developed from the Christian basilica - the multi-aisled, arcaded,
columnar, or pillared mosque; a new type of domed mosque, tomb, or madrasah from the
vaulted, centrally organized Byzantine and Sassanian structures.

ELEMENTS
pointed, horseshoe, "Persian," multifoil, and interlacing arches;
bulbous, ribbed, conical, and melon domes;
tunnel, cross-rib, and stalactite vaults;
a wide variety of crenelations.
Surfaces are covered by abundant geometric, floral and calligraphic decorations executed in
stone, brick, stucco, wood and glazed tile.

ARCHITECTURAL TYPES: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort.

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ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

1- Old Islamic style:

Islam is characterized by its simplicity and strictness. These two characteristics have been
reflected in Islamic architecture at this time. If we look at the mosque of Quba, the Mosque
with the Qibla and the Prophet’s Mosque in its first form, we find examples of this simple style
in architecture.

2- Umayyad style:
Syria, Palestine and all the Levants were a Christian province and part of the Byzantine
Empire. The early Umayyads were influenced by the style of Christian architecture, which
was clearly influenced by the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.

At that time, the Al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock were rebuilt in a way that
referred to the Christian influence and introduced some of the characteristics of the new
Islamic architecture. The domes, beacons and the style of Arab decoration were added to the
Christian architecture to be the Umayyad style of architecture. The addition of Arabic script to
parts of the Holy Quran or modern Arabic.

3- Abbasid style:
The Abbasids formed their own style of domes and developed Islamic and Umayyad
lighthouses. The Abbasid style also has a unique form of columns, pillars, and motifs
between domes in the form of domes in large mosques.

4- Marrakesh and Andalusian style:

The Andalusian style in architecture is similar to the Umayyad style in Damascus and the
Levant in general. After the fall of the Umayyad state in Andalusia, Andalusia became under
the Morawi rule, then the Mahdi in Morocco and then the Nazarene who moved the capital
from the Mediterranean to Andalusia. In those three eras, the architecture flourished greatly
and influenced the style of Umayyad, Andalusian and Moroccan architecture.

5- Fatimid style “Obaidi”:

In the first Fatimid period, the Fatimids were in North Africa, and architecture was
characterized by the simplicity with great influence on local Berber architecture, Marrakesh
architecture and neighbouring Andalusian architecture. The best example of architecture in
this era is the Mahdia Mosque in the Fatimid capital of Mahdia (now Tunisia).

6- Ayyubid style:
The Ayyubid style was influenced by the war and its preparations. Most of the installations in
the Ayyubid period were highly fortified and prepared for war. The richness of the Ayyubid
era was evident in the battlefields, the construction of fortified palaces and castles, city walls,
fortifications, renovations and the rebuilding of mosques and shrines destroyed by the
Crusaders.

7- Safavian Style:
It is characterized by fine decoration works and was influenced by the Persian-Mongolian
style in the work of domes and lighthouses with the addition of colours and decorations. It is
unique in interior decoration, especially in the decoration of ceilings, cornices and marble
columns. The most important example of Safavid architecture is the Shah School in Isfahan
and the Imam Mosque (the Shah Mosque) in Isfahan.

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8- Pashto style:
It is a simple architectural style characterized by the artistic gift that God has given to
Afghans, especially Pashtu tribes. Pashtuns and Afghans are adept at the art of mosaics and
ornaments. Examples of this architectural art are Al-Harat Mosque and the Blue Mosque of
Mazar-e-Sharif. The Pashto lighthouses are similar to those of the Indian-Mongol style, and
the entrances resemble the entrances of the Persian-Mongolian style.

 9- Ottoman style:

Ottoman architecture was influenced by the Seljuks until the domes and lighthouses in the
Ottoman and Seljuk styles were identical, but the Ottoman architecture was more charming
and rich in the diversity of sources. While the difference was in the interior shape of the
mosques.

TERMINOLOGIES
Ablaq - Striped layers of stone. This technique is a feature of Islamic architecture. The ablaq
decorative technique is a derivative from the ancient Byzantine Empire, whose architecture
used alternate sequential runs of light colored ashlar stone and darker colored orange brick.
Ablution/ Wudu/Wudhu - Before entering the mosque to pray, believers must recite prayers
while washing the following, three times each, in order: hands, mouth, nose, face, arms.
Wash the following only once, in order: hair, feet and ankles.
Arabesque
Arcaded courtyard
Beit - Private houses.
Features:
•Small windows covered with wooden screens
•Large airy rooms
•Shady arcades and fountains
•Partitioned into separate male and female zones
Calligraphy
Ceilings - Wood; carved with intricate geometric patterns and then painted in rich colors
Crescent moon - The crescent moon and star is an internationally-recognized symbol of the
faith of Islam.
Crescent-shaped finial - found on many Egyptian mosques
Hajj - The pilgrimage to Mecca that every Muslim is required to make at least once in his life,
provided he has enough money and the health to do so - the fifth of the Pillars of Islam.
Horseshoe arch
Imam
1. the prayer leader of a mosque
2. a Muslim leader of the line of Ali held by Shiites to be the divinely appointed, sinless,
infallible successors of Muhammad

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3. any of various rulers that claim descent from Muhammad and exercise spiritual and
temporal leadership over a Muslim region
Mashrabiyya - Screens that allow women to look out without being seen
Mausoleum – Features: Crescent moon finial, Decorative lattice paneling, Pillars or stele,
Columns
Mihrab (MEE rub) - A niche in the wall of a mosque or a room in the mosque that indicates
the direction of Mecca.
-A design in the shape of niche in a Muslim prayer rug; during worship the niche must be
pointed toward Mecca
Minaret - A tall slender tower attached to a mosque, having one or more projecting balconies
from which a muezzin summons the people to prayer.
Minbar/member - In Islam, the pulpit from which the sermon (khutbah) is delivered. In its
simplest form the minbar is a platform with three steps; often it is constructed as a domed
box at the top of a staircase and is reached through a doorway that can be closed
Mocárabe - Mocárabe is a design utilizing series of complex prism shapes that resembles
stalactites (below). It is usually made of plaster and wood, since using stone and other
materials are impractical, though not uncommon.
Moorish - Style of architecture used in Spain from the 13th to 16th century
Moors - Muslim of the mixed Berber and Arab people inhabiting NW Africa; a member of this
group that invaded Spain in the 8th century a.d. and occupied it until 1492.
Mudéjar: - A fusion of Christian (Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance) and Islamic art created
in the 12th to 16th centuries by the Muslims who remained in Christian territory after the
gradual Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal).
Mosque - A Muslim place of worship, usually having one or more minarets and often
decorated with elaborate tracery and texts from the Koran. Many mosques have elaborate
domes, minarets, and prayer halls.
Muezzin (moo EZ in) - The Muslim official of a mosque who summons the faithful to prayer
from a minaret five times a day
Ottoman Empire 1299-1923 (It was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey.)
Constantinople (Istanbul) was its capital city.
Prayer hall - The prayer hall, also known as the musallah, rarely has furniture; chairs and
pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as
possible to line the room.
Qaa - Reception room, Sumptuous centerpiece of wealthy merchants' houses
Rooftop wind catchers - Channel cool breezes into rooms below.
Stalactite - A deposit, usually of calcium carbonate, shaped like an icicle, hanging from the
roof of a cave or the like, and formed by the dripping of percolating calcareous water.
Mocárabe - Honeycomb work, or stalactite ; Arabic: "the overhang" ; An ornamental design
used in certain types of Islamic architecture that spread throughout the Islamic world in the
12th century. The design consists of a complex array of vertical prisms resembling stalactite.

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INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
India, one of the oldest civilizations on the planet, with the most diverse cultural history and
inhabited by multiple races, religions, and languages is a goldmine for the study of
architectural evolution throughout history. Each transition or inclusion of new culture has
created an impact on Indian architecture and art. One can easily see the different
architectural styles reflecting in the buildings all over the country. This unique development of
assimilating a wide variety of cultures enable us to learn how such a diverse society has
evolved.

CHARACTERISTICS
Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used
chaitya arches, no doubt in wood, for roofs and upper structures above more solid storeys
are important features of the architecture during this period.

HISTORY
History of Indian architecture can be categorised into earliest, medieval and modern. It
begins with a past which dates back to 2500 B.C. and it was the period of the Indus valley
civilisation. A number of foreign invasions and indigenous factors have contributed to the
modification of the architecture of India. The ancient period dates till the Gupta dynasty.
The medieval era deals with the advent of the Muslim architecture till the colonization. The
colonial architecture falls under modern architecture of India.

ARCHITECTURAL STYLES
(10 Most Popular Ones)
 
1. Temple Architecture
Temple architecture in India developed in
almost all the regions during the ancient
India. Across the country distinct
architectural styles in temple construction
can be seen, this differentiation is mainly
caused due to the geographical, climatic,
racial, ethnic, linguistic, and historical
diversities. Ancient Indian temples are
classified into three broad categories, i.e.
Nagara or the Northern style, Vesara or
Mixed style, and Dravida or the Southern
style. Apart from the broad classification,
Kerala, Bengal, and the Himalayan areas also display their regional styles in temple
architecture which are equally unique.
 

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 2. Mughal Architecture
The Mughal architectural style is a unique blend
of Islamic, Persian and Indian styles. Starting
from the 16th century until the early 18th century,
Mughal architecture flourished largely in the
Indian subcontinent. During this era, India was
ruled by the Mughal’s and different rulers built
some of the finest structures in the country.
Humayun’s Tomb, Akbar’s Tomb, Fatehpur Sikri,
Red Fort at Delhi, Jami Masjid Delhi and the Taj
Mahal at Agra are few examples of such
structures which need to further introduction.
 

3. Indo-Saracenic Revival Architecture
Indo Saracenic Revival architecture or Indo
Saracenic architecture is the brilliant
architectural engineering movement by the
British architects. This style is a fusion of Indian
architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture. It is
also known as Indo-Gothic, Mughal-Gothic,
Hindu-Gothic and Neo-Mughal architecture.
This form of architecture absorbs exotic
elements from the Indian Architecture and
native Indo-Islamic architecture and fuses it
with the Neo-Classical and Gothic revival styles
favored in Victorian Britain.
 

4. Dravidian Architecture
Dravidian construction style emerged in
the Southern part of the Indian
subcontinent or South India thousands
of years ago. It was built by the
Dravidian people, such structures
primarily consist pyramid shaped
temples called Kovils (a Tamil word).
These Kovils are dependent on complex
carved stone; such materials are the
key to create step kind of designs which
contain many statues of kings, deities,
dancers, and warriors.
 

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 5. Kalinga Architecture
The Kaḷinga architecture is a style which
flourished in the ancient Kalinga region.
This form of style can be seen in the
eastern Indian state of Odisha and also
in northern parts of Andhra Pradesh.
Kalinga architectural style consists of
three different types of temples, i.e.
Rekha Deula, Khakhara Deula and
Pidha Deula. The diverse aspects of a
typical Kalinga Temple comprise of
Architectural stipulations, historical
connotations, Iconography, also it
honors the custom, traditions, and connected legends.
 
6. Sikh Architecture
This is one of those styles that have
gained immense popularity across the
globe. Sikh architecture is characterized
by exquisite intricacy, values of
progressiveness, austere beauty, and
coherent flowing lines. This is one
particular architectural form which
managed to evolve due to its Modernism
or progressive style. Sikh architecture is
all about beautiful curves and straight
lines; that is exactly what sets it apart
from other architectural styles.
 
7. Vesara Architecture 
Vesara style of Architecture evolved in the state of Karnataka
during the medieval centuries. This style combines both the
Dravida and the Nagara architectural styles. In such form of
construction, the heights of the individual tiers are reduced
without affecting their actual numbers, this results in the
reduction of the overall height of the temple architecture. In
some of the temples of this style contain semi-circular
structures of the Buddhist Chaityas.
   

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 8. Indian Vernacular Architecture
The vernacular style of architecture refers
to the informal building of structures done
by local builders using traditional building
methods. This is one of the most
widespread forms of architectural style not
only in India but across the globe. The
builders who construct such structures are
unschooled in formal architectural design;
their work typically reflects the rich
multiplicity of our country’s climate, locally
available construction materials, and the
complex variations in local social customs
and craftsmanship.
 

9. Cave Architecture
The cave architecture in India is believed to
have started in the third century BC. Such
structures were used by the Jain monks and the
Buddhist typically as a place of residence and
worship. Some examples of this type of cave
structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists.
Caves in India are usually linked with three
different religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Jainism; hence they reflect the architectural
difference in accordance with respective
religions.
 
10. Rock-Cut Architecture
The Rock-cut structures in India display the
most impressive piece of ancient Indian art
specimen. Rock-cut architecture is the art
of creating a structure by carving it out of a
solid natural rock. Most of the rock-cut
structures in our country were related to
different religious communities. India has
more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures
and many of these structures contain
artworks which are of global importance,
and most are festooned with wonderful
stone carvings.

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CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
Modern Chinese architecture refers to everything built in China since about the middle of
the 1800s and includes a wide variety of architectural styles. From blends of traditional
elements and contemporary techniques to cutting-edge modern architectural icons, Chinese
architecture has it all.

HISTORY
Neolithic Period (Pre-1600 BC)
The Neolithic village of Banpo provides examples of the early architecture in Northern China.
Within the village there were two types of buildings, which were surrounded by a deeply dug
moat. One was circular buildings with conical roofs, which were built above ground; and the
other type was square buildings with pyramidal roofs, which were semi-subterranean.
The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC)
The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty with written records — inscriptions on bones and
bronze objects. Historic excavations of Shang's capital, Anyang, show that the Shang
Dynasty's architectural style followed the Neolithic times to some extent. For example, most
of the dwellings were partly sunk beneath ground level.
The Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC)
In the Zhou Dynasty, more architectural forms appeared. Long defensive walls came into
being. Mourning halls, tombs, and altars also became ordinary.
The Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC – 220 AD)
Throughout the Qin and Han eras, the techniques used for timber buildings gradually
improved and were perfected. Builders had mastered firing tiles and could build with stones
skillfully. Great palaces and pavilions were constructed. The Terracotta Army in Xi'an was
part of the first emperor's huge mausoleum.
The Three Kingdoms Period (220–280) and the Six Dynasties (220–589)
During this period, religious buildings – especially Buddhist temples and monasteries –
sprung up around China thanks to the government's admiration of religion.
The Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) Dynasties
The Sui and Tang eras were the golden age of China's history. The application of bricks had
become more popular. Vast public works, such as the Grand Canal, were built.
The Song (960–1279) and Yuan (1279–1368) Dynasties
The Song Dynasty was an important time for ancient Chinese architecture. Great
improvements had been made during that period. The scale of the buildings in the Song
Dynasty was generally smaller than in the Tang Dynasty. However, they were more beautiful
and rich in diversity.
The Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) Dynasties
Ancient architecture reached its zenith during China's last two imperial dynasties. The
production of bricks had greatly increased. The quality and quantity of glazed tiles had
exceeded any past dynasties. The official buildings were highly standardized.

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FEATURES
Since ancient times, the people built wooden buildings, structures built with rammed earth,
and buildings and structures built with stone or brick. Each of these kinds of construction had
different features. The buildings were built to survive the frequent earthquake, typhoon and
flood disasters and to be easier to rebuild. Along with survivability and ease of renovation, the
buildings reflected and helped to propagate social order and religion.

Preference for Lumber Construction

China's culture originated thousands of years ago along the Yellow River and Yangtze River.
In the environment of the river basins, the seismic activity and frequent flood disasters
prompted the people to build flexibly using wood for most buildings.
Heavy Overhanging Roofs
A noticeable feature of the traditional wooden buildings are the heavy ceramic tiled roofs with
wide eaves and slightly upturned corners. The builders considered it important to cover
wooden buildings with overhanging roofs. This was to protect the building from weathering
since wood rots much faster when it is wet. The wide eaves also provided shade in the
summer, and in the winter, the slanted sunlight warmed the buildings.
Rammed Earth Buildings
In places where a clan's compound faced the danger of attack such as the Hakka villages in
Fujian, people built earthen buildings 土 楼 (tǔlóu). In these compounds, thick walls of
rammed earth and sometimes bricks and stone were built in a circle without windows, and
inside dwellings were constructed.
The Interplay of Architecture and Culture
The various styles of architecture that have been built since the Zhou era reflect how the
various Chinese people over the centuries adapted to the environment. The architectural
designs conformed to their needs and culture and also helped to propagate social norms and
order. .
Wooden Courtyard Compounds
Chinese courtyardCourtyards traditionally played an important role in family life.
In most areas, where the clan families felt safe enough to live permanently and did have not
face frequent attacks and wood was plentiful, the clans built easily modifiable wooden
courtyard compounds for three generations. This is the typical style for clans that could afford
to build and maintain such compounds.
South Facing Orientation
The south facing orientation had a practical reason. When courtyards were built with taller
buildings in the north north and in the south shorter walls facing east and the west, it allowed
the maximum amount of sunlight to warm the building during the winter months when the
sunlight was angled strongly from the south.
Symmetrical Layouts
Symmetrical layouts of the compound with the larger main building in the center of the
compound flanked on all sides by smaller ones or gates placed symmetrically helped to
buffer the important main building from the elements or attacks from the outside. So the side

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and southern buildings blocked the wind and also shielded the main northern building from
arrows or other projectiles of attackers.
Single-Story Construction
One-story buildings survive earthquakes and storm winds better than multistory buildings. It
is more difficult to build strong multistory buildings with wood. So for both commoner
dwellings and the residences of the rich clans, officials, and the imperial clans, low buildings
were the preferred style except in the southeastern corner of China where there is little
earthquake activity. There, if a clan could afford it, they could build two-story buildings. A
thick, tall wall sometimes served to protect their buildings from occasional typhoons.
Fengshui Design Principles
Fengshui is geomancy. The principles of this philosophy/religion dictates how to locate,
orient, and build habitations and towns for the best effect. It accords with Taoist ideals of
harmony. These design ideals were thought to promote the occupants' health, wealth and
happiness, and through following these principles, builders thought to direct the flow of the qi
energy as part of Traditional Chinese Medicine practice.
Heaven Worship and South-North Orientation
Since ancient times, it was believed that Heaven was at the North Star, and this was where
the supreme god who was originator of the earth, China and all people lived. They believed
this because the stars and all of Heaven seemed to wheel around it. So within their
compounds, the clan heads were positioned closer to heaven than the others in the clan, and
they also saw themselves as the representatives of the clan to Heaven. The northern part of
the compound was considered the most important section for this religious reason as well.
The Predominant Role of Emperors
Ancient Chinese imperial buildings included palaces, government offices, and military
defensive projects. The imperial dynasties demonstrated the political control of the particular
era by building the largest, most imposing structures. Generally, their architectural style was
formal and solemn, and they were centrally located and built in grand scale in order to
promulgate the society's formal hierarchical order.
Hierarchical Layout
Their choice of layout of their compounds was not only due to practical reasons. The design
and layout tended to reinforce social and religious ideas and the dominant status and role
of clan rulers.

ARCHITECTURAL STYLES

Walls

Ancient (imperial) Chinese architecture started developing very rapidly from the Han Dynasty
(206 BC– 220 AD) onwards. At this point, builders had mastered earth ramming skills for city
walls and the Great Wall and knew how to fire tiles and build with cut stones. During the Sui
(581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, kiln firing techniques improved, and brick
structures became more popular.

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Mausoleums and Tombs

Though for inhabited buildings, they usually used wood, for mausoleums and tombs, they
used stone and bricks to make permanent structures. The dead didn't need to remodel their
tombs. So it was more logical to build permanent structures to house their remains. The
mausoleums and tombs were designed and located according to fengshui principles, so most
Chinese mausoleums were built on or near mountains. Other distinguishing features include
a path leading up to the structure.

Chinese Landscape Gardens

Garden and courtyard architecture was considered very important for the compounds of
imperial clans, officials and wealthy clans. Fengshui principles determined the layout so that
they could control the cosmological and health effects of the various elements of the gardens.

Commoner Residences

The architectural style of traditional Chinese residences was functional and suited to local
conditions. For example, in Southwest China, bamboo houses suited the muggy
environment and local resources well. In the northern part of Shaanxi Province where the
weather is cold and dry in winter, the loess-carved dwellings were good at retaining heat and
were cheap to construct.

Stone Bridges

During the Sui Dynasty and afterwards, some builders demonstrated special skill in the
construction of stone bridges that have survived through centuries of earthquakes, floods,
and wars. The 1,400 year old Zhaozhou Bridge is celebrated as China's oldest standing
bridge and the oldest open-spandrel stone bridge in the world. It is remarkable because iron
was utilized for supporting and stabilizing parts that allowed the bridge to slightly adjust due
to earthquakes, the settling of the ground, and environmental changes.

Religious Buildings

China has four official religions. Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity have a long
history in China. Since the Chinese imperial court contributed to the introduction of Buddhism
in China, Buddhist buildings in China normally followed the imperial style of construction,
which was glorious and grand. Taoist buildings in China were closer to the style of buildings
for commoners compared to the other religious buildings. They are usually built compactly
with brick to be strong enough to last a long time. Muslim architecture in China was a blend
of traditional Chinese and Middle Eastern styles. As for Christianity, most churches in China
follow Western architectural designs.

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REFERENCES

ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
History, Characteristics, Elements, Architectural Types, and Terminologies
https://buffaloah.com/a/archsty/islam/islamic.html
Architectural Styles

https://www.ierek.com/news/index.php/2017/08/19/islamic-architecture-through-the-ages/
Masterpieces
https://www.britannica.com/list/8-masterpieces-of-islamic-architecture

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
Definition
https://www.arch2o.com/diversity-indian-architecture/
History
https://www.indianetzone.com/42/history_indian_architecture.htm
Characteristics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_India
Architectural styles
https://gosmartbricks.com/10-most-popular-styles-in-indian-architecture/
Masterpieces
https://www.holidify.com/pages/architectural-locations-beautiful-designed-monuments-
1499.html

CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
History, Features, and Architectural Styles
https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/architecture/
Masterpieces
http://www.chinatouristmaps.com/top-10s/architecture.html

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