Chemical causes of deterioration:

This category includes specific causes of deterioration that exhibit a wide variety of

symptoms. In general, deleterious chemical reactions may be classified as those which occur as

the result of external chemical attacking the concrete or those which occur as a result of internal

chemical reactions between the constituents of the concrete. The chemical attack on concrete can

be classified as follows: Acid attack, alkali attack, carbonation, chloride attack, leaching, salt

attack, sulphate attack. Ingress of dissolved substances from the external environment may cause

various forms of chemically induced deterioration by reaction with the cement paste or aggregate

constituents. Although the resistance of concrete to chemical attack is directly influenced by the

following factors; porosity, the cement composition used in the concrete, condition under which

the cement paste hardened, all determine properties of concrete, ability to resist various effects of

fluids in the environment.

Types of chemical reactions:

Type 1: Simple leaching of free calcium hydroxide ( hydrated lime)

Type 2: Reaction between attacking solutions and cement compounds resulting in the formation

of secondary compounds, which are either leached from the concrete, or remain in a non bound

form, resulting in gradual strength loss.

Type 3: Reaction is similar to type 2, but resulting in the crystallization of the reaction products

giving rise to expansive forces, which disrupt the concrete.

Type 4: Crystallization of salts directly from the attacking solution causing disruption of the

concrete.

Type 5: Corrosion of the embedded steel reinforcement resulting from breakdown of the

passivation zone by aggressive solutions.

Corrosion:

Basic principles of corrosion:

Concrete is a high alkaline material. The pH of newly produced concrete is usually between 12

and 13. In this range of alkalinity, embedded steel is protected from corrosion by a passivating

film bonded to the reinforcing bar surface. However, when the passivating film is disrupted,

corrosion may take place. The damage is caused by rebar’s corrosion in concrete. Reinforcement

corrosion of bare steel exposed to atmosphere and the steel embedded in concrete. The nature of

reinforcement corrosion mechanism can be attributed to three predominant processes, namely

chemical, electrochemical and physical.

Influencing factors of corrosion of concrete:

The parameters, which influence the corrosion process, are: the cover thickness, the quality of

concrete in the cover region, especially in terms of permeability and diffusivity, environment

conditions, pH value in concrete, chloride level in concrete, presence of cracks etc.

Damages due to corrosion:

In reinforced concrete structures, the corrosion of reinforcement is unique in the sense that the

corrosion process causes extensive damage to the concrete. The corrosion product has a volume

growth exerts physical expansive forces to the concrete surrounding the steel. Once the tensile

stresses induced by these forces exceed the tensile strength of concrete, cracking of concrete

occurs, and as further corrosion takes place, spalling of concrete occurs resulting in exposure of

reinforcement. Generally presence of active corrosion process in a reinforcement of a concrete

member becomes known only when the symptom, namely, corrosion stain and or cracking is

manifested. In good quality concrete the corrosion rate will be very slow. Accelerated corrosion

will take place if the pH is lowered or aggressive chemicals or dissimilar metals are introduced
into the concrete. Cracking ad spalling of concrete induced by steel corrosion is a function of the

following variables:

Concrete tensile strength, quality of concrete over the reinforcing bars, bond or condition of the

interface between the rebar and surrounding concrete, diameter of the reinforcing bar, percentage

of corrosion by weight of the reinforcing bar.

Carbonation attack on concrete: Carbonation can be defined as the reaction of carbon dioxide

with hydrated cement. It is the effect of carbon dioxide in the air on cement products, mainly the

hydroxides in the presence of moisture. Calcium hydroxide is converted to calcium carbonate by

absorption of carbon dioxide. Calcium carbonate is slightly soluble in water and therefore, when

it is formed, it tends to seal the surface pores of the concrete destroying its impermeability

system, As a result of the reaction, the layer of concrete becomes carbonated and this carbonated

layer is not sufficiently alkaline ( pH value below 9) to protect reinforcing steel.

Chloride attack on concrete: Chlorides can be introduced into concrete by coming into contact

with environment containing chlorides, such as seawater or deicing salts. Penetration of chlorides

starts at the surface and then moves inward. Chlorides may enter into the concrete from the

following sources: Cement of the concrete, water mixed in concrete, aggregates of the concrete,

admixtures added to the concrete, by diffusion from atmosphere.

Penetration takes time, depending upon the following factors: The amount of chlorides

coming into contact with the concrete. The permeability of the concrete, the amount of moisture

present. The below table details the corrosion risk in case of un-carbonated concrete.
 Chloride (percentage by Uncarbonated concrete Likelihood of corrosion
weight of cement)
< 0.4% Cement with less than 8% of Moderate
C3A
Cement with 8% or more C3A High
0.4 – 1.0% Cement with less than 8% of High
C3A
Cement with 8% or more C3A Moderate
>1.0% Irrespective of content of C3A High

Sulphate attack on concrete: Sulphates are found in most of the soils as calcium, potassium ,

sodium and magnesium sulphate. Solid salts do not attack concrete, but when present in solution

they can react with hardened cement paste. Sulphates are present in seawater, industrial effluents

and some ground water. Sulphate attack occurs when pore system in concrete is penetrated by

solution of sulphates. Sulphate reaction is dependent on the following parameters: Carbonation

of sulphate ions, cations present in the sulphate solution, C3A content of cement, density and

permeability of the concrete.

Acid attack on concrete: Portland cement is a highly alkaline material and is not very resistant

to attack by acids. The deterioration of concrete by acids is primarily the reaction between the

acid and the products of hydration of cement. Calcium silicate hydrate may be attacked, if highly

concentrated acid exists in the environment of the concrete structures. In most cases, the

chemical reaction results in the formation of water soluble calcium compounds that are then

leached away. In case of sulphuric acid attack, additional or accelerated deterioration results,

become calcium sulphate formed may affect the concrete by the sulphate attack mechanism. If

the acid is able to reach the reinforcing steel through cracks or pores in the concrete, corrosion of

the reinforcing steel results and causes further deterioration of the concrete.

Alkali reaction on concrete:

The reaction of some forms of silica and carbonates in aggregates with alkalis in cement

produces a gel, which causes expansion and cracks. Portland cement concrete made with non-

alkali reactive aggregates is highly resistant to strong solutions of most bases (sodium or

potassium hydroxides). However, if sodium hydroxide penetrates concrete and becomes

concentrated at an evaporating face, physical damage would result from crystallization of sodium

carbonate formed by the reaction between NaOH and carbon dioxide from the air.