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INTRODUCTION
Geodesy is one of the earth sciences and that branch of applied mathematics, which
determines by observation and measurement of the
 the shape and size of the earth; position of points (geometric geodesy)
 the gravity field of the earth (physical geodesy)
In practice, geodesy uses the principles of mathematics, astronomy and physics, and applies them
within the capabilities of modern engineering and technology.
The quest for the determination of the size and shape of the earth has fascinated mankind
for centuries. Great men had contributed to the advancement on its methodologies and improvement
of its measuring instruments to measure the earth down to the nearest sub meter accuracy. The
section provides an overview of geodesy as a discipline and its historical development.

1.1 Goals of Geodesy

1. To obtain mathematical model that best approximates the earth’s mean sea level surface.
The model most commonly used is an ellipsoid.

2. To describe the location of points on the earth’s surface relative to the equator (latitude),
an arbitrary meridian (longitude), and mean sea level (elevation).The rotational ellipsoid is
indispensable in providing a framework for geodetic control networks.

3. To determine the true shape of the earth. Newton, Huygens and other in the middle1600's
recognized that the earth's shape is influenced by gravity. This is important to surveyors
because the geoid - the mean sea level to which elevations are referenced-is actually
defined by equipotential surface.

1.2 Fields of Study

Geometric Geodesy – assumes a mathematical ellipsoidal model that best fits the earth’s
shape. Horizontals positioning of points on the earth's surface are based on this ellipsoid.

Physical geodesy - relates the earth’s geophysical internal constitution to its corresponding
external gravity field.

Satellite Geodesy – determination of position of points through the use of artificial satellites.

1.3 Related Earth Sciences

Geology- Study of the structure of the earth or another planet, especially its rocks, soil and minerals
and its history and origins.
Geography- study of all the earth’s physical features, including its climate and the distribution of
plant, animal, and human life
Geophysics- branch of earth science which studies the physical forces that shape the earth.
Cryospheric Sciences- the study of the frozen part of the earth’s surface, including the polar ice
caps, continental ice sheets, glaciers, sea ice, and permafrost.
Geomagnetism – study of the geomagnetic properties of the earth.
Aeronomy – the study of the upper atmosphere of the earth above 50 km, including its cosmic and
ionizing radiation.
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Meteorology – the scientific study of the Earth’s atmosphere, especially its patterns of climate and
weather.
Seismology- scientific study of earthquakes
Volcanology – the scientific study of volcanoes, including their formation, signs of an eruption, and
other aspects of volcanic activity.
Oceanography-scientific study of oceans, including their chemistry, biology, and geology.

1.4 Organizations and Institutions

International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics(IUGG)

The International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) is the international organization
dedicated to advancing, promoting, and communicating knowledge of the Earth system, its
space environment, and the dynamical processes causing change.

Through its constituent Associations, Commissions, and services, IUGG convenes

international assemblies and workshops, undertakes research, assembles observations,
gains insights, coordinates activities, liaises with other scientific bodies, plays an advocacy
role, contributes to education, and works to expand capabilities and participation worldwide.

Associations
 International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS)
 International Association of Geodesy (IAG)
 International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy (IAGA)
 International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS)
 International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences (IAMAS)
 International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans (IAPSO)
 International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI)
 International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI)

1.4.1 International Association of Geodesy (IAG )

The International Association of Geodesy (IAG) is a scientific organization in the field of
geodesy. It promotes scientific cooperation and research in geodesy on a global scale and
contributes to it through its various research bodies. It is an active member of the IUGG and
based in Muenchen, Germany.
The International Association of Geodesy can trace its roots back to the early 19th century, a
time of great progress in geodesy, when Bessel and Gauss made important contributions to
the science. One of Bessel's pupils was J.J. Baeyer, who later became an officer of the
Prussian General Staff. In 1861 General Baeyer wrote a report suggesting that the states of
Europe should work together on the measurement of the size and shape of the earth.

1.5 Universities/Institutes engaged in Geodesy

Germany 1. The Institut für Erdmessung in Hannover - specialises in astro-geodetic zenith
cameras and geoid computations for many European countries
2. The Institut für Theoretische Geodäsie in Bonn (Geodesy, Radio astronomy and
GPS)
3. The Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie in Munich, southern
Germany.
Austria: The Austrian Institute for Geodesy and Geophysics, Vienna (astro-geological geoid,
IGS and VLBI)

Swirtzerland: The Swiss Geodetic Institute at the ETH Zürich (geophysical geodesy, GPS etc.)

U.S.A. Geodesy at Ohio State University, Columbus OH,  (http://geodesy.eng.ohio-

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state.edu/)
Canada 1. Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of New Brunswick,
(http://gge.unb.ca/HomePage.php3)
2. . Geomatics Engineering at the University of Calgary, Alberta,
(http://www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/)
Finland Department of Surveying at Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo,
(http://www.hut.fi/Units/Departments/M/)

Australia Department of Spatial Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, Perth,

(http://www.spatial.curtin.edu.au/)
Malaysia Faculty of Geoinformation Science & Engineering, Malaysian University of
Technology, Johor Bahru, Malaysia (http://geomatics.fksg.utm.my/index.htm)

1.6 Historical Development of Geodesy

The Spherical Earth Theory

It is known that Pythagoras (582-500 BC) and Aristotle (384-322) declare the
earth to be a sphere. Plato postulated the radius of the earth to be 40,000 miles and
Archimedes declared the radius to be 30,000 miles.

The founder of scientific geodesy is Eratosthenes (276-195 BC) of Alexandria, who under
the assumption of a spherical earth deduced from measurements a radius for the earth. The
principle of arc measurement method developed by him still was applied in modern ages. From
geodetic measurement, the length of a meridian arc (S) is determined; astronomical observations
furnish the associated central angle (). The radius of the earth is then given by
S
R


Eratosthenes found that at the time of the summer solstice, the rays of the sun descended
vertically into a well in Syene; whereas in Alexandria, roughly on the same meridian, they formed an
angle with the direction of the rod. He determined this angle to be 712' and estimated the distance
from Syene to Alexandria to be 5000 stadia based on a map. Because 7 1/2  is 1/50 th of 360 , it
follows that the circular arc subtending 7 1/5  is 1/50 th of the circumference of the earth. The
circumference of the earth is thus determined to be 250,000 stadia. If a stadium being used is
roughly 1/10th of a mile, then the circumference is 25,000 miles. Based on these data, he obtained a
radius of 6,267 km based on present standards. This value departs from the radius of a mean
spherical earth (6371 km) by -2%.

Most of the known facts and his observations were incorrect :

1. although it is true that the sun at noon is directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer on the
day of the summer solstice, it was erroneously concluded that Syene lay on the line.
Actually, Syene is 37 miles to the north;
2. the true distance between Alexandria and Syene is 453 miles and not 500 miles;
3. Syene lies 330' east of the meridian of Alexandria

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4. The difference of latitude between Alexandria and Syene is 7 5' rather than 7 12' as
Eratosthenes had concluded.

Arc measurement of
Era stosthenes
7 1/5 deg
l
l le
a ra from
P ys
ra n
su Rod Measured elevation of
Sun at Ale xandria

00 82 4/5 deg
50 adia
st
a
R
Well at
Syene
R

7 1/5 deg

Earth‘’s center

Illustration of Eratosthenes’ technique of computing the earth’s circumference

At the beginning of the 17th century great inventions and improvements were made for the
advancement of the science geodesy. In chronological order:

1609 Galileo invented the telescope.

1614 Publication of the logarithmic tables by a Scot, John Napier, was the basis for the
greatest labor-saving invention in mathematics until the computer.
1615.The Dutchman Willeboard Snellius (1580-1626) conducted the first triangulation to
determine the figure the earth. For Snellius, the deviation with respect to the mean
earth radius amounts to -3.4%.
1667. Jean Piccard (France 1669-1670), Frenchman, was the first to use a telescope with
spider-web cross hairs. He also used vernier scales to improve the precision of
angular measurement. He performed arc measurements along the meridian thru Paris
between Malvoisine and Amiens by the aid of triangulation network, used a telescope
in his angle measurements and computed with logarithms and was 0.7% too large.
1750’s James Watt first used stadia cross hairs on the telescope
1790. Metric System was adopted. the arc distance from the equator to pole and established
it to be 10,000,000 meters. This would serve to be the definition of the meter as a
natural unit of length.
1831 William J. Young in Philadelphia invented the first transit.

The Ellipsoidal Earth Theory

Cassini's Ellipsoid. The Cassini Brothers (1683-1718 ) continued Picard's arc northward to
Dunkirk and southward to the Spanish boundary. Cassini divided the measured arc into two parts,
one northward from Paris, another southward. He found that that the length of one degree in the
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northern part was shorter than the southern part. This unexpected result could have been caused
only by an egg-shaped earth or by observational errors. They concluded that the earth is not a
sphere but elongated at the Poles but yielded a negative flattening of - 1/95 caused by errors in the
measurement of astronomic latitudes.

The Flattened Pole Ellipsoid. The English claimed that the earth is flattened at the Poles. In
1687, Isaac Newton published his Law of Gravitation in which he theorized that the Earth is flattened
at the poles, obtained a rotational ellipsoid as an equilibrium figure for a homogenous, fluid, rotating
earth based on the validity of the law of universal gravitation and gave a flattening of f=1/230.

To settle the controversy, once and for all, in 1735, the French Academy of Science
sponsored a geodetic expedition in Ecuador and in Finland. Maupertuis and Clairut participated in
the expedition to Lapland, Finland. In combination with the arc measurement on the meridian
through Paris the result was f=1/183. Godin, Bouguer, and La Condamine made the second
expedition to Ecuador arc measurement. In combination with the Lapland arc led to f=1 /210. The
measurements conclusively proved the earth to be flattened, as Newton had forecast. Since all the
computations involved in a geodetic survey are accomplished in terms of a mathematical surface
(reference ellipsoid) resembling the shape of the earth, the findings were very important.

1.7 Adaptation of the Metric System

Over the years the many different measuring units cause no end to confusion. Attempt to
standardize weights and measures led to the creation of the metric system in the 1790's. It was
agreed that the standard unit of length would be the meter.

In 1792 Delambre and Mechain was commissioned by the French Academy of Science to
measure the arc distance from the equator to pole and established it to be 10,000,000 meters. This
would serve to be the definition of the meter as a natural unit of length.

In 1866 the U.S. Congress made the use of metric weights and measures legal. The meter
was equal to 39.37 inches, or 1 foot equaled to 0.3048006 meter. In 1960, the metric system was

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modernized and called the "Systeme International d' Unites"(SI) and 1 foot equals 0.3048 meter. As
of the present the complete adoption of the metric system in the U.S. is only a matter of time.

1.8 The Development of Modern Surveying Instruments

In the mid 1500's, an Englishman, Thomas Digges, first used the term theodolite to describe
an instrument, graduated in 360, which was used to measure angles. The telescope was invented in
1609 by Galileo to observe the stars but was later attached to a quadrant that measures angles.
Jean Piccard (1620-1682) was first to use a spider-web cross-hair in a telescope. James Watt
(1736-1819), who invented the steam engine, also is credited with being the first to install stadia
hairs in the survey telescope.

Refinements to theodolites continued over the years with better optics, micrometers,
coincidence reading, lighter materials, and other improvements. Heinrich Wild is credited with many
significant improvements to theodolites in the early 1900's, greatly affecting the designs of most
European survey instruments produced by Kern, and Zeiss.

In the United States, William J. Young of Philadelphia invented the transit in 1831. The
shortened telescope of this instrument permitted the telescope to revolve on its axis. This simple but
brilliant adaptation permitted the surveyor to produce straight lines accurately, simply by sighting the
backsight and transiting the telescope forward.

If an ellipse is rotated about its major axis, it forms an ellipsoid of revolution. The customary
ellipsoidal earth model has its minor axis parallel to the rotational axis of the earth. The size of such
an ellipsoid is usually given by the length of the two semi-axes or by the semi-major axis and the
flattening.

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In the early 1950’s AMS (The Army Map Service) added exciting new information about the
southern hemisphere. A field party completed two long triangulation arcs through Central and South
America and in Sudan, Africa. These two long arcs from way in the north to way down south, more
than 100° long, were analyzed and a new Figure of the Earth was derived which was somewhat
smaller than had been internationally thought before.

Another exciting piece of information was added by AMS in 1958 at the time when the first
satellite went up. It was found that the earth was a little less flattened than had been thought before.
When the satellite data were analyzed further, it turned out that the nearest point in a satellite’s orbit,
the perigee, was always nearer to the earth when the satellite was over the northern hemisphere
than when it was over the southern hemisphere. This indicates an asymmetry in the earth’s shape. It
is a little narrower in the north than in the south.

Once, one had thought that the earth was a sphere, and then it seemed to be rather like a
grapefruit. Now we found that it was slightly different from a grapefruit, rather like a pear.

1.9 Geodetic Reference System of 1980

In its general assembly in Canberra (1979), the International Union for Geodesy and
Geophysics (IUGG) introduced the Geodetic Reference System 1980 with the following
conventional constants (exact):

a= 6,378,137 m semi-major axis

1/f = 298.257222101 reciprocal flattening

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Willebrord Snellius
Willebrord Snel van Royen (1580-1626)

Dutch astronomer and mathematician, most famous for the

law of refraction now known as Snell's law.

1613 he succeeded his father, Rudolph Snel van Royen

(1546–1613) as professor of mathematics at the University
of Leiden. In 1615 he planned and carried into practice a
new method of finding the radius of the earth, by
determining the distance of one point on its surface from the
parallel of latitude of another, by means of triangulation. His
work Eratosthenes Batavus ("The Dutch Eratosthenes"),
published in 1617, describes the method and gives as the
result of his operations between Alkmaar and Bergen op
Zoom—two towns separated by one degree of the meridian
—which he measured to be equal to 117,449 yards
(107.395 km). The actual distance is approximately 111 km. Snellius was also a distinguished
mathematician, producing a new method for calculating π—the first such improvement since ancient
times. He rediscovered the law of refraction in 1621, now named after him. The lunar crater Snellius
is also named after him.

Snell, who was born at Leiden in the Netherlands, received his initial training in mathematics from
his father, who taught at Leiden University. He traveled widely in Europe, visiting Paris, Würzburg,
and Prague, and among the celebrated scientists he met were Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe.
Once he had returned to Leiden, Snell published a number of editions of classical mathematical
texts. On the death of his father (1613) Snell succeeded him as professor of mathematics at the
university.

He was involved in practical work in geodesy and took part in an attempt to measure the length of
the meridian. In this project he was one of the first to see the full usefulness of triangulation and
published his method of measuring the Earth in his Eratosthenes Batavus (1617; The Dutch
Eratosthenes). In 1621 Snell discovered his famous law of refraction, based on a constant known as
the refractive index, after much practical experimental work in optics. Snell did not, however, publish
his discovery and the law first reached print in Descartes's La Dioptrique (1637; Dioptrics). However,
Descartes had arrived at the law in a totally different way from Snell and made no use of practical
observation.

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Jean Picard was born in La Flèche, a town on the banks of the Loire, France. Jean studied at the
Jesuit College at La Flèche. The castle in La Flèche, which had been built by the grandparents of
Henry IV, was given by him to the Jesuits in 1603 to found a College. It was to be called the Collège
Royal Henry-Le-Grand and was given instructions "to select and train the best minds of the time".
One of the most famous students at the College in the years immediately after its foundation was
René Descartes. By the time Picard studied there, the College had the reputation of being one of the
best educational establishments in France.

Picard devised a micrometer to measure the diameters of celestial objects such as the Sun, Moon
and planets. In 1667 he added a telescopic sights to the quadrant making it much more useful in
observations.

The micrometer and telescopic sights were not Picard's ideas; for these we must go to others -
William Gascoigne, Christiaan Huygens, Adrien Auzout, and Pierre Petit. Jean Picard was a shy and
modest abbot who took their innovations and applied them systematically to astronomy, geodesy,
and levelling. Picard's passion was precision, and in this area he was unsurpassed; not even John
Flamsteed could match his accuracy. Picard was a tireless worker, often away in the provinces or
abroad on some important project while others were in the limelight in Paris.

Picard greatly increased the accuracy of measurements of the Earth, using Snell's method of
triangulation. He measured the length of the arc of the meridian; the measurements appear in
Mesure de la Terre (1671). He began by accurately measuring his baseline from Villejuif to Juvisy-
sur-Orge then, using thirteen triangles, measured by triangulation one degree of latitude along the
Paris Meridian from Malvoisine, in the southern suburbs of Paris, to the clock-tower of Sourdon near
Amiens. Finally he measured the altitudes of stars. All the instruments he used to carry out this work
were fitted with telescopic sights which gave him values correct to 10 seconds of arc (Tycho Brahe
had only attained an accuracy of 4 minutes of arc) and he produced a value for the radius of the
Earth which was only 0.44% below the correct result. The use of these techniques meant that Picard
was one of the first to apply scientific methods to the making of maps. He produced a map of the
Paris region, and then went on to join a project to map France. His data on the Earth was used by
Newton in his gravitational theory. Picard was honoured for these contributions with a pyramid
erected at Juvisy-sur-Orge, one end of his baseline, in 1740.

Picard was also involved with the measurement of the length of the second pendulum. Finding that
the length was not constant led to the first proof that the Earth was not a perfect sphere but was
flattened at the poles. Also at the Paris Observatory, Picard was involved with measuring the
parallax of Mars. This was important since an accurate value would give the scale of the solar
system. The value Picard, working with Jean-Dominique Cassini, and Jean Richer, deduced for the
distance from the Earth to the sun underestimates the true value by 8.5%. Also at the Paris
Observatory, Picard tried to measure the parallax of nearby stars and so verify the fact that the Earth
orbits the sun. In 1680 he found the first certifiable variation but at this time aberration was not
understood, so he cannot be credited with the discovery of the first stellar parallax (see [9] for further
details).

Picard corresponded with many of the leading scientists of his time including Bartholin, Hevelius,
Hudde and Huygens. He published the first Connaissance des temps for the year 1679 and
continued to produce the annual work for the following four years. It has been published
continuously since then. However, his astronomical observations were not published in his lifetime.
In fact it was 60 years after his death before they were published by Pierre-Charles Le Monnier.
Albert van Helden ends his review with this assessment of Picard:-

... it is now evident just how much modern precision measuring owes to this quiet, unassuming man
who stayed out of the limelight.
Article by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson

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