ÌCourse: Population Education-I (6573)

Level: MA-EPM
Semester: Autumn, 2019
ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q.1 Discuss the method of data collection and source of data for population. What are the consequences of
overpopulation?
ANS: ANS: Statistical Data:
The bedrock of data analysis and interpretation is formed by the collection of data. ‘Data’ is basically unorganized
statistical facts and figures collected for some specific purposes, such as analysis. There can be different sources of
data, such as statistical and non-statistical sources.
Also, there are different methods of data collection, depending on the type of data. There are two main types of
data: primary and secondary.  Understanding the difference between the two is important in deciding which method
of data collection to use. Tremendous amounts of statistical analyses are carried out continuously in countries for
publication purposes or even for policy framing.
Sources of Data
There are two sources of data in Statistics. Statistical sources refer to data that are collected for some official
purposes and include censuses and officially conducted surveys. Non-statistical sources refer to the data that are
collected for other administrative purposes or for the private sector.
Statistical Survey
A statistical Survey is normally conducted using a sample. It is also called Sample Survey. It is the method of
collecting sample data and analyzing it using statistical methods. This is done to make estimations about population
characteristics. The advantage is that it gives you full control over the data. Y
ou can ask questions suited to the study you are carrying out. But, the disadvantage is that there is a chance of
sample error creeping up. This is because a sample is chosen and the entire population is not studied. Leaving out
some units of the population while choosing the sample causes this error to arise.
Census
Opposite to a sample survey, a census is based on all items of the population and then data are analyzed. Data
collection happens for a specific reference period. For example, the Census of India is conducted every 10 years.
Other censuses are conducted roughly every 5-10 years. Data is collected using questionnaires that may be mailed
to the respondents.
Responses can also be collected over other modes of communication like the telephone. An advantage is that even
the most remote of the units of the population get included in the census method. The major disadvantage lies in the
high cost of data collection and that it is a time-consuming process.
Register
Registers are basically storehouses of statistical information from which data can be collected and analysis can be
made. Registers tend to be detailed and extensive. It is beneficial to use data from here as it is reliable. Two or more
registers can be linked together based on common information for even more relevant data collection.
From agriculture to business, all industries maintain registers for record-keeping. Some administrative registers also
serve the purpose of acting as a repository of data for other statistical bodies in a country.
Types of Data and Data Collection
Like stated earlier, there are two types of data: primary andsecondary.
Primary data
As the name suggests, are first-hand information collected by the surveyor. The data so collected are pure and
original and collected for a specific purpose. They have never undergone any statistical treatment before. The
collected data may be published as well. The Census is an example of primary data.
Methods of primary data collection:
1. Personal investigation: The surveyor collects the data himself/herself. The data so collected is reliable but
is suited for small projects.
2. Collection Via Investigators: Trained investigators are employed to contact the respondents to collect
data.
3. Questionnaires: Questionnaires may be used to ask specific questions that suit the study and get responses
from the respondents. These questionnaires may be mailed as well.
4. Telephonic Investigation: The collection of data is done through asking questions over the telephone.to
give quick and accurate information.
Secondary data
Secondary data are opposite to primary data. They are collected and published already (by some organization, for
instance). They can be used as a source of data and used by surveyors to collect data from and conduct the analysis.
Secondary data are impure in the sense that they have undergone statistical treatment at least once.
Methods of secondary data collection:
1. Official publications such as the Ministry of Finance, Statistical Departments of the government, Federal
Bureaus, Agricultural Statistical boards, etc. Semi-official sources include State Bank, Boards of Economic
Enquiry, etc.
2. Data published by Chambers of Commerce and trade associations and boards.
3. Articles in the newspaper, from journals and technical publications.
Solved Example for You
Question: Differentiate between primary and secondary data.
Answer: Primary data refers to first-hand information which is directly collected from the units being surveyed. It is
pure in the sense that it has not undergone any statistical treatment yet. It is particularly collected for some purpose.
Secondary data, on the other hand, is second-hand data. It is collected from some source that had originally
primarily collected it. It has therefore undergone statistical treatment and is classified as impure or not original.
Thus, the main difference between primary and secondary data lies in the exchange of hands.
Concerned with the regional differences in the earth’s covering of people and their characteristics, population
geography is basically an empirical science. In order to achieve the objectives, it is necessary for a population
geographer to have data or facts on human population. There are two main aspects of population on which
geographers generally require data.
These are: the state of population at a given time for a territorial unit including its geographical distribution and
its composition, and the dynamics of population in time and space as a result of the combined effects of births,
deaths and migration. Data pertaining to these two aspects are collected in two different ways. While in the case
of former, data is collected at a particular point of time, the latter refers to the recording of events on a
continuous basis.
The former, generally known as stock data, is represented by census and various social surveys, and provides
information on size, distribution and various social, demographic and economic attributes of the population.
The latter, on the other hand, is known as flow data and relates to the registration of such events as births,
deaths and migration.
1. The Census:
Census is the single largest source of data for population studies all over the world. Though modern census is
the phenomenon of a more recent time in past – in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, evidences indicate
that enumeration of people were carried out in different parts of the world even during the ancient time. The
purpose of such enumeration was, however, very limited, i.e., tax collection, or military conscription, or both.
Concerned with the regional differences in the earth’s covering of people and their characteristics, population
geography is basically an empirical science. In order to achieve the objectives, it is necessary for a population
geographer to have data or facts on human population. There are two main aspects of population on which
geographers generally require data.
These are: the state of population at a given time for a territorial unit including its geographical distribution and
its composition, and the dynamics of population in time and space as a result of the combined effects of births,
deaths and migration. Data pertaining to these two aspects are collected in two different ways. While in the case
of former, data is collected at a particular point of time, the latter refers to the recording of events on a
continuous basis.
The former, generally known as stock data, is represented by census and various social surveys, and provides
information on size, distribution and various social, demographic and economic attributes of the population.
The latter, on the other hand, is known as flow data and relates to the registration of such events as births,
deaths and migration.
This is achieved by adjusting the figures for the births, deaths and migration that take place between the actual
counting and the reference date through additional inquiries soon after the reference date. Further, in the
enumeration process, two approaches are adopted.
These are: de facto and de jure. While in the de facto approach, used in Australia for instance, each individual is
recorded at the place where he/she is found at the time of enumeration. As against this, in de jure approach, as
in the United States, people are recorded at their normal or usual place of residence. In some countries,
however, a combination of both the approaches is used, for example, in Brazil and England.
One of the major problems for a population geographer concerning census data is the difference in the level of
detail provided, the accuracy of returns and the period of coverage across different countries of the world. This
renders any international comparison very difficult.
However, with the initiatives of the United Nations, a good amount of comparability has been achieved in data,
though limited to small number of variables, of different countries. Furthermore, the census data of the more
advanced countries are, in general, more accurate and reliable than those of the underdeveloped or developing
countries.
The censuses in such countries are nominative and require individuals or household to complete their own
forms (Woods, 1979:19). After the Second World War, with the assistance of the United Nations, the
developing countries have begun census operations in a more scientific manner, and the output is becoming
more and more reliable.
2. Vital Statistics:
The data on vital events such as births, deaths, marriages, divorces, separations, annulment and adoption etc. are
known as vital statistics. The continuous recording of such data is known as vital registration system or civil
registration system. Though, a practice of collecting information on list of baptism, burials and wedding by
churches is known to have existed from much earlier time in Europe, vital registration system is a matter of
nineteenth and twentieth centuries only.
The first civil registration system was introduced in England and Wales in 1836 and Scotland in 1854. Britain,
however, cannot be regarded as the birthplace of official vital statistics (Cox, 1976: 23). Even before Britain, in
Sweden, a law for making of tabular records of population had come into existence as early as in 1748.
This law provided for the regular recording of births, deaths along with other ancillary information for each
parish. In fact, in the Scandinavian countries, there has been a continuous system of registering births, deaths
and marriages since the mid-eighteenth century.
Along with vital events, vital statistics also provide several, other ancillary information. In case of birth, for
instance, additional details on sex of the baby, mother’s age, the number of her previous children, the order of
the birth, the residence of the parents etc. are also recorded. Likewise, in the case of death, information on date
and place of death, sex, age and occupation of the deceased and the cause of death are recorded.
The vital statistics form an important tool for studying the dynamics of the population of any country or region.
However, as noted in the case of census data also, the vital statistics are marked with a great amount of
inaccuracy in a larger part of the world, particularly among the developing countries including India. Many of
the developing countries still do not have a system of continuous registration of vital events.
This poses a serious problem for population geographer while mapping the world patterns of vital events. The
inaccuracy of data on vital events in developing countries due to poor coverage renders a researcher’s attempt
on the study of population dynamics a very difficult task.
3. Demographic Sample Surveys:
Demographic sample surveys form another important source of population data. In sample surveys data are
obtained from selected samples and the extent of statistical error in the data is minimized by regulating the size
of the samples. The data thus obtained have several uses such as bringing up-to-date the results of a complete
count taken some time in past, checking the accuracy and supplementing the data of current complete count etc.
The collection of data through sample surveys has many advantages over periodic complete counts. It requires a
smaller number of staff or interviewers, and thus, is less expensive. With the help of more skilled interviewers
and properly designed questionnaires, information on some specific topics can be obtained in detail through
sample surveys, which are ordinarily not possible in periodic complete counts. The data obtained through a
sample survey are more reliable. Further, sample surveys can be conducted more often and questions asked can
be varied from time to time.
Despite these advantages, sample surveys cannot replace the complete counts. Sample surveys and periodic
complete counts are basically complementary to each other. An efficient sampling requires stratification, and
this can be achieved only if there is a suitable reference framework based on a recent complete count of some
sort (Cox, 1976:42). Likewise, sampling becomes indispensable at every stage of census enumeration: at the
planning stage, in the enumeration itself, in the course of processing and tabulation of data, and in the post-
enumeration checks of the accuracy of the data.
4. Population Registers:
In the Scandinavian countries and some other European countries like the Netherlands, Belgium and Finland the
local registration bureaus maintain registers in which details about each individual are continuously recorded.
These registers are known as population registers and they provide a comprehensive account of the changes that
take place in the population. In this system, a separate card for each individual is maintained from the time of
his/her birth (or immigration) to his/her death (or emigration).
On this card all the information pertaining to changes in the civil status of an individual, along with other details
of socio-economic and demographic importance, are continuously entered. Some non-European countries like
Taiwan and Korea are also known to maintain such registers.
The primary objective behind this system is to establish the identity of the individuals and to keep a vigil on
them (Bhende and Kanitkar, 2000:53). Population registers, however, are an important source of wide range of
population data ordinarily not available from both the census counting and vital registration system. They also
provide a very good account of the contribution of migration in population change of a country.
Sweden is said to be the first country to have started this system in the seventeenth century (Ramakumar,
1986:182). It is obvious that the population registers can be maintained more efficiently for small populations
with a higher level of culture. However, even those countries, which maintain such registers, cannot afford to do
away with periodic censuses. One of the disadvantages of the system is the fact that a register as detail as this
might constitute an infringement on individual liberty (Petersen, 1975:29). That is why, only a few nations
attempt to maintain population registers in spite of the wealth of population data that they provide.
5. International Publications:
The United Nations and its various organs, along with other international agencies such as the World Bank,
publish population data for the world as a whole and for different countries separately at regular interval. The
most important of them is the Demographic Year Book, published by the UN.
It provides data on such wide ranging topics as population size, area, density, urban population, population
growth, age-sex composition, number of births and birth rate, number of deaths and death rate etc. Sometimes,
the volume is devoted to special topics, which include fertility, mortality, marriage, divorce, migration, and
population census statistics.
The special volume includes detailed statistics regarding a particular topic. Besides, the UN also publishes the
Population and Vital Statistics Report quarterly which includes latest data on total population, total mid-year
population and estimate of population for a recent reference year (Srinivasan, 1998:56). Information on vital
events includes total number of births, deaths, infant deaths, crude birth rates and crude death rates.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) also publishes data on various social, economic and
demographic aspects for the world and for different countries in its annual Human Development Report. Other
international publications on world population data include Production Year Book of FAO, Year Book of Labor
Statistics of ILO, Statistical Year Book of UNESCO, and World Health Statistics Annual of WHO. While the
FAO publication provides information on agricultural population, the publication of ILO gives detailed data on
the economically active population.
Similarly, the UNESCO publication provides data on education, literacy and school attendance for different
countries of the world. The monthly periodical of WHO presents data on public health and mortality for
different countries of the world. Apart from the above sources, the World Bank also publishes data on various
demographic, social and economic aspects in its annual World Development Report.

Part b: Consequences of Overpopulation

Overpopulation has become a major concern and it has many long lasting consequences that are both
environmental and social problems. According to howmany.org there is about 220,000 people being born every
 day. A reporter from the U.N. stated, "The world is running out of time to make sure there is enough food,
water and energy to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population and to avoid sending up to 3 billion people
into poverty" (rmontpellier, 2012). If something is not done to prevent these issues then they will just continue
to worsen. 

Here are the top three issues related to overpopulation:

Air  Quality is being polluted by emissions from factories, vehicles, burning of trash, and agriculture just to
name a few, especially in very populated areas. This is causing more cases of health issues such as asthma and
cancer every year, as well as acid rain and pollution of water ways (eSchoolToday).  Below is an example of a
recent study done in San Diego that shows the number of days throughout the year the the air quality was poor
through the years 200-2011 (Air Quality). 

Food shortages are expected to increase due to the population increase. "Global food production has kept pace:
today enough food is produced to feed all of us comfortably. However, access to food is another story; hunger
has risen in recent years and food prices have increase... the number of undernourished people in developing
counties increased by about 20 million between 2000 and 2008." (rmontpellier, 2012) 

Water shortages are predicted to happen because already today about 1 billion people lack sufficient access to
water for drinking, sanitation, and agriculture (howmany.org). The lack of water is leading to water wars,
according to howmany.org almost all of the 37 military conflicts around the Jordan River have been over water
since the 1950s. Below is a graph from 2002 depicting water shortages from around the world and how it is
affecting people
-----------------------------

Q.2 Explain the various modes of teacher training for teaching population related concepts.

ANS: .5A Strategies for Trhlaing

he of the immportant components of all the population education prOgran

the trainmg of teachers and other relevant personnel in the formal and non O

Sectors. he countries which have already launched national populatiO1 Coa

programs have experimented with deferent models of training whercas those wich

are togmning there programs and are planning to use a combination of arey

odeis of traming. Each model has merits and demerits and there is at yet nol

Cmpirical study conducted which can vouch for the one or the other mode tor

raning. 1he countries have to decide them selves which models are altected in

achieving the plan objective of training program as per there needs, available

resources and constraints. There are different training models which are being used

in ditferent countries in the region are briefly discusscd here.

2.5.2 Hierarchical face-to-face Training model

According to this model the training continuum consists of successive training sessions

for different cducational personnel in the hierarchical descending order. The process

nvolves training of personnel face-to-face in two or more steps'. wherein the project

personnel are trained at the national and international level who in return train a

selected group of specialists of master trainers at the national and intemational level

who in turm train a selected group of specialists or master trainers (teacher cducators

district education officers, principals, college professors and others)who in turn train

the teachers at the district, sub-district or village levels. This kind of model places the

teacher who is the main target of the training programme, at the end of the line and a

receiver of what is passed on from the top.

5.3 Peer-Training Model

The peer training model involves a linear pattern in which the trainers and the

trainces are both on the same level. The hierarchical face to face training model

22takes considerable numbe of years to train all the teachers, While Peer Training

model is very usetul for population cducation n this model the principals and

subject heads of coordinatoTS m cach secondary school are trained by Master

Trainers through face to face traming and in retum they are given responsibility to

train other groups of teachers n ther OWh of neighboring schools. Each institution

IS provided a complete set of raning maternals including training manual, teacher s

guides or audio Visual aids, and evaluation tools. Each school determines its

tuaning Schedules of for teachers. The consolidated information is also shared with

the concemed distnet and ofticer in charge at provincial level. The supervisory

teans also Visit the schools and ensure on spot asSIstance, guidance as well as

evaluation of the trning programmes.

This model has the advantage of economic feasibility and a faster rate of teacher

traming. The absence of hierarchy in terms of hob position between the trainer and

the ranees generates a closer and smoother nteraction between the two. Some

researehers also ndicate that in-service teachers prefer to take the advice ol

experience teachers who are currently reaching rather than other professionals who

may have more specialized training but less teaching experience the school

At the student level, UNFPA has a successful Y-PEER Training program that is

designed on a cascade training model. The master trainer of Y-PEER train a group

ot 25 young people and then each traned young person train 25 yOung people in

the community. This model has potential to tran teachers at higher secondaryy

mstitutions level. It requires less funding but more motivation from the individuals.

.5.4 Mobile Training Model:

This model consists of floating or mobile teams ot traimed competent and highly

experienced teachers, administrators, and supervisors wh0 conduct. training

programme tor teachers in their schools or in designated training centers in the

area. These teams are equipped with a variety of instructional materials, aids and

equipment. The teams equipped with variety of instructional materials, aids and

equipment. The teams can be replenished as the tuaining goes on, thus minimizing

the withdrawal of the members from their respective posts for a longer period and

also giving a chance to other competent teachers and administrators to act trainers.

The trainimg can be organized at a stretch or during vocations or weekends as may

be convenient to the teachers and administratively feasible in particular area.

The advantages of this model are that it does not disrupt the school work and is

more economical because there is no additional expense to be incurred on the

training or daily allowances ot the teacherS.

5.5 Modular or Self- learning Training Model

The modular approach is a relatively new innovation for in-service as well as re-

services traning of teachers in Asia and the Pacific. It has been shown by some

studies that selt-eaming modules raise knowledge and change in attitudes.

23PrOvide ndependent and direct traming to teact tDimum

, 1t 1s easy to administer, more economical, and enlaiis inum of

problems. One with this model is the motvatiOn ol le o use the

self learming modules.

Deen successfully used in the formm of a summer-sch00 COrepOndence

2.5.6. Correspondence Training, Mode

This model h

0 Caucation under the National Council of Educational Kesearch and 1ranang

np1Ses a comespondence phase and a face- to-lace traininE phase. he

training of teachers in India conducted Dy the Kegional

prC-service

ol

p o cducation. The main advantage of this model Is that a age nue of

Can be reached. This can be an effective as well as economical mOdel lor

uc can also be successfully used for the in service trdining oaces

g tcachers in population education. The success of thi5 model, Ioweve pcnos

po e quality of the set of correspondence lessons and other Jeaine tmale.als. a

ystcanC and regular feedback mechanism. and an efficient postal service. 1he

P s most eftective if it is supplemented with some Kind of lace to 1ace Uaining

SCsSiOns Ciher by peers or headmasters of mobile uaining teams.

2.5.7 Linked Training Model

According to the Linked Training Model the uaining of teachers in populaton

ducation 1s built into the in-service training activities set up tor those subject arcas in

which populatuon education has been integrated. A specific time is allocated to the

population cducation within the total training peniod. This model can be used as a

supplement to other models ot training because the number of teachers that can be

covered through this model will be very limited. The benefit of this model is mainly

economical because no additional expenses are required for the travel and daily

allowances of teachers. The basic limitation of this model is that due to time shortage

more intensive and sustained traiming would not be possible. 1here is also a possibility

of the population education component being overshadowed by the main subject. In

most of the Asian countries this mode 15 Deing Used they have integrated the

population education in their on golng in Service teachers training programmes.

2.5.8 Educational Radio (ER) and Educational Television (ETV) Training Models

Many countries in Asia and the Facilic are using radio and television in

supplementation and reinforcing the in service training of teachers.

The use of Education Radio and 1elevISIon lor the in service training of teachers in

population educaluon is one o tne possiDincs which should be explored. This can

be an economical and elfected model tor training teachers especially those who live

in remote areas. Te teachers should receiv e backeround recourse materials

before the broadcasts, the head ot the scnoo snoud be made responsible to conduct

the training programme and send feedback and evaluation periodically to the

district education officers of the concerned olicials at the national level. Thismodel can be
supplemented wn a peer training model and modular training model

1o make it more eftective.

This model has been used by the UNESCO Regional Team in Population education

especially for the training of out of school key personnel, from different cOuntries. This is
based on participatory method used in the rural communities where the field team

identity community needs/problems develop programmes and need based learning

materials. This is useful model but because of the financial. physical and ume constraints

this model may no be teasible for the training personnels on a large scale.

2.5.9 Field Operatienal Training Model

2.5.10 Internship

The intermship model of training has been used by the UNESCO Regional Team in

population educatiOn for the training of key persons from different countries in

population education as well as in documentation. The interns work in speciic

areas or population education through self study under a supervisor. This model

can also be used at the national level in the training of key persons. The limitation

of this model is that only selected individuals can be trained through this mode.

The attachment of key persons for a period of one to three months to somee

Successful programmes in population education has been organized by the

UNESCO Regional office. Bangkok Under this programme the trainee works as a

member of the local staff and gain full experience in the substantive as well as

operational aspects ot the programme.

The financial and resource constraints of the internship model limit the number of

persons who can be trained.

2.5.11 Eclectic Training model

This model combines all the above models tor the training of different categories of

personnels. The model envisages Tour main calegories o1 personnel. Viz ()

population education project (1) administrators and policy level personnel (1i1)

resource persons and trainers and (iv) teachers and field workers. For each category

of personnel main models of training has been suggested which can be reinforced
or supplemented by other models of training depending upon the needs and

resources of a particular country. 1he main strategy used in this model is that the

population education project personnel, administrators, and resource persons and

trainers whose number is manageable and who need extensible training will be

trained through mobile teams and/or peer training models. The training of teachers

and field workers can be supplemented by modular, linked, correspondence and has

minimum of administrative and other problems.

2.5.12 Use of Educational Technology in Population education

View of the inclusion of population education content in different in school

Subjects and non formal education programmes, adequate learning maternals in

25Fopuaton education was developed under the provisions of natonal prOJects, It

y 1ocused on five core messages of population educati0n, cons1dered as

CTuctal n yielding the desired effects and impact In students, and out ol School

lld adults. The themes of the Droposed core messages ol population

CducatiOn, (1) family size and family welfare (ii) delayed marriage (11) responsible

parenth00d (iv) population change and resource development (V) population telated

beliefs and valuces.

In1985-1986. the Regional Team in collaboration with experts n the countricCs,

uevctopCd a,vide0 cassette tape for the first cote message i.e. family S1Ze and 1amily

wellare, using the problem solving or inquiry approach. The video cassette tape 1s

Intended primarily for use in the training of teachers and other key personnel, and in

Leaching population education. In 1976, the Regional Team, collaboration with experts

in the countries, de veloped a prototype slide and tape entitled, "Demography in

Popuiation education:. This set was further improved n 1981-1982. These two sets of

materials have generated a lot of interest in the set of slides and tapes for their own use.
Many educators arc convinced that the use of slides and tapes is one of the most

cffeetive ways of teaching population education. Like wise. the use of other

modern educational technology, particularly video cassettes, in raining and

teaching, is becoming increasingly popular largely because it iS quite cost-effective.

Many country projects have recordersS, cameras, Video cassette recorders and

nonitors: and in some countries sophisticated vIR system have been purchased.

Q.3 Discuss the population education contents in the future, impact of population growth and problems in
population education.

ANS: ANS: OPULATION EDUCATION CONTENTS IN THE FUTURE

of population education contents in the future. First, there is the importance of having respect
nere ae a number of basic concepts, with universal applicability. which should be pan
S, CSpecially persons of the opposite sex. If children can leam this, and understand what
cans and can develop this as a strongiy held value, then they will be more ikely to refrain
rom behaviour which is potentially harmful to others. it is particularly important Uhat boys leam
to respect the rights and feelings of girls and women.
C Cqually impoitant concept is the importance of developing self-respect and self-
Csteem while this is pertinent to both boys and girls, it is particularly important for girls, and
should be accompanied by exposure to the variety of life options (employment opportunities
etc.) which will be opening to them. finish their educatíon and avoid early pregnancy.
Thirdly, children should understand that it is possible to plan. This includes the
importance and feasibility of planning pregnancies. They should also understand that the
children ideally speaking, are born out of a conscious, carefully thought out decision on
the part of loving parents. The fourth concept to convey is that behaviour has
consequences. Since individuals can usually control their behaviour, they must accept
responsibility for those consequences. If adolescents behave irresponsibly, for example.
in the area of reproductive behaviour, they should understand that the consequences may
be life-long implications.
Fifth. youngsters should be taught to appreciate the importance of postponing the first
pregnancy. When children leave school, at whatever age they need to understand the
importance of postponing the first pregnancy in terms of the benefits (health. social,
economic) this planning can bring to them and their eventual offspring. This concept needs to
be taught: early and it is one of the mOst important concepts in population Education.
Finally, children need to learn how to withstand social pressure. Social pressure
can come from peers in sOCieties where early adolescent sexual activity is popular. It can
also come from parents, other relatives and neighbours who expect young couples to have
their first child as soon as possible alter marriage. Population education should help
learners recognize these types of soCial pressure and help students deal with them in a
responsible manner. While. young learners can develop the ability, over time to analyse population
1Ssues and to see their role in shaping these issues, adults and out of school youth require
understanding of the immediate relevance of population issues to their daily lives. By and
large, these learners are already at reproductive age and they need sufficient information
to enable them to control their own fertility and to make other population decisions such
as those relating to migration. The content for this group of learners then, should be
specific to their immediate needs. Meeting. their needs adequately will require an
integrated approach so that young adults. such as couples about to be married, for
example, will receive appropriate education in a timely fashion
IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH
.Te worid has seen the biggest nonulation increase during the last ew decades.
Since the second World War there has been an unprecedented populatiIon growth
particularly in less developed regions of the world.
nthe middle of nineteenth century there were one billion people iving On earth. It
tOOK Oniy a slight more than a centurv to add one more billion in it. Since then. after
yelve vears one billion is added. According to the latest figures. now in 1993 the
world population is crossing five billion and by the turn of the century it will cross the six
billion mark.
This alarming increase has abused worldwide interest in the study of population
dynamics and its impacts on socio-economic developments. The population boom has
been recognized as the biggest problem and greatest impediment on the way of socio-
economic progress by the most of developing countries.
11.1 Population and Food Requirements
Among the basic requirements of human beings is the food. It is the most important
need for survival. Scarcity of food causes under-nutrition and mal-nutrition; and in
case of its severe shortage incidence of sickness. starvation and premature deaths
are common. There is a certain minimum requirement of food which all
governments of developing countries are constantly endeavouring to provide
providethrough the huge investments made in agriculture. The rapidly growing population
creates mbalances between the requirements and food supply. The total food
Suppiy does not satisfy the demands of the rapidly growing population of the world
and the requirenments are not met adequately. Very often. the people of under
developed countries face the dangers of famine. starvation and deaths of poor and
nungry people. The main reason behind such catastrophies is, uSually, the shortage
ot food supplies. The human beings out number the availability of food stuff.
Human beings are not merely numbers. Their first basic need is appropriate and
adequate tood. So, the development planners are facing the acute problem ol rapid
population growth and inadequate food supply.
11.2 Health and Population Increase
Health is a word for physical, social and mental well-being of an individual with
added spintual elements. WHO define health as a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely absence of disease of intirmity.
T here are a number of indicators which refer to health conditions of a country.
These include
(a) Availability of qualified medical doctor (Doctor and Population Ratio)
(b) Doctor and nurse ratio.
(c)
(d) Hospital Beds and population ratio.
e) Population and health institution ratio.
() Population per birth attendant.
Nurse and population ratio.
Availability of these health facilities are the indicators of health conditions. It is
obvious that with the rapid population growth these facilities cannot be increased in
developing countries. Therefore. the target of improving the quality of life al ways
remains unfulfilled. Population boom thwarts the public health efforts.
113 Population Housing and Transport
The most important human need after food is the house and shelter for living. The
most important human group 1s the tamily and household. The family thus
represents a molecular unit of that society which, through the mechanism of its
reproduction process, contributes to the growth of population and also fulfilsa
desired portion of its responsibilities to the young and old of the society.
Since a family needs a house, the tulfilment of this need contributes to quality of
life. The increasing population in developing countries is exerting very high
pressure on the exXIsting housing stock which is growing very slowly. Household
size or the family Size is the simplest measure to assess population pressunre. t is
undoubtedly very high in under developed countries. Population pressure can be measured by the average
number of persons per room
and number of rooms per housing unit. During the past few decades the average
household density has increased manyfold in the regions of the worid where
population growth is very high. The house-holds increase moderately while
population grows very fast: the result is an every widening gap. Alongwith the
need of more houses, the growing population need more and wider roads. More
heans ot transportation are required. More fuel and more vehicles are needed. This
state of the affairs has raised questions and concerns.
11.4 Population and Educational Development
ucatton has long been recognized as the central element in development. It is vital
nvestment for any human resource development and for upgrading the quality of life.
lt1s, therefore, considered to be the most powerful factor for any socio-economic
development and welfare of the society and country as a
education has been considered as a basic human need and every Govermment
responsible to provide adequate educational facilities to its people. Education is also
used as mean of meeting other basic needs in the society such as nutrntion, health,
housing. etc. Education accelerates and expands the socio-economic advancements.
hole. In the modem times,
Indicators of educational development include the literacy rate, participation rate at
different levels, student, teacher ratios, national expenditure on education and the
nature of educational activities and institutions. It is already very obvious that these
indicators show a very poor condition of education in under developed countries
where there is greatest population growth rate
It is basically education which changes the attitudes and behaviours of he people
towards modernization and the quality of life in general. Education helps to
overcome poverty and reduce the family size. Keeping in View very crucial role of
education, its relationship with population growth cannot be under estimated.
With the increase of population more schools, more teachers, more school
buildings, more equipment and hence more resources are required. Where there is
already low literacy rate the education badly suffers and people are left un-
educated. Resultantly, on the one hand population growth rate increases and on the
other the vicious circle of poverty takes the masses into its grips.
11.5 Population and Employment
The economically active population or employed labour force represents the main
group of the society whose major function is to produce the goods and provide
services to meet the requirements of all individuals of the society. Usually, the
employed force ranges from adulthood years to the old age yeats.
Population growth rate has implication for employment. A growing population creates
serious problems for all sectors of the economy. specially those sectors which are not growing
fast. In developing countnes where population grows rapidly, employment usually lagsbehud this growth due
to slower growth of economy. Consequently, the Individuals face
unemployment problem. With rapid population growth rate: the under enmployment and
uneployments problems prevail. The most pressing need of the present times is to make the
people ware of the gravity of the problem and sensitize them through population education
to make Ruonal and responsible decision regarding population growth issues.
11.6 Socio-Cultural Implications of Rapid Population Growvth
A high population growth rate creates a series of problems specially in raising the
sOcio-cultural conditions and quality of life. The traditional joint family system
behavioural as well as economic problems. Increasing dependency ratio compeels
families to have child labour force to supplement family income and as a result of
that children impose tremendous burden on their parents. The population explosion
brings. unemployment, ignorance, uncivilized and low quality of life. The big
questions arises, should we allow such conditions to prevail and continue or as
rational human beings we should adopt all possible measures teavoid such harmful
effects of unbridled population growth?-
3Pawt3 PROBLEMS AND ISSUES IN POPULATION EDUCATION
Population Education is an innovative and recent development. It has been
recogniZed, accepted and launched with various emphasis in most of the countriesS ot the
world.
Various countries respond to these programmes with different strategies and
approaches. This is due to the difference in socio-cultural reactions towards these
programmes. Population education, although widely accepted programmes, 1S not tree
from difficulties, taboos and problems.
Social Problems
In developing countries where there is low level of awareness, people have/with
regard to population issue, their rigid attitudes indicates the strength of that family
or tribe. They do not clearly visualize the implications of more number of human
beings. Their perception about modern life is limited. They are adamant and behave
stubbornly to all persuasions. They look towards population education programmes
suspiciously. 16
G) Religious Problems
OrthodOX and rigid sects of sonme religions erroneously think that all programmes
which emphasuze the reduction of human population growth rate are the effort8 to
antrude and trespass the natural and divine path of human growth. They hardly
accept such educational programmes. Although on the other side almost al
enlightened, far sighted and rational religious groups have supported and
encouraged population education programmes. Examples of former groups can be
have
Supported and
observed in India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangla Desh. Iran. Malaysia, Sri Lanka.
Japan, China and Korea.
iii) Political Problems
Some politicians and pressure groups, under the influence, of their soci0-cultural
backgrOund, do not support the population education programmes. They do not
give up the traditional, Conventional and out-dated-baseless value system.
Resultantly the efforts of the Governments arc aftected and the required inputs are
not provided. Such elements do not even allow to learn from the experiences of
other nations.
System
International Political differences and other issues affect _the useful common and
joint population education programmes.
wnM
48.Meaning and Definition of Population Education:
Most of the people agree ‘Population Education’ with education of the population. If we go deep into the
matter, we will find that population education is education about population matter, i.e., fertility, mortality,
migration etc. It is an educational process which helps people to understand the nature, the causes, and
consequences of population events.
It is a factual knowledge about population dynamic. Population education is an educational process, which
helps individual to learn about population and particularly the effect of population dynamic and the related
problem on the individuals, family, community, nation and the world.
Its main purpose is to create awareness, to provide knowledge and to develop positive attitude for improving
population situation to ensure a better life now and in future.
Challenging Issues in Population Education:
The following diagram reflects the problems due to growth of population:

Definitions of Population Education:

Burbson:
“Population education is an exploration of knowledge and attitude about population, the family and sex. It
includes population awareness, family living, reproduction education and basic values.”
Gopal Rao:
“Population education may be defined as an educational programme which provides for a study of the
population phenomenon so as to enable the students to take rational decisions towards problems arising out of
rapid population growth.”
UNESCO:
“Population education is an educational programme which provides for a study of population situation of the
family, the community, nation and world, with the purpose of developing in the students rational and
responsible attitudes and ehavior towards that situation.”
Summing up the meaning:
An educational programme.
ii. Generation of interest and opportunity to study the effects of population growth of individual, family,
community and country.
iii. Developing awareness about population control and positive and healthy attitudes about the programme
among the youths.
The National Seminar on Population Education:
In 1969 a seminar ehavior by Family Planning Sangt gave first emphasis in introducing population education
in India and Govt. of India made NPP (National Population Policy) in 1976. “It is essentially related to human
resource development. It is not only concerned with population awareness but also with the developing values
and attitudes which take care of the quality and quantity of population. It must explain to the students cause and
effect relationship, so as to enable them to make rational decision on their own ehavior on population matters.”
From the analysis of the above given definitions we find that population education is an exploration of
knowledge and attitudes about population, family living, reproduction education and basic values. It also gives
hints about the problems created by ever-increasing population.
Need and Importance of Population Education:
Population explosion affects every aspect of man’s life-individual, national and international. It affects health,
wealth and happiness of individual and families.
It also affects the prosperity and progress of nations, international security and peace. In order to minimize the
problems like food problem, economic problem, younger generation problem, environmental problem and
educational problem, there is an urgent need of population education at all levels.
Thus the idea of population education is based on the following assumptions:
Rapid growth of population is a constant threat to our economic development.
(ii) Over-population affects the health and well being of the younger generation.
(iii) Population explosion creates an obstacle for raising the standard of living of the masses.
(iv) Population education is not to be mixed with sex education or the methods of family planning. Rather it
should be a motivational force for creating the right attitude to family size.
(v) Population education is not a “once for all affairs”, rather, it should be continuous process.
Hence, population education needs to be given top priority in the present scenario. The younger generation
needs to be informed about India’s populations problems. They need to be properly educated with new ideas for
leading a better adult life.
The present situation needs population education because it is a new content area and is highly relevant to the
lives of the people. It also encourages improvements in methods of teaching, in the structure of the system of
education, in the value of the students and the teachers and in so many other areas.
General Aims of Population Education:
The aims of population education are as follows:
Population education aims at assisting the individual to understand the causes and consequences of population
phenomena.
(ii) It enables the individual to understand how docs population situation affect the individual and society.
(iii) It aims at recognizing the causes of demographic phenomena and to enable the people to make changes in
order to remove those obstacles for social progress.
(iv) It enables to acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary to understand the concept of
population education.
(v) It enables the learner to take a conscious and right decision about the prevailing population situations.
Contents of Population Education:
The NCERT organized a workshop on “Population Education” at New Delhi in July 1970.
It suggested that the following five areas should form the curriculum of population education:
The Population Growth.
ii. Economic Development and Population.
iii. Social Development and Population.
iv. Health, Nutrition and Population.
v. Biological Factors, Family life and Population.
The following topics have been suggested by D. Gopal Rao as the content of Population Education:
The history of population growth-world in general, India in particular causes, trends and implications.
ii. An introduction to demography with special reference to India.
iii. Effects of rapid population growth on economic, social, cultural and political aspects of national
development.
iv. Effects of rapid population growth on individual and family life, standard of living.
v. Effects of rapid population growth on the physical environment, food, natural resources and quality of life.
vi. The population policies and programmes of the world in general.
vii. An elementary knowledge of the physiology of reproduction wherever feasible.
Faculties of agriculture and agricultural colleges were first formed in the belief that farm production could be
increased as a result of the systematic application of current technology and agricultural research findings. The
mission of these early educational institutions was to scientifically study agriculture with the participation of the
farming community; to carry the results to a broad range of farmers who could use them; and to train farmers,
extension workers, agricultural teachers and researchers so that agricultural production could be increased on a
sustained basis.
Intermediate level training and higher education in agriculture continue to play an important role in rural
development and sustainable agricultural production. An increasingly interdependent world, however, is
producing new challenges for institutions where agriculture is taught. Over the years, the world has changed
and, in many of the developing countries, agricultural education and training have failed to adapt and respond to
the realities of rural societies.
Curricula and teaching methods have not always been relevant to the development objectives of individual
countries, to the needs of farmers and, to the labour market in general. The situation has become more difficult
as a result of economic crises. In many developing countries, the public sector used to absorb the large majority
of agricultural graduates. This is no longer the case. Agriculture graduates are finding it increasingly difficult to
become employed. Governments can no longer afford to hire every graduate and diploma holder and education
in agriculture has not kept up with the increasingly sophisticated needs of the private sector. Environmental
degradation, rapid changes in scientific and technical knowledge, the changing role of women in society and the
increasing marginalization of agriculture and rural life all call for changes in the current system of education in
agriculture.
In a rapidly changing social and natural environment, agricultural education is being asked to play a critical
role. What are the changes and adaptations, in structure, strategy and policy, that agricultural education
institutions need to make to face the new challenges of the twenty-first century?
In response to the need to review and adjust teaching and training programmes in agriculture at all levels, FAO
carried out three complementary initiatives as part of its overall work to improve agricultural education and
training throughout the world. Two expert consultations dealing with these issues were held in Rome. The first,
in 1991, examined the results of a survey of 20 agricultural universities, colleges and other institutions selected
from throughout the world. The results and recommendations of this meeting of authorities in the field of higher
agricultural education are summarized in the document Strategy Options for Higher Education in Agriculture:
Expert Consultation. The second expert consultation was held in 1993 and was titled Integrating Environmental
and Sustainable Development Themes into Agricultural Education and Extension Programmes. This
consultation identified some of the obstacles and challenges to be faced in integrating such themes in higher
agricultural education, particularly in developing countries. Participants suggested some measures to strengthen
the environmental and sustainable development content of programmes of teaching, research and public service.
Case studies commissioned for the consultation described the current situation in selected faculties of
agriculture in ten countries.
In addition, eight regional round table meetings were organized throughout the world with the participation of
heads of university faculties of agriculture, agricultural colleges and technical education institutions, high
schools and officials of Ministries of Agriculture and Education. These meetings focused on specific problems
faced by agricultural education and training in each of the regions. The round tables aimed at analyzing
problems and opportunities in each region to assist governments in the development of future educational
programmes. The meetings were intended as the first steps toward practical action that could be carried out to
improve agricultural education at the national and regional levels.
This document highlights the problems, issues and recommendations which were discussed at the round table
meetings and the expert consultations. It also draws attention to other issues which confront agricultural
educators in the developing countries. Many of the issues were raised by one or more round table meeting. This
should not be taken to imply that the issues are not relevant to other regions, but only that they were particularly
noted by specific round tables during the discussions. Throughout the text, round tables at which particular
issues were raised are referred to in bold text, e.g. Asia and Pacific
The following terms are used throughout the paper:
· The terms Agricultural Education and Training refer to institutions and courses of agricultural instruction at
all levels and duration, from full-time degrees to short-term and continuing education. Education and training
are, in some cases, used inter-changeably, although training is often used in association with the teaching and
learning of specific skills.
· Higher-level Education and Training refer to university (degree) level programmes of study.
· Technical Vocational Education and Training refer to secondary-level institutions, colleges and technical
high schools below degree level (e.g. diploma and certificate).
· Continuing Education refers to any system of education conducted through on-the-job training and/or short
courses as a part of the process of lifelong learning.
It should be noted that many of the issues raised during, the round table meetings and the expert consultations,
and some of the solutions and recommendations proposed, are not exclusive to agricultural education and in
many cases apply to other fields. The results of the meetings and discussions, however, clearly demonstrate that
agricultural universities, colleges and schools face major challenges in the next century. Meeting these
challenges will require new strategies, innovative leadership and institutional reforms.
A changing world
The decade of the 1990s emerged with wide-ranging political, social, economic and technical changes that have
had dramatic impacts on the world. Most countries are seeking market-oriented economic policies and the
political structures and institutions to promote and support them. The methods and contents of agricultural
education and training need to change and to take into account current trends and influences if they are to meet
the needs and realities of rural societies. Many of the problems identified by the round tables and expert
consultations are due to the failure of education and training to adapt to a changing world. Intermediate and
higher education in agriculture are, and will continue to be, of critical importance in bringing about sustainable
agricultural growth and national development, but at present they are largely failing to meet new societal needs
and demands. The reality that there will be eight billion people to be fed and clothed by 2025 is having a
profound effect on the thinking of educational planners and policy makers.
Rapid advances in communications technology (e.g. electronic mail and Internet) in recent years have made
collaboration and cooperation between institutes of agricultural education increasingly possible and desirable
both within and among countries. At the same time, reduced funding for specialized research programmes and
courses make inter-institutional collaboration increasingly necessary. New global developments in science and
technology have profound implications for agricultural education institutions. For example, developments in
molecular biology make possible the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another, opening up new
areas of research and teaching in plant and livestock improvement. If institutions are to keep pace with rapid
changes in science and technology, continuing education for faculty members is required through scientific
meetings, inter-institutional exchanges collaborative workshops and innovative uses of electronic information
systems and distance learning.
Major factors that affect the teaching of agriculture at all levels are:
· Urban growth and the marginalization of agriculture and rural life;
· Population growth issues and the need to incorporate these issues into agricultural curricula;
· Rapid scientific progress and the pace of technical change;
· Changing employment opportunities;
· Increased awareness of gender issues and the roles of women in the agricultural sector;
· Increased awareness of environmental issues; and
· The need to revise the education of extension workers to make their knowledge, skills and attitudes more
relevant to current development needs.
The marginalization of agriculture and rural life
As they develop, virtually all countries of the world have decreasing proportions of the economically active
population dependent on agriculture. In the more industrialized countries as a whole, the percentage of full-time
farmers has fallen below three percent and the proportion of the population economically dependent on
agriculture is less than nine percent.
Despite increasing rural populations in most parts of the world and increased demand for food production, the
percentage of the population which makes a living directly from agriculture continues to fall. Intensification of
production through improved technology and increased inputs is responsible in most cases, for increased
production, rather than increased numbers of producers.
Rural population growth and increased efficiency in production have lead to increased levels of unemployment
and underemployment, and a consequent migratory drift to cities in search of work and better standards of
living. National resources tend to be directed to satisfying the needs of urban centres due to their political and
economic influence at the cost of resources for rural areas. This urban bias and rural exploitation has led to
decreasing levels of real income in the rural areas.
The result is an increasing marginalization of agriculture and rural life. Funds and resources for agricultural
education are reduced as national budgetary restrictions are applied. Reduced funding for general education in
rural areas means poorer standards and, consequently, fewer rural young people formally qualified to enter
higher agricultural education. This in turn means fewer agricultural students with an in-depth understanding of
rural life and development problems. Increasingly, urban-based graduates, with little practical knowledge of
rural socio-economic and bio-physical factors, are working in rural areas as development advisers. Often,
curricula are developed at the national level and based on knowledge and skills which are more relevant to
urban centres than rural areas.
The most important sources of knowledge relevant to development in agriculture are rural people themselves.
Their systems of life and of production embody this knowledge. Consequently, the description and analysis of
these systems should be a necessary starting point for research, training, extension and other actions intended to
help rural people become more productive. This requires that agricultural education institutions play not only an
academic role, but also a community development and outreach role that combines knowledge of local rural
production with modern agricultural science.
Box 1 – Jamaica
Extension outreach at the College of Agriculture in Jamaica:
“This requires the faculty to move from the research and teaching environment into the world of the agricultural
producer and the agri-businessman who are in urgent need of technical solutions to their production and
agricultural problems. This activity provides the opportunity to practice agriculture as the application of science
and technology to our food and agricultural systems.” Vera Badresingh, “Agricultural Education and Training
Strategies for Higher and Intermediate Level Institutions in the Caribbean Countries: The Jamaican
Situation”. Caribbean Regional Round Table, 1994.
Population growth issues and population education
Population projections suggest that the world population will continue to increase from the present figure of
around 5.5 billion to a population of between 11 and 14 billion by the end of the next century. Although the last
doubling of human numbers was only about 37 years, average population growth rates are declining world-
wide. For the present, however, populations continue to rise in developing regions where efforts to reduce
fertility levels have met with limited success. Unless rapid population growth can be reduced, additional
pressure will be put on increasing agricultural production in order to guarantee food security. Increasing
population pressure can also contribute to the deterioration of natural and environmental resources.
Institutions of agricultural education need to incorporate population education concepts and principles into
curricula since many agricultural graduates will become managers, planners, and policy/decision-makers who
need to understand the dynamic inter-relationships between food, population, the environment and national
socio-economic development. Students need knowledge of the substantive content of population education – for
example, the impact of population growth on agriculture and natural resources, basic demography and gender
issues as related to population and agriculture. Furthermore, students being trained to work as extension agents
need to be able to engage farm families in dialogue about population issues and to effectively communicate
population messages to rural people.
Rapid scientific progress and the pace of change
New developments in science and technology have increased the number and the depth of subjects important to
an understanding of agriculture. Food processing and post-harvest technologies, biotechnology, agri-business
management and farming systems development are some of the new areas which need to be incorporated into
curricula. These areas may attract increasing numbers of students as new employment opportunities are created.
Although agriculture and agricultural education have generally kept pace with scientific progress in the past, the
pace of change is much faster today, requiring continual updating of curricula. Scientific knowledge is changing
very quickly as modern communication technologies facilitate the sharing of information among scientists. It is,
therefore, important that students develop the skills and attitudes that will allow them to continue to learn
effectively and to develop their own competencies during the rest of their working lives.
Changing employment opportunities
Reduced aid flows, negative balances of payments and increasing pressure on government spending have led to
increased commercial concerns for agricultural education and training. Curricula need to become better related
to employment opportunities. This requires a continuous analysis of market needs and employers’ requirements
in order to plan and develop appropriate curricula.
In developing countries, the dramatic reduction in employment by government services means that students
need to learn knowledge and skills for the private sector. As student enrollment in agricultural education is very
much related to employment opportunities, a continuous assessment is required of labour market needs and
employers’ requirements for the purpose of planning and developing agricultural curricula.
The message of sizable reductions in the public sector workforce should not be lost on university and college
administrators and teaching staff members; it certainly is not lost on students who are demanding curricular
changes that will prepare them for employment opportunities in the private sector. Whether the slack can be
taken up by the private agricultural sector depends on the overall rate of economic growth. Consultations with
prospective private sector employers are essential for curriculum reform and to obtain estimates of the numbers
and types of positions that are likely to be available for graduates. The private sector will increasingly need to
be brought into the curriculum development process.
Gender issues
Women play a major role in the world’s agricultural production systems. In the less developed countries an
estimated one third of all rural households are managed by women. In Sub-Saharan Africa and
the Caribbean, women produce 60-80 percent of basic foodstuffs, while in Asia they perform over 50 percent
of the labour involved in intensive rice cultivation. In spite of women’s significant roles in agricultural
production, especially in the food sectors of developing countries, gender bias is reflected in most
characterizations of farming communities. This bias is also evident within the agricultural education and
extension programmes of both the developed and developing countries. “Farmers” are usually seen as either
genderless or male.
In recent years there has been increasing recognition of the vital roles played by women in all areas of the
agricultural sector and the need for women to have access to the knowledge and skills related to agricultural
production, processing and marketing. Women require training and information on specific farm practices as
well as on farming systems development and economic management. Agricultural students need to be educated
and informed about rural women’s problems, potentials and aspirations. The issue is not one of equal
treatment, it is an issue of equal benefit. In most cases, male and female audiences will need different
treatment and approaches within a given formal or non-formal educational programme. Time constraints and
family responsibilities are not the same for men and women, and educational programmes must take into
consideration these “differences” in order to have equal benefit from educational offerings.
The question of how to attract more female students to agricultural disciplines is linked to the issue of
encouraging students from rural areas to enter higher education. The number of female students has increased
over the past ten years and this trend should be supported and encouraged. More role models for young women
to emulate are needed, including teachers in agricultural education institutions.
Raising the number of women in agricultural education and extension programmes is important as a means of
reinforcing the commitment to understanding and changing the status of women. However, increasing the
number of women professionals and practitioners will not in itself “resolve” gender bias, since women as well
as men are bearers of these stereo

Population is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn. In statistics, population may refer to
people, objects, events, hospital visits, measurements, etc. A population can, therefore, be said to be an
aggregate observation of subjects grouped together by a common feature.
A population be defined by any number of characteristics within a group, which statisticians use to draw
conclusions about the subjects in a study. A population can be vague or specific. Examples of population
defined vaguely include number of newborn babies in North America, total number of tech startups in Asia,
average height of all CFA exam candidates in the world, mean weight of U.S. taxpayers and so on. Population
can also be defined more specifically — number of newborn babies in North America with brown eyes, the
number of startups in Asia that failed in less than three years, the average height of all female CFA exam
candidates, mean weight of all U.S. taxpayers over 30 years of age, among others.
Most times, statisticians and researchers want to know the characteristics of every entity in a population, so as
to draw the most precise conclusion possible. This is impossible most times, however, since population sets
tend to be quite large. For example, if a company wanted to know whether each of its 50,000 customers
serviced during the year were satisfied, it might be challenging, costly and impractical to call each of the clients
on the phone to conduct a survey. Since the characteristics of every individual in a population cannot be
measured due to constraints of time, resources and accessibility, a sample of the population is taken.
A sample is a random selection of members of a population. It is a smaller group drawn from the population
that has the characteristics of the entire population. The observations and conclusions made against the sample
data are attributed to the population. The information obtained from the statistical sample allows statisticians to
develop hypotheses about the larger population. In statistical equations, population is usually denoted with an
uppercase ‘N’ while the sample is usually denoted with a lowercase ‘n.’
For example, let’s say a denim apparel manufacturer wants to check the quality of the stitching on its blue jeans
before shipping them off to retail stores. It is not cost effective to examine every single pair of blue jeans the
manufacturer produces (the population). Instead, the manufacturer looks at just 50 pairs (a sample) to draw a
conclusion about whether the entire population is likely to have been stitched correctly.
A parameter is data based on an entire population. Statistics such as averages andstandard deviations, when
taken from populations, are referred to as population parameters. The population mean and population standard
deviation are represented by the Greek letters µ and σ, respectively. The standard deviation is the variation in
the population inferred from the variation in the sample. When the standard deviation is divided by the square
root of the number of observations in the sample, the result is referred to as the standard error of the mean.
While a parameter is a characteristic of a population, a statistic is a characteristic of a sample. Inferential
statistics enables you to make an educated guess about a population parameter based on a statistic computed
from a sample randomly drawn from that population.
Part b: 200 years ago there were less than one billion humans living on earth. Today, according to UN
calculations there are over 7 billion of us.1 Recent estimates suggest that today’s population size is roughly
equivalent to 6.9% of the total number of people ever born.2 This is the most conspicuous fact about world
population growth: for thousands of years, the population grew only slowly but in recent centuries, it has
jumped dramatically. Between 1900 and 2000, the increase in world population was three times greater than
during the entire previous history of humanity—an increase from 1.5 to 6.1 billion in just 100 years.
How the world population is changing is of great importance for humanity’s impact on the Earth’s natural
environment, but it also gives reasons to hope for a good future. This is because we have a bigger team of better
educated people who can contribute to the solutions that improve global well-being.
A picture of the world population in the very long-run shows extremely rapid growth. Indeed, for a long time
the world population grew at an increasing rate. However, if we focus on the last couple of decades, we see that
this pattern no longer holds, as the annual rate of population growth has been recently going down. 1962 saw
the growth rate peak at 2.1%, and it has since fallen to almost half. A long historical period of accelerated
growth has thus come to an end.
Based on these observations, world history can be divided into three periods marked by distinct trends in
population growth. The first period, pre-modernity, was a very long age of very slow population growth. The
second period, beginning with the onset of modernity—which was characterized by rising standards of living
and improving health—had an increasing growth rate that continued to rise through 1962. Today, the second
period is over, and the third period is unfolding; the population growth rate is falling and will likely continue to
fall, leading to an end of population growth towards the end of this century.
Demographic statistics are measures of the characteristics of, or changes to, a population. Records of births,
deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is
key to making sound decisions about national policy.
A useful summary of such data is the population pyramid. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of
the population in an accessible graphical format.
Another summary is called the life table. For a cohort of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects
their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or
decade in an abridged life table) is presented in tabular or graphical form.
The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus,
while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older
population.

Collection
National population statistics are usually collected by conducting a census. However, because these are usually
huge logistical exercises, countries normally conduct censuses only once every five to 10 years. Even when a
census is conducted it may miss counting everyone (known as undercount). Also, some people counted in the
census may be recorded in a different place than where they usually live, because they are travelling, for
example (this may result inovercounting). Consequently, raw census numbers are often adjusted to
produce census estimates that identify such statistics as resident population, residents, tourists and other
visitors, nationals and aliens(non-nationals). For privacy reasons, particularly when there are small counts,
some census results may be rounded, often to the nearest ten, hundred, thousand and sometimes randomly up,
down or to another small number such as within 3 of the actual count.
Between censuses, administrative data collected by various agencies about population events such as births,
deaths, and cross-border migration may be used to produce intercensal estimates.

Population estimates and projections

Population estimates are usually derived from census and other administrative data. Population estimates are
normally produced after the date the estimate is for.
Some estimates, such as the Usually resident population estimate who usually lives in a locality as at the census
date, even though the census did not count them within that locality. Census questions usually include a
questions about where a person usually lives, whether they are a resident or visitor, or also live somewhere else,
to allow these estimates to be made.
Other estimates are concerned with estimating population on a particular date that is different from the census
date, for example the middle or end of a calendar or financial year. These estimates often use birth and death
records and migration data to adjust census counts for the changes that have happened since the census.
Population projections are produced in advance of the date they are for. They use time series analysis of
existing census data and other sources of population information to forecast the size of future populations.
Because there are unknown factors that may affect future population changes, population projections often
incorporate high and low as well as expected values for future populations. Population projections are often
recomputed after a census has been conducted. It depends on how conjusted the area is in the particular
demarcation.
 Partb; Demography is an important driver of agricultural and economic transformation. The impact of
demographic transformation led “demographic dividend” on East Asian economic growth is well documented
(Bloom 1998, Mason and Kinugasa 2008). The East Asian baby boom, which started in Japan in the late 1940s,
sparked a series of demographic and social changes that helped shape the region’s economic growth trajectory
(Bloom 2008). It is increasingly recognized that demographic structure of South Asia—population growth, age
structure, working to non-working age population ratio, population ageing, migration, and urbanization—is
rapidly transforming. Demographic transformation is an important megatrend that will influence future
production and consumption of rice in many ways in South Asia. Higher population raises pressure on food,
energy, and water. Higher population in urban areas increases competition for inputs used in rice production and
importance of rice trade between rural and urban areas. Historically, analysis of population-agriculture nexus
mainly focused on the consequences of overall population growth. Other critical dimensions of demography
were largely ignored. The issue of demographic transformation and its ramification in agriculture has started
receiving attention lately. But, there is paucity of knowledge about the pace and magnitude of demographic
transformation and its impact on the rice sector. This paper aims to bridge this knowledge void. The objective of
this paper is to discuss the South Asian demographic transformation and its ramifications on rice R&D in Asia.
The knowledge about current and future trends on all dimensions of demography is crucial to know potential
producers and consumers, to know consumption trends, and to form a basis for market segmentation. This helps
scientists and policymakers to allocate resources, craft 3 appropriate policies, and design interventions that lead
to positive outcomes in the rice sector by targeting better technologies and services, social sectors (labor,
education, and health) and tailored infrastructures. This paper contributes to the literature on the impact of
demographic transformation on the agriculture sector. Population growth of a country is a function of several
factors including base population size, fertility rate, mortality rate, longevity, population age structure, and
migration. Asia is the world’s most densely populated region. Three of the world’s top ten most populated
countries are in South Asia— Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan. The total population of South Asia1 grew very
rapidly from 0.46 billion in 1950 to 1.37 billion in 2000—roughly 3 times in five decades (Figure 1). The
population grew at 2.2% p.a. adding 0.91 (0.18) billion new rice consumers in total (annually) to the base
population (Table 1). Today South Asia represents 43% of Asia’s and 23% of world’s population. The
population is projected to reach 2.23 billion in 2050. During 2000-2050, it is projected to grow much slowly at
1.0% p.a. adding 0.86 (0.17) billion new rice consumers in total (annually). The population GR has been
slowing down but there is no sign of population reaching to the tipping point until 2050. Across countries,
population GR ranged between 1.8-2.8% during 1950-2000 and projected to range between 0.4-1.3% during
2000- 2050. A combination of high fertility, declining mortality, prolonged life expectancy, and youthful age
structure has contributed to population rise in South Asia, which is expected to continue until 2050. 3.1.2
Fertility rate Fertility rate determines the population growth and structure. Crude birth rate (CBR) and total
fertility rate (TFR) are common methods of measuring birth rate. South Asia’ CBR—defined as the number of
births per 1000 population per year—fell significantly from 43 in the early 1950s to 22 in the early 2010s—a
49% decline in six decades. It is projected to reach 13 by 2050 (Figure 1). Across countries, current CBR is
lowest (17) in Sri Lanka and highest (26) in Pakistan. South Asia’s TFR—defined as the number of births per
women—fell significantly from 6.0 in the early 1950s to 2.6 in the early 2010s—a 57% decline in six decades.
Women now are having fewer children than before. projected to fall below replacement level (usually defined
as 2.1 children per women) by the early 2030s, causing population shrinkage. Across countries, current TFR
was lowest (2.2) in Bangladesh and highest (3.2) in Pakistan. 3.1.3 Mortality rate Mortality rate also determines
the population growth and structure. Crude death rate (CDR) and infant mortality rate (IMR) are common
methods of measuring death rate. CDR—defined as the number of deaths per 1000 population per year—fell
significantly from 25 in the early 1950s to 8 in the early 2010s—a 68% decline in six decades. It is projected to
remain stable over the next three decades and marginal increase to 9 by 2050 (Figure 1). Across countries,
current CDR is comparable in the range of 6 to 8. IMR—defined as the number of deaths of infants below one
year age per 1000 live births per year—fell significantly from 166 in the early 1950s to 49 in the early 2010s—a
70% decline in six decades. It is projected to reach 27 in 2050. Rapid drop in IMR dramatically reduce CDR in
the past. Drop in IMR and rise in longevity will reduce death rate and partially offset the effect of fertility
decline in the short to medium run. South Asia’s both fertility rate and mortality rate have fell significantly in
the past six decades. The falling fertility rate in the past has resulted in the falling share of children population
in recent years but at the same time the falling children mortality rate has partially offset the falling share of
children population. The high population growth led baby boom few decades back has caused the increasing
share of working-age population and marginally increasing share of elderly population in recent years. 9 The
combined effect of these demographic factors is the slow growth of the region’s population. South Asia’s
population growth has been falling but it is still high, causing a large increase in the population (19 million per
year during 1950-2000). Approximately 90% of this increase in the population was workingage population.
This large working-age population is contributing to agricultural and economic development of South Asia
through labor supply, large population of rice producers, human capital, and low age dependency ratio. This
human capital is one of major factors contributing to fast economic growth of South Asia now. Roughly 70% of
South Asia’s population lives in rural areas. Of which, 61% is working-age population. The large rural
population—with a high proportion of working-age—supplies abundant rural labors and farmers for rice
production. This led to a large number of rice producers and a small number of net consumers. Large number of
farmers supplied large quantities of rice in the country, made the country rice self-sufficient, and kept rice
prices at the lowest possible level. Likewise, large supply of labors in the rural labor markets avoided labor
scarcity and kept agricultural wages at the lowest possible level. The fast urbanization in South Asia (2.6% per
year in the last one decade) will reduce rural population and also pull rural labor out of agriculture, which will
induce negative effects on rice production. A large number of rural labors from South Asia are migrating out to
urban areas and foreign countries in search of better employment and other economic opportunities. The rapid
rural outmigration and urbanization is causing slow growth of rural and agricultural population. For example,
the agricultural population grew at 8.0 million per year during 1980-89, but it grew only at 3.8 million per year
during 2001-10; it is projected to grow at 1.1 million during 2011-20. The annual growth rate of the agricultural
population fell substantially from 1.72% in 1980 to 0.37% in 2010; it is projected to negative after 2020 (Figure
6). Fast urbanization and fast declining agricultural population mean less number of rice producers and more
number of net rice consumers, most of whom living in urban areas. 10 This will have serious consequences on
overall rice production and supply of rice to urban consumers. The decreasing number of net rice producers and
increasing number of net rice consumers in urban areas will require efficient rice marketing system from rural
to urban areas. The reduced number of producers increases burden on consumers by increasing rice prices and
increases burden on the government by increasing country’s dependence on rice imports. The growing affluent
urban population can afford higher quality expensive rice and also they have different diet patterns. This will
require reorientation of future rice research activities. One important consequence of urbanization and rural
outmigration is ageing of farming population. The rural youth are migrating out from rural areas for several
reasons including low profit and income from farming, community perception that agriculture is a menial
occupation, lack of jobs in rural areas, low wages, rural poverty and hunger, and lack of social services. This is
leading to ageing of farming population in South Asia. The Bangladesh panel rural household data show that the
average age of farming population increased from 38 years in 1988 to 46 years in 2010 (Figure 7). The ageing
of farming population signals low entry of youth in farming. The anecdotal evidences in other South Asian
countries also reflect this phenomenon. Latest farm household studies in different South Asian countries show
that the average age of principal farm operator is 48 years, with the range being 42 years in Pakistan to 52 years
in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. This implies that a large number of South Asian farmers will retire in the next two
decades. The low entry of youth in farming and gradual ageing of farming population pose a serious threat to
future rice production and food security. Another important consequence of urbanization and rural outmigration
is escalating agricultural wages. The large outmigration led rural labor scarcity is leading to higher agricultural
wages in all South Asian countries. For example, the average nominal wage rate of casual agricultural male
laborers in Bangladesh increase from 1.2 US$/day in 2000 to 3.6 US$/day in 2013—an increase of 200% in just
a decade or so. Labor is a major input accounting for nearly half of the total production cost of rice in 11 South
Asia. Thus, rising labor wage rate has direct impact on production cost of rice, which in turn will be reflected in
terms of higher rice prices. The wider availability of the green revolution technologies complemented by a
favorable demographic condition resulted in a high rice yield growth during the 1980s and 1990s in South Asia
(Figure 9). During that period, rice yield growth rate surpassed the population growth rate. This has had a great
positive impact on increased national self-sufficiency on rice, food security, and poverty reduction. The region
is still passing through a favorable demographic transition phase, such as a reasonably high fertility rate, large
share of working-age population, low rate of population ageing, high number of rural population, and mid-age
farming population. This indicates still a large potential for rice production and meeting national rice
requirements through domestic production in the short- to medium-run future. However, the emerging
demographic trends, such as steady falling fertility rate, gradual rising share of elderly population, gradual
ageing of farming population, low entry of youth in farming, increasing rural outmigration, and agricultural
labor scarcity pose challenge to rice production and food security in the long-run future. It is critical for
policymakers and scientists to fully appreciate emerging demographic trends and their implications, with
particular reference to social and economic development, natural resource, rice production, and food security.
Then design and implement appropriate technological, institutional, and policy interventions that effectively
address these issues. Rice research and development programs should be developed within the framework of
demographic transformation. Some desired changes in policies and programs are discussed below. Population
growth has been a major driver for steady growth in rice demand. South Asia’s will add 630 million new rice
consumers in the next four decades. Producing enough rice to feed these extra mouths in the face of declining
land base, increasing non-agricultural demand for water, and increasing production cost is a big challenge. More
investment in rice research and development is needed to 12 increase rice yield. Rice varieties with higher yield,
better nutritional contents, and compatible with local preferences have great potential to address future food
security and undernourishment in South Asia. The region has a large youth population. This is a great asset if
productively utilized. Policies and programs are needed to improve the knowledge and skills of this human and
create employment opportunities to use them productively. Besides, food preferences and eating habits of youth
are different than that of elderly. Youth have busier lifestyle and they are time-starved. Their consumption
behaviors are oriented towards convenience, quality, and variety. Future youth consumers are likely to demand
rice products that are healthy, nutrient-dense, low-calorie that help maintain weight, shorter cooking time,
longer keeping quality after cooking, suitable for sale in convenient stores, and good for takeaway from home.
This brings new opportunities for rice production, processing, delivery, marketing and branding to meet the
demand of youth consumers. Ageing of farming population can bring several challenges to future rice
production and consumption through multiple ways. First, it will reduce both the quantity and quality of
agricultural labors. Labor scarcity increases production cost and reduces profitability of rice farming. Besides, it
causes obstacles expanding or even maintaining existing rice production activities, particularly if these depend
on manual labor as is the case in most parts of South Asia. Second, older farmers are risk-averse and less
receptive to new technologies (Stloukal 2004). This can hinder the adoption of new technologies and reduce
rice yield growth. Third, in the long-run ageing of farmers can lead to the abandon of rice lands in the absence
of heirs. Four, ageing can increase rice prices by slowing down production growth and by increasing production
cost. Five, when traditional rice production sources decline, urban areas will need to find new sources of supply
leading to import from longer distances or increase of imports from foreign countries. Six, elderly people are
likely to demand rice products that are low in calories, cook soft, easy to digest, longer keeping quality, contain
complex carbohydrates, and high in fibers. 13 As the rice faming population gets older and youth remain
skeptical about rice farming as a career, South Asia’s future food security will be threaten. The problem will be
exacerbated by the growing rural labor scarcity arising from increased outmigration of rural youth. It should be
taken as a wake-up call and must adapt to changing demographic structures. Policymakers and researchers must
take proactive approach to minimize or cope with the irreversible consequences of population aging on
agriculture. The solution lies on attracting youth in rice farming. While youths are leaving rural areas, there are
still lots of energetic, smart, and dedicated young men and women who have been farming and want to farm.
This requires making farming intellectually stimulating and economically rewarding through financial and other
supports. This warrants policies and programs that favors commercial production, mechanization of farming,
and better transportation and communication linkages to markets. Efforts are also needed to develop and
promote innovative rice-based technologies that attract youth and raise profitability. Access to credit will be
crucial to adopt improved technologies and shift towards commercial-type farming. The urbanization and
ageing of farming population bring new dimensions to rice demand and supply. The future demand for rice
varieties that meet the needs of elderly population is expected to rise and hence research program should be
tailored to develop such varieties. 5. Conclusions The demographic structures of South Asian countries are
rapidly transformation. Fertility rate, mortality rate, population growth, share of farming and agricultural
population, and entry of youth in farming are declining. Rural outmigration of youth, urbanization, and ageing
of farming population are increasing. These changes are occurring at different pace across countries in South
Asia. And these changes are projected to be more rapid in coming decades. These emerging trends will have
farreaching impacts on the nature and organization of rice farming mediated through labor markets as well 14 as
rice demand and supply. Declining agricultural population and ageing of farming population will lead to labor
scarcity, abandoning of farming land, low rate of adoption of improved technologies, higher production cost,
and slow grow rate of rice production. Despite falling population growth rate, South Asia’s population is still
growing at 17 million per year, creating a large additional rice demand. When rice supply growth trail behind
the rice demand growth, it will push rice prices up as it happen in recent past years. This will disproportionately
hurt the poor more and threaten national efforts to reduce poverty and hunger. Policymakers, scientists and
donor communities must anticipate future demographic changes and craft necessary technological, institutional,
and policy solutions to manage or cope with the emerging tides of demographic transformation so that enough
rice is produced to ensure food security of future rice consumers in South Asia and beyond. The policy and
program interventions should focus on farm mechanization to address farm-labor scarcity, technical trainings
for youth to improve their knowledge and skills on improved farming practices, financial and other supports to
attract youth in farming, research to develop innovative technologies that are intellectually attractive and
economically rewarding, research to develop rice varieties that meet the needs of future youth and old
consumers, and efficient marketing system between rural and urban areas. Efforts are also needed to improve
the entire rice value chain system as there will be more consumers in the urban areas, whose consumption habits
and affordable capacity are different than traditional Asian consumers.
----------------------------------
Q.5 Discuss silent features of population policy statement 1998.

ANS: An aggressive population planning policy will have to be adopted in the seventh plan to break the cycle
of high fertility, low levels of health and poverty. A major breakthrough in the level of literacy, female
employment, age at first marriage, child survival and the knowledge and use of contraceptives, if achieved, can
be expected to reverse the trend in fertility [Planning Commission (1988)]. The plan document for the eight five
year plan (1993–98) recognised: In the past, political and administrative support has been fluctuating.
Recognising the consequences of the rapid growth of population for social and economic development the
government has resolved to provide a strong support to the programme. The objective is to reduce growth rate
from 2.9 to 2.7 percent. For expanding coverage a new infrastructure of village based family planning workers
would be created to take the services to the door steps of the people. [Planning Commission (1994).] Following
multi sectoral approach, for the Eight Five-year Plan (1993–98) active participation of federal and provincial
Ministries, Departments was mandated to provide family planning services through their service outlets. An
Inter-Ministerial Committee consisting Ministers for Planning and Development, Education, Health,
Information and Population Welfare was set up for effective implementation of population welfare programme.
Similar committees were set up at provincial and district levels [Planning Commission (1994)]. The Ninth Five-
year Plan (1998–2003) recognises the serious implications of high fertility and rapid population growth, and is
seeking to accelerate the pace of fertility decline, lower rates of population growth, reduce infant, child and
maternal mortality, improve reproductive health and promote gender equity and the empowerment of women.
With these ends in view, the focus is now on the development and operationalisation of an effective population
policy operating within the framework of nationally accepted, broad-based and strategically focussed
population and development policies, while maintaining voluntary character in the promotion of fertility
moderation. The programme during the Ninth Five-year Plan (1998–2003) has been designed with the aim to
improve quality of life and to bring down population growth rate from 2.4 percent in 1998 to 1.9 percent by
2003. Further, integration of population into overall and sectoral planning has been emphasised [Pakistan
(1999)]. Population Policy Shifts 555 It is evident that planners in Pakistan have been well aware of the
problem of population growth from the very beginning and have been expressing this concern in different
planning documents.
3. POLITICAL SUPPORT The second tenures of both Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif as premier during
1990s showed much open political support for the programme and had contributed to the rise in programme
performance. During 1990s the regular presentations on World Population Day every year were made by the
National Institute of Population Studies (NIPS) focussing “Population Growth and Its Implications on Socio
Economic Development”. In these presentations Ministry of Population Welfare could arrange high level
gathering of elites including the Prime Ministers and sought their support [NIPS (1998)]. Benazir Bhutto taking
a stronger stand on population and family planning in her second term, faced down significant opposition to
attend the 1994 ICPD. Her perceived success in Cairo largely neutralised domestic critics, and in Cairo’s wake,
Pakistanis spoke of a national consensus on population for the first time [Rosen and Conly (1996)]. Her
government declared population to be a top priority and announced that 33000 Lady Health Visitors will be
trained to impart family planning and basic health care to the communities [Khan (1994)]. In order to elicit
broad based support from the public representatives in 1990s standing committees were also set up in the
Senate, National 558 Abdul Hakim Assembly and Provincial Assemblies. In addition, parliamentary group on
Population and Development was constituted in the National Assembly wherein various resolutions were passed
in support of the programme. President General Mushraf’s concern is also visible by the fact that he constituted
a Review Committee under Co-Chair of Federal Population Welfare and Health Ministers to assess the
programme and make appropriate recommendations for its efficient functioning. On World Population Day of
11th July, 2000, he announced to bring down population growth rate to 1.9 percent by 2003 and merger of
population workers with health [The News (2000)]. He has also been vocal in his television address to the
nation, emphasising the need to control fast growth of population for economic development. Open political
commitment of family planning on the part of the highest government officials has at least three types of
effects. First, it tend to result in the mobilisation of increased resources for the programme. Second, it
empowers and mandates bureaucrats both in the family planning programme and in related sectors. And third, it
helps legitimise family planning among the general population and to neutralise cultural and ideological
opposition [Hakim and Miller (1996)]. The inconsistency of political support for family planning in Pakistan
has been widely noted. Even when positive words were spoken, the subsequent actions did not always match
the words. At several occasion the fluctuating and inadequate political commitment of family planning has
adversely affected the performance of the programme.
4. PROGRAMME STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED
During the Eight Five-year Plan (1993–98) the programme received open and sustained political and
administrative support. The rural coverage increased by implementing the scheme of village based family
planning workers (VBFPWs) whereby 12,000 workers were deployed to serve their communities.
Simultaneously, during this period, the lady health workers (LHWs) programme for primary health care and
family planning was also launched by the Ministry of Health and deployed about 33000 such workers both in
urban and rural areas. Both the schemes together enhanced the coverage in rural and urban areas. Different
surveys indicated that contraceptive prevalence was much higher in the villages/communities where these
workers have been deployed [NIPS (2000)]. During 1993–98, the programme was also backed up by a sustained
promotional compaign through mass media and supportive events and activities with the involvement of private
sector. The findings of 1996-97 PFFPS revealed that programme was able to achieve CPR of 24 percent in
accordance with the targets set for the 8th five year plan [Hakim, et al. (1998)]. The strategy during the 9th five
year plan (1998–2003) was guided by the principle of building on positive elements of the on going programme,
ensuring continuity and consolidation of the gains. The scope of the programme has been enlarged to strengthen
outreach through enhanced and improved service delivery strategies with continued attention to rural areas. A
broader reproductive health approach has been pursued with emphasis on mother and child health care.
Population Policy Shifts 561 Based on the high level Review Committee deliberations and decisions announced
by the President on World Population Day on the 11th July, 2000, the government has devised a ten year
perspective development plan 2001–2011 and three year development programme 2001-2004 [Planning
Commission (2001)] covering following objectives of the population welfare sector:- • Decrease the population
growth rate from 2.17 percent in 2001 to 1.82 percent in 2004 and 1.6 percent by the year 2011. • Achieve a
replacement level of fertility by the year 2020. • Increase the coverage from 65 percent in 2001 to about 76
percent in 2004 and 100 percent by the year 2010. • Merger of Community Based Workers of Ministry of
Population Welfare and Ministry of Health. • Provincialise the Population Welfare Programme and further
devolve to district level and below. • All service outlets of health departments will offer reproductive health
services including family planning. • Increase contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) from existing around 30
percent to 43 percent in 2004 and 53 percent in 2011. • Enhance involvement of NGOs/civil society
organisations and social marketing projects. To operationalise the above decisions the cadres of VBFPW and
LHW have been merged as Family Health Workers and placed under MoH, now numbering nearly about
57000. MOPW is trying to upgrade FWCs to function as holistic family development centres in the 1994 ICPD
context. They are expected to mobilise the involvement of the elected women councillors, with the male staff
organising male community support through male councillors and other community leaders. Frequent changes
in programme strategies have adversely affected its performance. Table 1 shows that contraceptive prevalence
rate (CPR) has only reached to 28 percent in 2000-01 with several decades programme implementation. The
increase has mainly occurred in the 1990s when CPR almost doubled. Still there is 33 percent unmet need for
family planning and total fertility rate (TFR) has only declined from 6 to 5 children during the last 25 years.
Sustained high fertility level, therefore, call for more insights into the mechanisms operating in the society and
influencing fertility. In fact at the initial stages of the programme, some experts expressed their reservations
about the success of a large-scale programme in an adverse setting, such as Pakistan, where people have strong
religious and social values in favour of high fertility, strong resistance to any change, female seclusion, and
where male dominance makes it very difficult to reach femal