Sec: 3

Course name: Mat 211

10 july, 2021.
 Answer to the question no:01
Part: 1

i. Meaning and definition of Statistics.

Ans: “Statistics”, that a word is often used, has been derived from the Latin word
‘Status’ that means a group of numbers or figures; those represent some
information of our human interest. We find statistics in everyday life, such as in
books or other information papers or TV or newspapers.

Definition: There have been many definition of the term ‘Statistics’ – indeed
scholarly articles have carefully collected together hundreds of definitions, some
have defined Statistics* as statistical data (plural sense) whereas others as
statistical methods (singular sense). A few definitions are examined below.

“Statistics has two meanings, as in plural sense and in singular sense”. —Oxford
Dictionary.

In a plural sense, it means a systematic collection of numerical facts, and in a

singular sense; it is the science of collecting, classifying, and using statistics.

Plural sense:

Webster defined statistics as “the classified facts relating the condition of the
people in a state especially those facts which can be stated in numbers or in tables
of numbers or in any tabular or classified arrangements.”

Yule and Kendall defined statistics as: “By statistics we mean quantitative data
affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes.”

Prof. Horace Secrist defined statistics as “By statistics we mean aggregates of

facts affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed,
enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standard of accuracy, collected
in a systematic manner for a predetermined purpose, and placed in relation to
each other.”

Singular sense:

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A.L. Bowley has defined statistics as: (i) statistics is the science of counting, (ii)
Statistics may be called the science of averages, and (iii) statistics is the science of
measurement of social organism, regarded as a whole in all its manifestations.

Boddington defined statistics as: “the science of estimates and probabilities.”

Croxton and Cowden defined statistics as: “Statistics may be defined as the
collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.”

Ncttor and Washerman defined statistics as: “Statistics refers to the body of
technique or methodology, which has been developed for the collection,
presentation and analysis of quantitative data and for the use of such data in
decision making.” 

From the above definitions, we can highlight the major characteristics of statistics
as follows:

 Statistics are the aggregates of facts. Single factor isolated facts, or un-
related figures do not constitute statistics. For example, a single figure
relating to production, sale, birth, death, employment etc. cannot be regarded
statistics although aggregates of such figures would be called statistics
because of their comparability and relationship as part of a common
phenomenon.
 Statistics are affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes. For
example, sale of a product depends on a number of factors such as its price,
quality, competition, the income of the consumers, and so on.
 Statistics are numerically expressed.
 Statistics are numerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of
accuracy. Wrong figures, if analyzed, will lead to erroneous conclusions.
Hence, it is necessary that conclusions must be based on accurate figures.
 Statistics are collected in a systematic manner. Before collecting statistics, a
suitable plan of data collection should be prepared and the work carried out
in a systematic manner. Data collected in a haphazard manner would very
likely lead to fallacious conclusions.
 Statistics are collected for a pre-determined purpose. The purpose of
collecting data must be decided in advance.

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  Lastly, Statistics should be placed in relation to each other.

ii. Types of data and data sources.

Ans:

1. Qualitative data: Qualitative data is defined as the data that approximates

and characterizes. Qualitative data can be observed and recorded. This data
type is non-numerical in nature. This type of data is collected through
methods of observations, one-to-one interviews, conducting focus groups,
and similar methods. Qualitative data in statistics is also known as
categorical data – data that can be arranged categorically based on the
attributes and properties of a thing or a phenomenon. Example: There are
four cakes and three muffins kept in the basket.
2. Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is the type of data whose value is
measured in the form of numbers or counts, with a unique numerical value
associated with each data set. Quantitative data are numerically expressed.
Example: weight, height, income, expenditure and price are Quantitative
data. Quantitative data are obtained using either the interval or ratio scale of
measurement.

Data sources could be seen as of two types, viz., secondary and primary. The two
can be defined as under:

 Secondary data: Secondary data is the data that has already been collected
through primary sources and made readily available for researchers to use
for their own research. It is a type of data that has already been collected in
the past. Secondary data can be obtained from different sources:

Information collected through censuses or government departments like


housing, social security, electoral statistics, Tax records.
 Internet searches or libraries.
 GPS, remote sensing.
 Km progress reports.
 Primary data: Primary data is a type of data that is collected by researchers
directly from main sources through interviews, surveys, experiments, etc.
Primary data are usually collected from the source—where the data

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 originally originates from and are regarded as the best kind of data in
research.
The sources of primary data are usually chosen and tailored specifically to
meet the demands or requirements of a particular research. Also, before
choosing a data collection source, things like the aim of the research and
target population need to be identified.
iii. Scopes of Statistics.

Ans: The scope of Statistics is so vast and ever-increasing that not only it is
difficult to define but also unwise to do so. The use of Statistics has permeated
almost every facet of our lives. It is a tool of all science indispensable to research
and intelligent judgment and has become a recognized discipline in its own right.
There is hardly any field whether it be trade, industry or commerce, economics,
biology, botany, astronomy, physics, chemistry, education, medicine, sociology,
psychology, or technology where statistical tools are not applicable. The
application of statistics is so numerous that it is often remarked “statistics is what
statisticians do.” Let us examine a few fields in which statistics is applied.

 Statistics and state: Since ancient times the ruling kings and chiefs have
relied heavily on statistics in framing suitable military and fiscal policies.
Most of the statistics such as that of crimes, military strength, population,
taxes, etc. That were collected by them were a by-product of administrative
activity. But at present times, statistics are used by almost all ministries or
government departments like Finance Ministry, Agriculture Ministry,
Defence Ministry, Industrial Ministry and many more.

EXAMPLE: Use of statistics for framing the policy of poverty alleviation,

population control, inflation control, money supply etc.

 Statistics in Business and management: Statistics are very useful to

businessmen. It helps businessmen in formulating policies regarding business
and forecasting future trends. Modern business has its roots in the accuracy
and precision of the estimates and statistical forecasting regarding the future
demand for the product, market trends and so on Correct estimation and
decision making of the businessmen depend upon his experience and proper
use of statistical methods.

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 According to Wallis and Roberts, "Statistics may be regarded as a body of
methods for making a wise decision in the face of uncertainty."

 Statistics and Economics: In the year 1890 Prof. Alfred Marshall, the
renowned economist observed that “statistics are the straw out of which I,
like every other economists, have to make bricks.” This proves the
significance of statistics in economics. Economics is concerned with the
generation and distribution of wealth as well as with the complex institutional
set-up concerned with the consumption, saving and investment of income.
Statistical data and statistical methods are of immense help in the proper
understanding of the economic problems and in the formation of economic
policies. In fact, these are the tools and appliances of an economist’s
laboratory. For example, what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to
produce - these are the questions that need a lot of statistical data in the
absence of which it is not possible to arrive at correct decisions. Statistics of
production help in adjusting the supply of demand; Statistics of consumption
enable us to find out the way in which people of different strata of society
spend their income. Such Statistics are very helpful in knowing the standard
of living and taxable capacity of the people. In the field of exchange we study
markets, laws of prices based on supply and demand, cost of population,
banking and credit instruments etc.

 Statistics and Physical Science: Physical sciences involve Geography,

geology, astronomy, Physics etc. Descriptive statistics is used to present the
complex phenomenon concerning these branches of study in numerical form
in a very simple way. The methods of statistics are applies to analyze the data
and to find conclusions.

Example: In geography data concerning temperature level over the years can
be collected and analyzed with the help of the statistics.

 Statistics and Natural Science: Statistical techniques have proved to be

extremely useful in the study of all natural science like biology, medicine,
meteorology, zoology, botany etc. The statistics are helpful in the field of
physical sciences as the experiments conducted in this field are based upon
the data collected with the help of descriptive statistics. Statistics is used both
for analyzing data and drawing conclusions.

Example: In diagnosing the correct disease the doctor had to rely heavily on
factual data like temperature of the body, pulse rate, blood pressure, etc.

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  Statistics and Research: Statistical methods are extensively used in every
type of research work. Whether it is agriculture, health, or social science, the
statistics help in carrying out different types of researches. In agriculture, the
yield of the crop with different kinds of seeds, fertilizers, etc. can be
examined with the help of appropriate statistical tools.

Similarly, statistics are of great help to insurance companies, industries

physical science, banking, railways, transportation, astronomy, etc. Hence,
we can conclude that nowadays there is hardly any sphere of human activity
where statistics have not been used.

iv. Importance of Statistics in Business and Economics.

Ans:

Business: Business is dependent on statistics. Almost every business uses business

statistics to perform its day to day operations. Business Statistics involves the
application of statistical tools in the area of marketing, production, finance,
research and development, manpower planning etc. to extract relevant information
for the purpose of decision making. Statistics helps a business to:

 Statistics helps to make swift decisions by providing useful information

about customer trends and variations, cost customer trends and variations,
price customer trends and variations etc.
 Deal with uncertainties by forecasting seasonal, cyclic and general economic
fluctuations.
 Helps in business planning on the basis of sound predictions and
assumptions.
 Helps in measuring variations in performance of products, employees,
business unit etc.
 It allows comparison of two or more products, business unit, sales teams etc.
 Helps in identifying relationship between various variable and their effect on
each other like effect of advertisement on sales
 Helps in validating generalizations and theoretical concepts formulated by
managers.

Economics: Statistics plays an important role in the field of economics. It is an

important tool which helps in solving different economic problems. Statistics helps
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in economic planning by collecting data of national resources both human and
natural. For drawing a plan of their use we need the help of Statistics. Statistics
helps in analyzing different economic problems which needs immediate attention.
Such as: 

 Statistics serves as a raw material to the economists in making certain

economic laws.
 Framing economic policies. 
 Making comparisons.
 Studying and calculating National Income.

Statistics and Economics are interrelated with each other. Almost every branch of
Economics uses statistics, i.e., consumption, production, distribution, public
finance. All these Economic branches use statistics for comparison, presentation,
interpretation, and so on. Basically, the government uses statistics in economics to
calculate its GDP and Per capita Income.

v. Tables, Charts, and Graphs write answers with your own explanations
and examples.
Ans:

Table: Statistical table is a table showing required data in a convenient form. It

may show distribution of any parameter or can show probability distribution or
frequency distribution etc. It can show qualitative and quantitative attributes of the
parameters and can tabulate data from different time periods. A table is a
systematic arrangement of statistical data in columns and rows. Rows are
horizontal arrangement, whereas columns are vertical ones.

Parts of a table:

 Table number.
 Title of the table.
 Caption.
 Stub.
 Body of the table.
 Headnote.
 Footnote.

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A typical format of a table is given below:

Types of Tables: Tables may broadly be classified into two categories:

 Simple and complex tables; and

 General purpose and special purpose (or summary) tables.

Simple table: A simple table summarizes information on a single characteristic

and is also called a univariate table.

Example:

This table is based on a single characteristic namely marks and from this table one
may observe the number of students in each class of marks. The questions such as
the number of students scored in the range 50 – 60, the maximum number of
students in a specific range of marks and so on can be determined from this table.

Complex tables: A complex table summarizes the complicated information and

presents them into two or more interrelated categories. For example, if there are
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two coordinate factors, the table is called a two-way table or bi-variate table; if the
number of coordinate groups is three, it is a case of three-way tabulation, and if it
is based on more than three coordinate groups, the table is known as higher order
tabulation or a manifold tabulation.

General tables: General tables contain a collection of detailed information

including all that is relevant to the subject or theme. 

Summary tables: Summary tables are designed to serve some specific purposes.
They are smaller in size than general tables, emphasize on some aspect of data and
are generally incorporated within the text. The summary tables are also called
derivative tables because they are derived from the general tables.

Graphs/ Charts: A statistical graph or chart is defined as the pictorial

representation of statistical data in graphical form. The statistical graphs are used
to represent a set of data to make it easier to understand and interpret statistical
information. The different types of graphs that are commonly used in statistics are
given below.

Types of Graphs/ Charts in Statistics: The four basic graphs used in statistics
include bar, line, histogram and pie charts. These are explained here in brief.

 Bar Graph: Bar graphs are the pictorial representation of grouped data in
vertical or horizontal rectangular bars, where the length of bars is
proportional to the measure of data. The chart’s horizontal axis represents
categorical data, whereas the chart’s vertical axis defines discrete data.

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Example:  In a firm of 400 employees, the percentage of monthly salary saved by
each employee is given in the following table. Represent it through a bar graph.

Savings (in percentage) Number of Employees(Frequency)

20 105

30 199

40 29

50 73

Total 400
Solution: The given data can be represented as

 Line Graph:  A graph that utilizes points and lines to represent change over
time is defined as a line graph. In other words, it is a chart that shows a line
joining several points or a line that shows the relation between the points.

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 The diagram depicts quantitative data between two changing variables with
a straight line or curve that joins a series of successive data points. Linear
charts compare these two variables on a vertical and horizontal axis.

 Histogram: A histogram chart displays the frequency of discrete and

continuous data in a dataset using connected rectangular bars. Here, the
number of observations that fall into a predefined class interval represented
by a rectangular bar.
Example: The following table gives the life times of 400 neon lamps. Draw
the histogram for the below data.

Lifetime (in hours) Number of lamps

300 – 400 14

400 – 500 56

500 – 600 60

600 – 700 86

700 – 800 74

800 – 900 62

900 – 1000 48

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 Solution:

 Pie Chart: A pie chart used to represent the numerical proportions of a data
set. This graph involves dividing a circle into various sectors, where each
sector represents the proportion of a particular element as a whole. This is
also called a circle chart or circle graph.

Answer to the question no:02

Part: 2

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 I. Ungrouped data and grouped data.

Ans:

 Ungrouped data: Ungrouped data is defined as the data given as

individual points (i.e. values or numbers) such as 15, 63, 34, 20, 25,
and so on. Ungrouped data which is also known as raw data is data
that has not been placed in any group or category after collection.
Data is categorized in numbers or characteristics therefore, the data
which has not been put in any of the categories is ungrouped.
Example:
 Passenger total for every flight on a given day.
 Number of birds you saw each day.
 Every day that rains.

Some of the advantages of ungrouped data are as follows;

 Most people can easily interpret it.

 When the sample size is small, it is easy to calculate the mean,
mode and median.
 It does not require technical expertise to analyze it.

 Grouped data: Grouped data means the data (or information) given in
the form of class intervals such as 0-20, 20-40 and so on. Grouped
data is data that has been bundled together in categories. Histograms
and frequency table are best used to show and interpret grouped data.
Example:

Grouping of data has the following advantages:

 Helps in improving the efficiency of estimations.
 Allows for greater balancing of statistical power of tests of the
differences between strata by analyzing equal number from
strata.
 Irrelevant subpopulations are ignored while the significant ones
are focused on.

II. Frequency distribution.

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Ans: The frequency distribution is a statistical table which shows the value of a
variable in order of magnitude, either individually or in groups, along with the
corresponding frequencies side by side. A frequency distribution can be graphed as
a histogram or pie chart. The data pertaining to a quantitative phenomenon can be
classified in four ways:
 The set or series of individual observations- ungrouped (raw) or
arranged (arrayed) data.
 Discrete or ungrouped frequency distribution.
 Grouped frequency distribution.
 Continuous frequency distribution.

II.11 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:

1. What are the desiderata (requirements) of a good average?
Compare the mean, the median and the mode in the light of
these desiderata? Why averages are called measures of
central tendency?
Ans: The term central tendency refers to the "middle" value or perhaps a
typical value of the data, and is measured using the mean, median or
mode. Each of these measures is calculated differently and it depends
upon the situation. The requisites of a good average are: It should be
simple, clear and easy to understand. It should represent the whole data. It
should be rigidly defined. It must be capable of algebraic treatment. In the
light of desiderata, Mean is simple to understand, compute and rigidly
defined yet it is affected by extreme items. It is also calculated value and
not based on position in the series. Median is not influenced by extreme
values nor capable of algebraic treatment. It indicates the value of middle
item in the distribution. Mode is the most representative value of the
distribution and not affected by extreme values. Also, it can be determined
mathematically as well as graphically. It is not based on each and every
item of the series and is not a rigidly defined value.
2. "Every average has its own peculiar characteristics. It is
difficult to say which average is the best." Explain with
examples.

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 Ans: The Mean, Median, and Mode are all valid measures of central
tendency, but each of average has its own significance. Some measures of
central tendency become more suitable to use while others are not. It all
depends upon the situation. Mean is the simple average, Median is
positional average and Mode is the most frequent number in the dataset.
For example, the class got 90 percent of average marks. To see who is the
best among the class, the teacher will give question again and the class
will answer again. The teacher thought anyone would answer but the class
answered and they were all correct.
3. What do you understand .by 'Central Tendency'? Under
what conditions is the median more suitable than other
measures of central tendency?
Ans:
Central Tendency is a descriptive summary of a dataset through
a single value that reflects the center of the data distribution.
Along with the variability (dispersion) of a dataset, central
tendency is a branch of descriptive statistics. The central
tendency is one of the most quintessential concepts in statistics.
The median is usually preferred to other measures of central
tendency when your data set is skewed. ( i.e., forms a skewed
distribution)or you are dealing with ordinal data.

4. The average monthly salary paid to all employees in a

company was Rs 8,000. The average monthly salaries paid to
male and female employees of the company were Rs 10,600
and Rs 7,500 respectively. Find out the percentages of males
and females employed by the company.
Ans: Let x= the percentages of males and let y= the percentages
of females. Then
X+Y=100
∴ Y = 100 – X

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 Solve,
10600 (X/100) + 7500(Y/100) = 8000

Or, 106X + 75Y = 8000

Or, 106X + 75(100-X) = 8000

Or, 106X + 7500 – 75X = 8000

Or, 31X = 500

Or, X = 500/31
∴ X = 16.129
∴ Y = 100 – 16.129 = 83.871
∴The percentages of males employed by the company is 16.129%.
∴The percentages of females employed by the company is 83.871%.

5. Calculate the arithmetic mean from the following data:

Class 10- 20- 30- 40- 50- 60- 70- 80-
19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89
Frequency 2 4 9 11 12 6 4 2

Ans:

Class Midpoints (xi) Frequency fi.xi

(fi)

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 10-19 14.5 2 29
20-29 24.5 4 98
30-39 34.5 9 310.5
40-49 44.5 11 489.5
50-59 54.5 12 654
60-69 64.5 6 387
70-79 74.5 4 298
80-89 84.5 2 169
Total n = 50 Σfixi = 2435

Σfixi
∴Mean =
n

2435
= 50 = 48.7
∴ Average class = 48.7

6. Calculate the mean, median and mode from the following

data:
Height in Inches Number of Person
62-63 2
63-64 6
64-65 14
65-66 16
66-67 8
67-68 3
68-69 1

Ans:
Height in Number of xi fixi Cumulative
Inches Person
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 frequency
62-63 2 62.5 125 2
63-64 6 63.5 381 8
64-65 14 64.5 903 22
65-66 16 65.5 1048 38
66-67 8 66.5 532 46
67-68 3 67.5 202.5 49
68-69 1 68.5 68.5 50
3260
Here,
Σfixi 3260
Mean, x̄ = n = 50 = 65.2
n
Median: median class is , 2 = 502 = 25th number of cumulative
frequencies.
For median,
n
− pcf
M= l+¿ 2 *h
f

25−20
= 65 + 16 *2
= 65.375
So , the median is 65.375

l m = lower class boundary of the median class = 65

Pcf = cumulative frequency of the class before medianclass = 22

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Fm = Frequency of the median class = 16
h = class interval = 2

Again,
We can see in our grouped data set, the maximum frequency 16 lies in
height of inches of 65 – 66. Applying formula given earlier we get :
f 1−f 0
Mode = l+ 2 f −f −f *c
1 0 2

16−14
= 65 + ( 2∗16−14−8 ) * 2

= 65.4

∴ Mean = 65.2
∴ Median = 65.375
∴ Mode = 65.4

8. Cities A, B and C are equidistant from each other. A motorist

travels from A to B at 30 km/h; from B to C at 40 km/h and from C
to A at 50 km/h. Determine his average speed for the entire trip.

Solve:
The distance between each pair of cities is 600 km.
From A to B:

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Distance = 600 km.
Distance 600
Time = Speed = 30 = 20 hrs.
From B to C:
Distance = 600 km.
Distance 600
Time = Speed = 40 = 15 hrs.
From C to A:
Distance = 600 km.
Distance 600
Time = Speed = 50 = 12 hrs.
For overall journey:
Total distance = 600 + 600 + 600 = 1800 km.
Total time = 20 + 15 + 12 = 47 hrs.
Total Distance 1800
Average speed = Total Time = 47 = 38.29 km / hr.
∴ Average speed = 38.29 km / hr.

9. Calculate the harmonic mean from the following data: Class-

Interval 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 Frequency 20 40 30 10.
Solve:

Class Mid value (x) Frequency (f) f

x
2-4 3 20 6.6666
4-6 5 40 8
6-8 7 30 4.2857
8-10 9 10 1.1111

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 N = 100 f
∑( x )= 20.0634

n
100
HM of X = f
∑( ) = 20.0634 = 4.9842
x

∴ Harmonic mean = 4.9842

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