Chapter 1 Introductory Concepts
(a) Element Segregation and Paragenesis
The understanding of the concentration of elements
into paragenetic associations, which might be geneti-
cally related or superimposed and reactive paragenetic
associations, is possible by examining the interrela-
tionships of the elements which segregate under the
operation of complex processes.
The common segregation of relatively rare elements
of the earth's crust into paragenetic associations (i. e.
deposits) has been explained by the author, Augustithis
(1964, 1967, 1979), on the basis of the interrelation-
ships of these elements in accordance with the empiri-
cal laws of the periodic table.
Also of importance is the grouping together of these
elements into groups that exhibit interrelationships ac-
cording to the empirical laws of the periodic system.
Such groups, recognized by Augustithis (1964), corre-
spond to hydrothermal paragenetic associations, group
A = U, (Th), Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, Te, (Mo, Sn) and
group B = Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, Ag, Au and for the
pegmatitic uranium parageneses group C = U, (Th), Zr,
Hf, Ti, Nb, Ta1 and the REE.
It is interesting that in considering the metallogeny
of different granitic types in South East Asia (China),
Xu Keqin et al. (1982) recognized that certain granitic
rock types are characterized by groups of elements of
crustal derivation in contrast to other granitic rock
types that are characterized by a group of metallogenic
elements of mantle derivation. Here again a relation-
ship exists between the elements of the groups in ac-
cordance with their interrelationships in the periodic
table.
It is interesting to note that groups A and B recog-
nized by Augustithis (1964) also indicate a derivation
difference in the sense that the elements of group B
(Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, Ag, and Au) are mainly deriva-
tives or remobilized derivatives of mantle (or of basal-
tic derivation by leaching) whereas elements of group
A and C (recognized by Augustithis, 1964) are mainly
of crustal derivation.
The above considerations can furnish an interpreta-
tion as to the observed types of metallogeny related to
different granites or respectively to granites by graniti-
1 2
Mo, W and Sn are also lithophile elements and often
occur in pegmatites (see Chapters 56 and 57).
zation involving mainly crust derived materials and to
granitization products involving also mantle derived or
remobilized materials (mantle derived granites of Xu
Keqin which in reality might be granitization products
involving mantle derived material where mantle deri-
vation is not a prerequisite. Drescher-Kaden (1961,
1969) and Artus (1959) have already presented such
granitic rock types from the Alps).
In contradistinction to the recognition by Xu Keqin
etal. (1982) of granites with distinct metallogeny, i. e.,
granites characterized by Cu, Co, Ni, Cr and granites
of metallogeny (derivative of crustal mobilization)
Augustithis (1982) has presented cases of apogranites
containing elements (metallogeny) of crustal deriva-
tion and elements of remobilized mantle derivation.
Our comprehension of the occurring together of
elements that are nonabundant in the earth's crust in
concentrations (deposits) is mainly due to segregation
of these elements and to the laws or empirical laws
governing their common segregation. In particular, in
the case of the hydrothermal vein deposits which are
supposed to be derivatives of granitic intrusions, it is
interesting to note that elements making up the par-
ageneses belong mainly to the groups A and B. As
pointed out, most of the elements of group B could be
considered mantle derivatives or recycled mantle de-
rivatives. In contradistinction the elements of group A,
as well as the elements of group C (characteristic of
the pegmatitic parageneses), consist mainly of crustal-
derivation elements2.
To understand these interrelations the following al-
ternative interpretations are tentatively suggested:
(i) The metallic elements building the hydrothermal
perigranitic vein deposits are derivatives of initial pro-
genitor materials which have been granitized and con-
sist of crustal and mantle (recycled) materials. As a
consequence of this, both crustal and mantle metallic
elements could segregate to form hydrothermal veins.
(ii) The granite intrusion mobilized lower crust-
mantle material due either to deep seated granitization
or due to derivation from depth (mantle derived
granites with an increase in Cu, Co, Ni trace element
content).
Isotope geochemistry is a useful tool in determining the
derivation of elements (see Chapter 39).
1
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 (iii) The derivation of elements making up so-called
hydrothermal vein deposits are derivatives of the grani-
tized material and of the perigranitic country rock ma-
terial, initially by lateral segregation and solution
transportation.
Thus, the paragenesis of metallic vein deposits de-
pends on the presence and the availability of the metal-
lic elements in the Bereich of the granitization field
and on the lateral or mobilization of elements periph-
eral to the granitization Bereich, i. e., the perigranitic
country rock environment. Depending on the availabil-
ity of metallic elements which depend on the distribu-
tion of metallic elements in initial sediments or meta-
sediments and other rock types subjected to granitiza-
tion processes and on segregation processes that are re-
sponsible for the concentration of the metallic ele-
ments into vein deposits, we have the different hydro-
thermal paragenesis.
Within the segregation processes of fundamental
significance is the common segregation of elements
which depends on the interrelationships of available
elements on the empirical laws of the periodic system.
As already suggested by Augustithis in 1964, the
recognition of the A, B and C metallic element groups
making up hydrothermal and pegmatitic mineral para-
geneses, depends mainly on the empirical laws of the
periodic system which govern the chemical interrela-
tionships of the elements.
In addition to the common segregation of elements
for the formation of the mineral paragenesis are the po-
tentialities of crystal structure formation which de-
pends on the interrelationships between crystal lattice,
atomic radii, valencies, etc.
The segregation of elements is brought about by so-
lutions and the supply of solutions could extend
throughout time, in the sense that not all the common
segregated elements are simultaneously in solution, i.
e., supply of elements in solution to the spaces
(Bereich) in which crystallization takes place, can oc-
cur at different periods of time. Under sufficient con-
centration of elements in the solution and under appro-
priate physico-chemical conditions prevailing in the
environment or microenvironment in which crystalliza-
tion takes place, the elements in solution crystallize
out and a crystal lattice is formed with the potentiality
of incorporating elements in solid-solution or incorpo-
rate elements by substitution of cations. Which mineral
will prevail or survive depends on the field of stability
of each crystallization, on the reactions and interreac-
tions between the minerals formed and their reaction to
the country rock; in addition, a crystal formed in the
space where crystallization takes place is subject to
dissolution with the changing of the composition of
the solutions which can bring about substitution or par-
tial substitution of a mineral formed by subsequent
crystallization from the same solutions as the composi-
tion of the solutions changes. The supply of additional
solutions of different composition in the same space
(Bereich of crystallization) can also bring about disso-
lution of already-formed minerals and their partial or
complete replacement.
The understanding of a paragenetic mineral associa-
tion inevitably involves consideration of the factors
and conditions mentioned above. It is hoped that crys-
tallization sequence of ore mineral assemblages could
be deciphered on the basis of textural analysis, as it
can be done on the basis of comparative anatomy of
textures.
Considering the abundance and distribution of ele-
ments in the crust mainly on the basis of abundance-
tables of elements, Goldschmidt (1954) and Wederpohl
(1967), and furthermore considering their distribution
on the basis of the Verteilungsgesetz der Elemente, the
question arises of what the initial distribution of ele-
ments was in the star-crust of the earth (the lithic era of
the earth).
Perhaps a possible extrapolation with the abundance
and distribution of elements in extraterrestrial bodies
(e. g., the moon) might be of interest. In spite of the
fact that our knowledge of the distribution of elements
in the moon's crust is very limited, it can be postulated,
on the basis of the predominance of gabbroic-peridoti-
tic rock types, that magnesium-rich rocks predominate.
Comparative studies show a relatively greater abun-
dance of Ti in lunar rocks when compared to terrestrial
basalts.
If we assume that the initial earth's crust was compa-
rable to the moon's surface, two fundamental questions
arise:
(i) Under which processes did the initial gabbroic-
peridotitic crust change into earth's crust in which gra-
nitic and gneissic rock types are very abundant?
(ii) Can we relate the changes from a gabbroic-peri-
dotitic crust to a more acid-type with an availability of
Mg source which was considered necessary by V. M.
Goldschmidt - (as was communicated to the author by
Goldschmidt's friend Drescher-Kaden)?
In 1973, Augustithis in his Geological spiral, start-
ing from a peridotitic-gabbroic initial earth crust had
already suggested the following:
In accordance with the concept of the geological spi-
ral the following developments can be suggested:
(i) The initial star crust of the earth in extrapolation
with the moon's crust, may have been peridotitic-gab-
broic in composition, comparable to the gabbroic-peri-
dotitic rocks of the moon.
(ii) The formation of atmosphere-hydrosphere
around the earth's lithosphere can be seen as the com-
mencement of the geological history of the earth, the
beginning of geomorphological and geological cycles
and the concurrent operation of exogenetic and en-
dogenetic processes.
(iii) The peridotitic-gabbroic initial earth's crust, due
to chemical weathering, grado-separation of elements,
differential leaching and geochemical mobilization of
elements may have produced acid and intermediate re-
siduals. The sum total of these processes perhaps re-
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suited in the formation of acid to intermediate anchi-
sediments.
(iv) The anchi-sediments in accordance with the
principles of uniformitarianism would be subjected to
the processes of the geological cycle: denudation, ag-
gregation, metamorphism, ultrametamorphism
(granitization, gabbroitization and ultrabasic rock for-
mation). Parallel to and concurrently with the geologi-
cal cycle, while also as a part of it in the realm of geo-
dynamic events, outflows of huge quantities of basaltic
materials took place, products of shearing and fusion
of the earth's upper mantle, as well as mantle dia-
pirism.
Thus, the geological spiral provides a working hy-
pothesis for extensive element mobilization and recy-
cling. Water, too, has played a fundamental part in the
formation of the earth's crust, bearing in mind its role
in the unfolding of the geological spiral and the phrea-
tic cycles of Vernadsky and Grigorieff s consideration
of the role of water in the formation of the crust.
Due to the unfolding of the geological spiral an up-
per crust layer thus differentiated through derivatives
of the initial lithic era's crust in which the lithophile
elements were abundant (in addition to Al, Si and the
metallic A and C elements, already mentioned). In
contradistinction to the Mg element of the initial gab-
broic-peridotitic crust, or due to the upper mantle dia-
pirism, metallic elements of the B group are associ-
ated.
Depending on the composition of the geoenviron-
ment in which lateral and selective segregation proc-
esses would operate, the composition of vein or peg-
matitic deposits will be characterized by the predomi-
nance of A and/or C groups or of A and B groups. As
mentioned, in many granitic metallogenic regions,
elements of the A and C groups predominate where in
other cases elements of the B group (porphyry type of
metallogeny) are most predominant.
An exceptional case is the metallogeny of the Abu
Dabbab (Egypt) apogranite in which, in addition to the
C group elements (granitophile), a superimposed met-
allogeny derivative due to leaching of intercontinental
rift basalts is also present resulting in a reactive par-
agenesis, see Augustithis (1982).
(b) Remobilization and Recycling of Metallic
Elements
By the beginning of the twentieth century it was real-
ized that mobilization of elements is a process of great
metallogenic significance. The very fact that ore min-
erals were referred to as being hypogene or supergene
in origin meant that metallic element mobilizations by
solutions were considered to be not only the mecha-
nism of transportation of the metallic elements but also
indicated their derivation.
Whereas hypogene ore mineral associations
(concentrations) were considered to have originated
primarily from depth by ascending solutions and been
deposited in spaces (veins, pore spaces, etc.), the su-
pergene were considered to be secondary mobilizations
due to the weathering of primary metallic concentra-
tions which moved from the surface downwards and
enriched the alteration zone, forming the supergene
impregnation zone. Particularly for supergene mineral
assemblages and deposits, it is believed that mobiliza-
tion and even remobilization of the elements by low
temperature solutions has taken place.
Also at the beginning of this century it was proposed
that ore deposits (space fillings, veins, pore spaces,
etc.) were due to lateral secretion or lateral segregation
by solutions in the realm of metamorphism or by
leaching. The idea of lateral secretion (segregation)
unfolded further along the following axes of thinking.
(i) Lateral secretion (segregation) occurs during
metamorphism-ultrametamorphism. A most elucidat-
ing example of space and vein filling by lateral secre-
tion was put forward by Drescher-Kaden in 1969 who
demonstrated that quartz veins and space fillings in
folded chlorite schist were originated from lateral se-
cretion due to the subsequent tectonic effects on the
chlorite schist. Similarly Augustithis (1985) explained
cases of calcite veins in marbles as being lateral secre-
tions of the marbles in which the carbonate veins oc-
cur. Both Drescher-Kaden (1948, 1969 and 1974) and
Augustithis (1962, 1973) considered pegmatitic and
aplitic veins as exudation products of granites and
gneisses under the process of ultrametamorphism. Al-
ready in 1908, Holmquist had considered pegmatites as
metasomatic products due to granitization an interpre-
tation which could be considered as pioneering to the
exudation hypothesis of pegmatites and aplites. The
often observed telescoping of pegmatitic veins in depth
is perhaps a corollary to the exudation interpretation.
One of the most significant cases of lateral secretion
was the novel interpretation put forward by Gold-
schmidt and his friend Drescher (see Goldschmidt,
1954) on the derivation of tourmaline in granites and
pegmatitic veins by lateral secretion and mobilization
of B from the adjacent sediments, in the sense that B
was picked up by the granite from the adjacent sedi-
ments. The following characteristic quotation is from
Goldschmidt, 1954: "An investigation by the author
and his friend Prof. F. K. Drescher-Kaden, then in
Clausthal, on the boron in shales, hornfels and granites
of the Harzburg district, showed that the amount of bo-
ron decreases from the shales to the hornfels of the
contact zone and the granite takes up boron from the
sediments - quite a reversal from established views in
petrology." Comparable studies of the Piona pegma-
tites in the Alps by Augustithis (1973) showed that the
tourmaline in the pegmatites was perpendicular to the
contact wall of the pegmatite with the gneiss and the
boron was a lateral derivative from the gneiss-schist,
an exudation product of which was also the pegmatite.
(ii) In contradiction to the lateral segregation during
metamorphism-ultrametamorphism lateral segregation
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also takes place under considerably lower temperature
conditions. Augustithis has described cases of magne-
site vein formation due to lateral segregation in serpen-
tinized dunities from Yubdo, Ethiopia. All transitions
were shown of marginal alteration of forsteritic olivine
to magnesite: mobilization of olivine alteration
(magnesite) to magnesite veinlets and finally magne-
site vein formation due to the unification of the vein-
lets. According to Augustithis (1965), weathering of
olivines due to hydration, with the participation of car-
bonic acid (CO2) of the air, results in the formation of
magnesite. The formation of magnesite is seen as part
of the gradoseparation processes suggested by Pieruc-
cini (1962).
In the decade of the seventies, several vein deposits
were explained by the Canadian School of Petrology as
the result of lateral leaching and mobilization by lower
temperature conditions of elements from basalts which
were supposed to be buried in rifts. Tooms (1976) has
suggested that the manganese vein deposits adjacent to
the Great Rift were due to element leaching and mobi-
lization from basaltic flows in the Great Rift.
Also, Augustithis (1982) explained the paragenesis
of the Abu Dabbab apogranites as the result and reac-
tion (superimposed mineral paragenesis) of the grani-
tophile C group element mineral paragenesis character-
istic of the granite-gneissic Precambrian rocks of the
region and of manganese mobilized by leaching of ba-
salts buried in the Great Rift. In this case the manga-
nese presence in the apogranite is due to lateral secre-
tion due to leaching and mobilization of manganese
from basalts most probably buried in the rift, i. e„ a
lateral segregation process. Recently, Vgenopoulos
(1960) has described magnetite, rutile and ilmenite in
quartz veins as being the result of lateral secretion and
leaching of adjacent rocks.
(c) Mobilization and Remobilization of Ele-
ments (General Concepts)
The wide concept of metasomatism includes many
special processes that have attained separate status
within the broad concept of the alteration of rocks.
Such processes are differential leaching, palingenetic
associations, element mobilization, recycling of ele-
ments, mobilization and remobilization.
All the above mentioned processes are contributing
factors in the formation of ore mineral parageneses and
metallic mineral concentrations. In the present chapter
only some selected cases will be presented, not to ex-
haust the subject, but simply to furnish some examples.
(i) Palingenic veinlets of cassiterite, due to the mobi-
lization or remobilization of Sn, most probably hy-
pothermal or contact-zone mineral formation, are mo-
bilized and deposited as cassiterite transecting collo-
form pitchblende. Cases of this have been presented by
Ramdohr (1960) and by Augustithis (1964). The vein-
lets of cassiterite transecting the colloform pitchblende
could be considered as remobilization in the
"epithermal stage" of mineralization.
(ii) An interesting case of element mobilization and
its resultant textures is the often described mobilization
of interspersed lead (galena), radiogenic in origin, into
synaeresis cracks of the pitchblende in which ra-
diogenic lead occurs as fine interspersed granules. The
Pb mobilization in this case was mainly, but not neces-
sarily, restricted within the same mineral. Lead, par-
ticularly as galena, exhibits an impressive mobilization
capacity either as veinlets or as replacements of a wide
gamut of previously formed minerals. In this connec-
tion, is the work of Koppel and Scholl (1983) of sig-
nificance. These authors presented cases of remobi-
lized lead as it was evidenced on the basis of lead iso-
tope investigations in their paper entitled "Bleiisotope
und Remobilisation von Erzlagerstätten".
(üi) A most interesting case of element mobilization
is described by Ottemann and Augustithis (1967)
where PGE in the dunite ring complex of Yubdo,
Western Ethiopia, (ultrabasic ring complex) occurring
as sperrylite in chromospinels which survived birbiriti-
zation, was altered and mobilized in the lateritic covers
of dunite and birbirite. Platinum nuggets have been
formed by element segregation (accretion), often hav-
ing altered chromite as the nucleus. Many platinoid
group elements have been segregated within the ferro-
platin nuggets and interesting but complex textures
have been formed, described originally by Ottemann
and Augustithis (1967).
(iv) In contrast to the cases considered so far, where
element mobilization is understandable due to the ele-
ment kinetics, chromites which are generally consid-
ered to be very resistant to alteration processes, are
also subjected to alteration and weathering processes,
see Augustithis (1962, 1962, 1980) and as a result of
element leaching and element mobilization of initial
chromites, cases are described by Hutton (1942) of
small chromite grains found associated with fuchsite.
Most probably remobilization of Cr is responsible for
this mineral formation.
(d) Tectonic Mobilization - Polyphase Mobili-
zation
In contrast to the mobilization of the elements by solu-
tions where the main medium of element transporta-
tion is water and the processes involved were mainly
solubility processes, special cases may exist where
mechanical-tectonic mobilization takes place where
the medium is a solid with greatly increased plasticity.
In this case, in contrast to element mobilization in so-
lution, en masse transportation of fragments takes
place in the greatly plastic medium. It should be men-
tioned though that the same material which can be af-
fected and dissolved in water, can under different cir-
cumstances and geoenvironmental conditions be me-
chanically transported in a plastic medium.
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 Studies on forsterite crystal plasticity have shown
that forsterite-rich mantle dunites can provide the plas-
tic medium in which chromite Schlieren bodies are
fractured and mobilized as boutinage structures in a
forsteric plastic medium. Perhaps the well-known ex-
ample of interbanded chromite and anorthosite of the
Dwars River, Transvaal, is another example of chro-
mite plastically-tectonically mobilized in or with anor-
thosite (see Chapter 14).
As we have already mentioned in the case of ele-
ment mobilization by solutions, Cr from an initial
chromite might be geochemically mobilized in solu-
tion and could be reprecipitated as chromite grains as-
sociated with fuchsite.
Mantle formed chromite can be further remobilized
as xenocryst in basalts which transverse an ultrabasic
complex. Augustithis (1965) has described chromite
xenocrysts (grain-sized inclusion) in the Yubdo area of
Western Ethiopia. Here again we have a mobilization
or remobilization of chromite in the melt phase
whereby a margin of reaction in the xenocryst is no-
ticeable; this is not a decoloration margin but actually
magnetite is formed as the result of a chromospinel re-
acting with the basaltic melt.
Chromite thus provides us with examples of element
mobilization by water solutions, mobilization of chro-
mites in melts and chromite mobilization tectono-me-
chanically in a crystalloplatic medium.
(e) Derivation Environments (Main Types of
Source Environments)
Source environment and geoenvironmental conditions
prevail in the petrogenetic "field" (Bereich) of metallic
elements derivation.
(i) According to some estimates, the earth's core is
considered to consist of Ni and Fe, a possible differen-
tiate from the molten star state or phase - which is also
compatible with the big bang hypothesis.
(ii) Mantle consists predominantly of dunitic and
peridotitic types with a dominant mineral phase of for-
sterite rich olivines. The magnesium element is pre-
dominant. Furthermore, forsterite predominant in oli-
vines incorporates fyalitic molecules, and in addition
there is substitution and incorporation of Ni in the for-
sterite lattice supposedly replacing the Mg cation. As
already mentioned, there is a strong interrelationship of
Ni, Fe and Co, and the platinum group of elements (as
belonging to the same group of the periodic system).
(iii) The protolytic (gabbroic) parental layer of ba-
salts is basic/ultrabasic in composition and thus is a pa-
rental geoenvironment in addition to the mantle char-
acteristic elements also for Ti. In this respect, of sig-
nificance is the antipathy or incompatibility of Cr and
Ti.
(iv) The lower crust is an anorthosite-rich environ-
ment in which plastically mobilized chromite can oc-
cur and the anorthosite chromite banding of the Dwars
river can take place.
(v) Lithophile elements, mainly the C group of ele-
ments, are often associated with granite-gneisses and
with their pegmatitic exudation products. The li-
thophile group of elements are treated extensively in
Chapters 50, 56 and 57. An example of an environment
of lithophile element generation-mobilization is given
by Yuan Kuirong and Xang Xinyi (1985) in their con-
tribution entitled "The tectonic environment and tin
metallogeny of granites in South China". The follow-
ing synoptical extract is quoted from their work:
"Endogenic tin metallogeny of the granites in South
China is closely related to the migration and tectonic
differentiation of the post-Proterozoic tectonic envi-
ronment of the granites. With the southwestward lat-
eral migration of orogenic granites on the initially tin
enriched Proterozoic continental crust, the "reverse
overlap" of the north-western anorogenic granites upon
the older granite zone appeared. It thereby caused the
enrichment by differentiation of crustal source syntexis
granites in the locally thickened zones and the differ-
ential sedimentation controlled by the structurally su-
perimposed unwrapping region. This engendered the
decisive conditions in the formation of the world's
largest granite-endogenic tin metallogenic zone. The
ore source zone formed by the differential sedimenta-
tion-enrichment process and its superimposition with
the differentiation-enrichment process of S-type metal-
logenic granites represents the basic metallogenic envi-
ronment model of endogenic tin in granites."
(vi) The weathering cover environment (a complex
weathering mantle of many diverse rock types) and
often the result of extensive element recycling, is itself
of great significance as a source of secondarily derived
ores.
(f) Recipient Geoenvironments
It has already been mentioned that the mantle geoenvi-
ronment is characterized by the abundance of Mg and
as in the predominant mineral forsteric olivine, Mg can
be substituted by Ni (also the interrelationship of the
elements of the same group of the periodic table,
namely Ni, Fe, Co and the PGE as belonging to the
subgroup of the VIII family, is responsible that these
metallic elements are abundant in the mantle environ-
ment). As a consequence of the above-mentioned inter-
relationships, it is no surprise that these metallic ele-
ments do occur as ore concentrations in the mantle and
its derivatives that are moved or mobilized, in one way
or another in the upper crust. Dunitic diapirs or ob-
ducted upper mantle are characterized by the presence
of chromite deposits. Thus, we have the parental
geoenvironment just as the recipient environment, in
the sense that Cr, Fe and Co are mobilized and concen-
trated as metallic concentrations within that parental
geoenvironment.
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 Similarly the PGE form minerals or mineral concen-
trations within the parental mantle geoenvironment, in
which case the parental geoenvironment and the re-
cipient geoenvironment are again identical.
However, cases are reported where the elements Cr,
Ni and PGE are mobilized far outside their parental
geoenvironment, e. g., the reported association of
chromite grains in fuchsite, where both the chromite
grains formed and the Cr of the fuchsite represent Cr
mobilizations outside their parental geoenvironment.
PGM associated with sulfides are reported by Genkin
(1959) and Ramdohr (1960). In the present effort such
cases are considered to be mobilizations or remobiliza-
tions outside their parental geoenvironment. The mobi-
lization has taken place by solutions. The formation of
nuggets consisting of a number of PGM in lateritic
covers of birbirites and dunites was treated in a number
of publications by Augustithis (1967, 1979).
As already mentioned, the B group of elements of
hydrothermal perigranitic deposits have been consid-
ered to be mantle derivatives or mantle recycled mate-
rial which were involved in the granitization process
either as parts of pregranitic material (remnants of
which are basic xenoliths in granites) or as recycled
derivatives of the initial gabbroic earth's crust in ac-
cordance with an unfolding spiral.
In contradistinction to the mantle geoenvironment
and to the fact that it acted both as parental and recipi-
ent geoenvironment, the lower crust and in particular
the protolytic gabbroic geoenvironment have also been
considered as a parental geoenvironment of metallic
mineral concentrations. In particular, one must con-
sider that basaltic rocks are mainly mobilized deriva-
tives of the protolytic layer (as experimental petro-
fabrics have shown), and furthermore has to take into
consideration that Mn, Cu, and Zn deposits may be
leached derivatives of inter-rift buried basaltic flows,
as for example the Mn superimposed mineral parage-
nesis in the Abu Dabbab apogranites.
Considering that basalts are the most abundant rocks
in the lithosphere elements, leaching from basalts will
be a potential source for the concentration of many de-
posits characterized by the B group elements. Perhaps
the most significant parental rock of many of the me-
tallic elements comprising the B group was the initial
gabbroic-basaltic earth crust. The recycling of ele-
ments in accordance with the unfolding spiral could re-
sult in the concentration of these elements in metallic
concentrations or disseminated metallic occurrences.
In contrast to the parental rocks of mantle and lower
crust origin, the derivation of the lithophile group of
elements, their abundance and distribution could be
explained on the basis of the following considerations:
The lithophile elements are differentiates of the un-
folding spiral which resulted in the differentiation of
the initial basic earth crust to gneissic granitic envi-
ronments and provide or release a Mg source. Concur-
rently with this differentiation, there was or there oc-
curred a concentration-segregation of lithophile ele-
ments in the gneissic granitic geoenvironment, or
rather a preference of the lithophilic elements to asso-
ciate with the granitic-gneissic environment.
As granitization took place and as basic-in-composi-
tion pregranitic material was assimilated, a basic front
release occurred which, together with a Mg and Fe re-
lease, resulted in the concentration of other metallic
elements such as a characteristic metallogeny associ-
ated with skams and in particular Cu, Zn and Mn. The
skarn metallogeny, strictly speaking, does not belong
to or represents a lithophilic element concentration. In
contradistinction the concentration of the pegmatitic
mineral parageneses and in particular the concentration
of the C group of elements in pegmatites can be seen
as segregations associated with the exudation of peg-
matitic material from granites and gneisses.
As suggested by Augustithis (1990) skarns and the
metallic vein hydrothermal concentrations represent
metamorphic-metasomatic differentiations in the field
of metamorphism-granitization.
The fact that the hydrothermal vein deposits contain
both mantle-derived and lithophile elements is the re-
sult of the wide spectrum, as far as composition and
derivation is concerned, of the granitized materials.
Furthermore, during the unfolding of the geological
spiral (Augustithis, 1973) recycling of the elements of
the initial earth crust and a preferential segregation of
the so-called "lithophile elements" took place in the
differentiated rather more acid part of the crust
formed; (the crust that had been formed as a result of
the unfolding of the geological spiral). It comes as no
surprise then that as a result of granitization-metamor-
phism and the mentioned differentiation under graniti-
zation-exudation, material (pegmatite formation) and
element segregation (as veinform bodies) occurred not
only of derivatives of the granitized material but of a
wide field of metamorphosed and ultrametamorphosed
rocks, i. e., in the wide field of metamorphism includ-
ing granite emplacement (see Lyell, 1830; Drescher-
Kaden, 1982; and Augustithis, 1973; 1985; 1990).
In considering the recycling of elements one should
not ignore the significance of the geological processes,
namely, weathering, aggregation-sedimentation meta-
morphism. Also one has to see the hydrothermal vein
concentrations associated with perigranatic metallo-
geny as mobilized or remobilized material of complex
derivation and of a source, in addition to the granitized
material itself. The wide country rock-region may in
many cases be a significant contributor as well.
Considering the above interrelationship it is difficult
to draw a distinct demarcation line between parental
and recipient geoenvironment. However, the point
must be made that due to element recycling and ele-
ment mobilization or remobilization, metallic concen-
tration can take place in a recipient rock. The genesis
and derivation of the metallic elements might be diffi-
cult to relate or trace though to a particular parent
rock, which might exist or have existed at some dis-
tance.
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 In this connection it should be pointed out that the
element mobilization or remobilization and recycling
in a wide sense are attributed mainly to the great mo-
bility (kinetics and solubility of the metallic elements)
by "hydrothermal solutions" (solutions of relatively
high temperature, of non-magmatic derivation) and of
fluids of variable derivation (see Augustithis, 1990;
Chapter 9).
(g) Mechanism of Mobilization (Events Trig-
gering Mobilization)
In considering element mobilization or remobilization
and the recycling of elements one should look into the
mechanisms which can bring about these mobiliza-
tions.
One is inevitably forced to look at the operation of
processes which cause significant developments in the
earth's crust and which might be initiated, in cases,
deeper than the lithosphere. Thus, inevitably the ques-
tion of geotectonics or global tectonics and the forces
and the mechanism that bring about these changes
must be raised.
The subject of geotectonics is beyond the scope of
the present effort and only brief reference will be made
to some of the current hypotheses that are related to
the subject of material mobilization.
The geosynclinal hypothesis and its merger with the
plate tectonic hypothesis has provided the theoretical
basis for crustal mobilizations and has supplied theo-
retical background for tectonic and tectonogenic
changes in the earth's crust. Related to the geotectonic
events are tectonothermal phenomena such as fusion,
melting along geotectonic lines and volcanism-related
to deep fissures of the earth's crust.
Related directly or indirectly to the mobilization of
the earth's crust due to mass movements, we have me-
tallic element mobilization. Thus, accompanying
geotectonic mobilization there is mobilization of me-
tallic elements and their concentration. The plate tec-
tonic hypothesis provides the basis for several metallo-
genic interpretations and hypotheses and for more than
a decade was the basis for most metallogenic explana-
tions (see Chapter 18).
As a corollary to the significance of plate tectonics
in bringing about element mobilization and metallic
element concentration is the hypothesis of Kutina
(1986) who suggested that there is a direct relationship
between plate junctions and the main metallogenic
provinces of regions of the earth's crust suggesting a
derivation of the metallic elements from the deep man-
tle source.
In contrast to plate tectonics, several alternative hy-
potheses have been suggested. Geotectonic events such
as expansion of the earth-hypothesis and many alterna-
tive interpretations have been put forward in direct
contradiction to plate tectonics (see Critical Aspects of
the Plate Tectonics Theory, edited by Beloussov et al.,
1990).
In understanding the mobilization and concentration
of elements in the earth's crust, the shear fault lines or
major faults in the earth's crust, some extending to
great depths, are of interest. Along such lines fusion
can take place resulting in melt mobilization either as
volcanic lines or porphyry ores.
The geotectonic events taking place in the earth's
crust may actually be the expression of mantle mobili-
zations and even of the earth's core relative relation to
the mantle (influenced by extraterrestrial forces?).
As a result of mantle movements there is mantle
mobilization either as mantle obduction or most likely
due to the great crystal plasticity of forsteritic oli-
vine/mantle diapirism. Mantle mobilization as cold or
hot diapirisms could result in extensive element mobi-
lization and metallic element mobilization or remobili-
zation.
One can trace the hypothesis of major crust changes
and movements of material due to the influence of sur-
face water contained in the rock masses to the phreatic
cycles of Vernadsky. In further consideration of the
phreatic cycles' hypothesis of Vernadsky, relating it to
the changes of the theoretical unfolding spiral, a hypo-
thetical mechanism is thus available for the under-
standing of all fluid movements which modern isotope
geochemistry tries to classify as derivatives of deep
magmatic source or as derivatives of the Bereich of
metamorphism, or else, it ascribes to them a surface
(meteoric) derivation.
One is inevitably compelled to consider all these
magmatogenic derivations of water or fluids in contra-
distinction to extraterrestrial bodies where so far there
is an absence of [OH]. The fundamental question
which is so hard to answer is whether all water in the
earth's crust is of atmospheric derivation.
The role of water as a medium for mobilization,
transportation and concentration of metals goes back as
far as the era of Aristotle. Ever since then it has been,
to a greater or lesser extent, a major topic and is exten-
sively treated in the present effort as a medium for me-
tallic element transportation and concentration.
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