Renewable Energy[BGAE3203] 2 (1+1)

Theory: Energy sources, Introduction, Classification, Energy from Biomass, Types

of biogas plants, constructional details, Biogas production and its utilization,
Agricultural wastes, Principles of combustion, pyrolysis and gasification, Types of
gasifiers, Producer gas and its utilization. Briquettes, Types of Briquetting
machines, uses of Briquettes, Shredders. Solar energy, Solar flat plate and
focussing plate collectors, Solar air heaters, Solar space heating and cooling, Solar
energy applications / Solar energy gadgets, Solar cookers, Solar water heating
systems, solar grain dryers, Solar Refrigeration system, Solar ponds, Solar photo
voltaic systems, solar lantern, Solar street lights, solar fencing, Solar pumping
systems. Wind energy, Types of wind mills, Constructional details & application of
wind mills. Liquid Bio fuels, Bio diesel and Ethanol from agricultural produce, its
production & uses.

Reference Book:

1. Non Conventional Energy Sources – G.D. Raj 2. Energy Technology

(Nonconventional, Renewable and Conventional) – S.Rao, Dr. B.B. Parulekar
3. Non Conventonal Energy Resources – D.S. Chauhan, S.K.Srivastava 4.
Fundamentals of Renewable Energy Sources – G.N. Tiwari and M.K. Chosal
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO USE RENEWABLE ENERGY?

  Fossil-based fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas) currently provide about 85% of
all the energy use worldwide. We all know that these resources are being
constantly depleted and can't be replaced within any practical time span. People
often wonder how long exactly would they last? The remaining amount of a
particular resource is often characterized by so-called Reserves-to-Production
ratio (R/P). In plain language, R/P basically gives us the length of time the
reserves would last if their usage continue at the current rate. Here are estimated
world total R/P ratios for the main conventional fuels updated for 2018: oil - 50
years, natural gas - 52 years, coal - 134 years. Note that the above numbers are
not fixed- they are corrected every year because on one hand the usage is
constantly changing and on the other hand every once in a while new deposits are
found. Aside from being finite, energy production from fossil fuels results in by-
products of combustion, or emissions. These emissions affect our environment
and may be causing the climate change. In contrast, renewable energy (RE)
resources, as the name implies, are constantly replenished naturally and will
never be exhausted. Their use generally has a much lower environmental impact
than that of conventional fuels. That is why the technologies that utilize them are
often called "green". All these factors, coupled with the government incentives
and mandates, result in growing interest in using alternative sources of energy.
While some green technologies are large-scale, many of them are also suited to
private homes, especially in rural areas.

THE LIST OF RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Renewable energy is derived from various natural processes, such as the Sun's
electromagnetic radiation, tides or heat generation within the Earth. Here is a list
of the main types of practically utilized alternative energy sources: 
 Sunlight: the solar photon flux can be converted to heat, electricity or
chemical energy;
 Wind: the motion of air molecules can be harvested in wind turbines that
spin the shaft of electric generators or in windmills;
 Biomass: organic materials can be used for cooking and heating, as well as
to produce electricity and liquid transportation fuels;
  Earth's internal heat: can be used for heating and electricity production;
 Water: potential and kinetic energy of flowing water can be tapped to
produce electricity or mechanical tasks.

Note that there is some controversy about classification of nuclear power. Usually
it is excluded from the list of renewables. However, it is known, for example, that
rivers eroding the Earth crust replenish Uranium dissolved in seawater. Also,
nuclear fission in so-called breeder reactors creates more fissile isotopes than it
consumes. So, although technically, raw nuclear fuels are finite, because of their
enormously large amount and because of the above replenishing processes, they
might be considered RE as well. After all, bio-fuels are finite too, but they are
treated as RE.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Not surprisingly, each method of power generation has its pros and cons.
RE of course is inexhaustible and environmentally friendly. It has another
important advantage. Small individual power generators that are integrated into
the grid reduce the impact of blackouts caused by a failure of centralized
equipment or distribution lines. The distributed power technologies in general
improve the overall system security.

Notwithstanding their clear benefits, all forms of RE have their disadvantages too.
Renewable resources are not always available where and when they are needed.
For example, hydropower resources are limited by geography and are often
located in remote areas. They require installation of expensive electric lines to the
cities. Solar and wind power are intermittent by nature. Which brings us to
another major technical issue with RE: the storage. One of the problems of
electricity is that it cannot be efficiently stored in large quantities for later use. It
is unpractical for example to have a battery backup in a gigawatt-scale power
plant. Also, while RE systems generally do not produce as much air pollution as
fossil fuels, they too have a certain negative impact on the environment. Finally,
RE is still more expensive that traditional one. All the above factors are limiting
the growth of RE. Currently, the share of renewable energy sources in net energy
production is only about 10% worldwide. In conclusion, it is our responsibility to
advance alternative power. However, we should remember that low-cost
electricity generation is crucial to the economy. It increases income and
employment in all sectors, the purchasing power of the consumer, and makes U.S.
exports more competitive. RE certainly can supplement conventional power, and
its use will likely continue to steadily grow. Nevertheless, realistically speaking, it
can't entirely replace non-renewable fuels anytime soon.

SOLAR ENERGY
The term "solar energy" casually refers to electromagnetic radiation emitted by
the Sun. It can be captured and converted to other usable forms of energy. We
have various techniques to harness this nearly limitless resource and use it for our
needs.

PRACTICAL USES FOR SOLAR ENERGY

Most guides say that Sun's irradiance can be used for two things: to heat
objects and to produce electricity. In reality, it can also convert into chemical
energy. In the nature, through photosynthesis, plants utilize sunlight to grow and
reproduce. Similarly, with the right equipment which implements sort of "artificial
photosynthesis", light can drive the reactions resulting in energy stored in
chemical bonds of "solar fuel". However this process is still in R&D stage and is
not quite suitable for residential applications. By the way, some articles claim that
sunlight is the source for all forms of renewable energy on our planet. This is
incorrect because it neglects such forms of energy as gravitation and geothermal.
The main solar uses in today's homes are pool and hot water heating as well as
generating electricity with photovoltaic panels. In general, heating an object from
sunlight may require little more than placing it in the sun and creating a means
through which the heat will remain in it. Swimming pools can be heated by
covering them with special covers that trap the heat in the water.
Generating solar electricity is more complex. It can be done in several different
ways. Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) devices, directly convert the
electromagnetic radiation into electricity in the form of DC voltage. These cells
can be combined into panels, which in turn can be connected into arrays. Solar
electricity is used to feed various electric loads from small calculators to large
power plants. Since the PV cells produce DC voltage, you need to use DC-AC
inverters to feed all the conventional equipment requiring AC power.
Concentrating solar power plants also create electricity using sunlight. However in
these plants, there is an intermediate energy carrier: special thermal collectors
use the heat from the sun to warm a fluid and create steam. The steam then
powers the prime mover of an electric generator, which makes electricity via
electromagnetic induction.

PROS
Like all forms of power conversion, sunlight as a fuel has its advantages and
disadvantages. The primary benefit of solar energy is its renewability. The sun
shines somewhere in the globe every day. Unlike fossil fuels, it will never be used
up. Even on cloudy days, some of the radiated energy seeps through the clouds to
the surface below, providing enough power to feed, for example, hand-held
electronics. The operation of solar powered systems produces no pollution. There
are various federal, state and utility-sponsored rebates and credits for qualified
grid-connected systems.

CONS

Using sunlight for water heating can be quite efficient and cost effective. Using
sunlight for electricity however, has two primary drawbacks.
First, it is not constant. You do not know from one day to the next how much
energy your solar panels will be able to generate. This is a problem especially in
areas where overcast days outnumber sunny days. Of course, you can store
excess energy in batteries, but this will require a grossly oversized system.
Because of this, it is not practical to use sunlight as the prime power source unless
your power demand is very low. If you are off grid you may need to supplement
solar-powered system by other systems, such as a wind turbine and/or a diesel-
fueled electric generator. Otherwise, you have to significantly oversize the
surface area of the PV array and batteries to collect and store the excess energy
to be used for days when sun does not shine. Therefore, if you have a limited
space, you may not be able to fully benefit much from this renewable resource.

Secondly, while sunlight of course is free, the equipment needed to capture and
convert it to electricity is quite expensive both for homeowners and for utilities.
Likewise, while solar generators are pollution free, some pollution are
nevertheless produced in the process of their manufacturing, transportation and
installation.
In 2015 an average net cost of a PV system installation was about $4,000 per
kilowatt- see the cost distribution in dollars/watt by states. The so-called levelized
cost of electricity produced on new photovoltaic power plants is about $0.16 per
kW-hour. This value is still much higher than the cost of electricity generation
from coal and natural gas. As the result, in 2015 less than 0.1% of total US energy
consumption came from photoelectric systems. However, in applications where
an electric grid is not available, like in space for instance, sunlight can be a very
cost-effective source of renewable energy.

WIND ENERGY BASICS

 When you leave your home and feel the wind whip through your hair, you may
view it as an annoyance, but the fact is wind is an important form of renewable
energy. With the right equipment, the kinetic energy of moving air can be turned
into electricity or usable mechanical energy.

WHAT CAUSES WIND?

There are a number of mechanisms that cause air movement around the earth.
For example, when the surface of the earth absorbs heat from the sun, it does so
at different rates. Land absorbs heat about eight times faster than water, and the
warm air over the land rises, making room for the cool air over the water to move
in. This moving air is wind. As the earth rotates and the sun "sets", the land looses
its heat faster than the water, so the winds reverse themselves. Changes in the
weather can also affect these cycles. The other major mechanism is related to
latitudinal effect. The areas near the Equator obviously get more sunlight that the
areas near the poles. This causes large scale air motions between the Equator and
the poles. Mountains additionally affect the air currents.

HARNESSING THE WIND 

The energy in the air molecules can be harvested by using electro-mechanical

devices called wind power turbines. These machines have blades that can turn
when exposed to the wind. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that spins
an electromagnet or a permanent magnet. This motion produces rotating
magnetic field. The variable magnetic field induces voltage in the armature of
electric generator according to Faraday's law. In residential grade systems this
voltage is not regulated. It has to be rectified and converted into stabilized
120VAC 60Hz by  SMPS inverters. Wind energy can also be converted to
mechanical energy in windmill.

PROS

It is always available and cannot be used up. This fact makes it a fully renewable
resource. The wind blows today, and it will blow again tomorrow regardless of
whether or not we use its energy. The process of converting this renewable
resource into electricity does not create greenhouse gases or air pollutants, which
is important for our environment.

CONS

The initial monetary investment to put up a wind power plant is higher than fossil
fueled options, because the machinery is quite expensive. Wind also is not as
plentiful in all areas of the country. Unlike electricity from traditional fossil-based
sources, the power flow from wind generators is erratic as winds rise and fall. The
amount of wind can also vary from day to day, so those who use it off-grid must
be able to store the electricity for days when the wind is not blowing, or have a
supplementary source of power. The constant variability of the wind power
presents challenges for the grid, which was designed to work with the relatively
continuous power flow from the fossil-based plants.

There are concerns that the turbines can kill the bats and birds. Many residents
do not like the way the windmills look. The rotor blades create noise which can be
heard within a few hundred feet especially at night when background noise is low.
This is a drawback in residential environments. Finally, some of the best sources
of wind are in the country, away from the urban areas that use the most
electricity. This means that the utility must find a cost-effective way to transport
the electricity long distance to the areas where it is needed.

COST

Prices of course vary widely due to many factors affecting installation. Currently
the net cost of installation of a small wind system for a private home before
rebates and incentives is about $4,000-6,000 per kilowatt. Such a system includes
a turbine with a tower and a special grid-interactive DC-AC inverter. The so-called
levelized cost of electricity produced on wind power plants is about $0.15-0.19
per kW-hour. This is about 50-100% higher than the cost of power generation
from coal and natural gas. There is also the cost of getting the permit, which
ranges from zero to $1,000 depending on the utility. Unlike photovoltaic
electricity, the cost of wind energy kept growing during the last decade. However,
in near future the prices may decrease as a result of imports of low-priced
systems from China. For reference, in 2010 only about 0.7% of total energy
consumed in US came from wind energy.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
 The term “geothermal” comes from a combination of two Greek words: “geo”
which means earth, and “thermos” which means heat. So this word actually refers
to “earth heat.” That's precisely what geothermal energy (GTE) is: the thermal
energy generated inside the Earth.

GTE is used primarily for electricity production or heating and can captured in a
variety of different ways. Sometimes heat pumps are also included in the category
of GTE, although they utilize different physical effects. In heat pumps commonly
found in space heating systems, the Earth is used as a huge heat exchanger whose
temperature remains more or less constant. There are a number of various
physical processes that contribute to generation of GTE: the decay of radioactive
materials, volcanic activity, and even absorbed solar energy.

Geothermal power is generally clean, renewable, and sustainable. Therefore, it's

considered a “green” type of energy. It is also more cost-effective than other
renewables. There are several available geothermal resources: the heat in shallow
ground, hot water and rock a few miles below the Earth's surface, and high-
temperature magma deep in the Earth. Scientists estimate that every 328 feet
below the Earth's crust the temperature of the rock increases about 5.4 degrees
Fahrenheit. What this means is that the temperature of the rock can be high
enough to boil water about 10,000 feet below the crust. This is the same heat
that causes volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers to form. What geothermal
systems do is take this heat and use it to power things that would normally be
fueled by traditional fossil fuels that are considerably more harmful to the
environment.

HOW CAN HEAT ENERGY OF THE EARTH BE CAPTURED? 

GTE power plants generally use the hot water or steam from the ground to spin a
turbine of an electric generator, which produces electricity in the process. Wells
can be drilled into the ground, tapping underground reservoirs to produce
electricity that way. Currently, most of utility-scale plants are so-called flash
steam plants. They use hot water at temperatures over 360ºF (182 oC). When it
flows up to generation equipment at the surface, its pressure drops and it boils
into steam. The steam is then used to produce a kinetic energy in a turbine that
powers an electric generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam is
returned back to the reservoir. In the so-called binary system, the underground
water heats another “working fluid” by using heat exchanger. This working fluid
vaporizes and drives the turbines. By using working fluids with lower boiling point
than water, binary systems can operate in the areas with lower water
temperatures (225°F to 360°F). The third type of the plants is dry steam plant. It
uses underground steam that goes directly to a turbine. Moderate-temperature
water is a more common geothermal resource, so in the future most GTE power
plants will likely be binary-cycle type. 

PROS AND CONS 

Since all GTE generators use steam or water as a “fuel”, their power source can be
constantly renewed. Given the fact that geothermal systems have practically no
external fuel requirements, the fuel has little bearing on the cost of geothermal
electricity. On the other hand, such systems used to have a relatively large startup
cost. This was the major drawback to using the underground heat as a primary
source of power. However, the latest EIA energy outlook for 2014 indicates that
this year GTE has the lower LEC. Costs notwithstanding, it is one of the cleanest
forms of energy available. A GTE system doesn't rely on fossil fuels to power it,
and the renewable nature of the energy means that it'll be available for years to
come. Being a green power and highly sustainable makes it a popular resource to
use for as electricity for small towns and larger cities alike. The lower
maintenance costs may allow for the power plant to pay for itself over time, but
the initial investment keeps cost-sensitive communities out of the running. The
so-called levelized energy cost of GTE that takes into account expected power
generation over its life, is currently about $0.05/kw-hr. This value is lower than
LEC of coal and natural gas technology. For reference, in 2009 only about 0.4% of
total US energy consumption came from GTE. However, as a type of renewable
energy, geothermal will likely become more prevalent in the future if the initial
costs become lower.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER
Water is one of the earth's most abundant resources, which can be utilized to
produce convenient forms of energy. The mechanical use of falling water to turn
wheels of machinery has been known thousands of years ago. Since the end of
19th century hydropower, or the power of water, is also being exploited for the
production of electricity. Today hydropower is an important renewable resource
widely used to create electricity in the United States and all over the world. In
2009 about 3% of total US energy consumption came from hydroelectricity.

USING WATER TO GENERATE ENERGY

Water that moves quickly in a river or descends over a great distance possesses a
large amount of usable kinetic energy. To harness it, the fast moving water can be
sent through a pipe called a penstock. Inside the pipe, the water causes blades in
a turbine to spin. The turbine's mechanical energy is then transferred through a
drive shaft to the electric generator. In the generator, the rotational energy is
transformed into electricity. Sometimes a penstock is added to a natural source of
moving water, like a stream or waterfall. The water flow can be made artificially
through dams that release it into the pipes when electricity is needed. The
systems can be “run-of-river” without a reservoir, or can include reservoir storage
capacity.

WAVE AND TIDAL ENERGY 

Other forms of renewable water energy are waves and tides. Winds and
temperature differences caused by uneven heating of the ocean contribute to the
formation of waves. Their movement must be transferred to some swinging
system and converted to the mechanical energy of turbines or other hydraulic or
pneumatic engines, which drive a generator. The waves can be focused into small
channels in order to increase the amount of captured energy. Although the wave
energy technology is still in an early stage, the first commercial wave farm has
been already opened in Portugal in 2008. 

Tides are caused by the interaction of the gravitational forces and the movement
of the sun, moon and earth. The ocean moves toward the moon on the side facing
the moon. This results in an up-and down movement of water along the coast.
The seawater can be trapped with a dam in a bay at high tide. During low tide, it
can be released from the bay to the ocean. As it falls, it can turn the turbine of an
electric generator. Typical conversion efficiencies for tidal power are 10-25%.

PROS OF HYDROPOWER 

 The main benefit is that it is renewable. There are plenty places on this
earth that have moving water, and we can also create moving water on our
own.
 It is a fairly clean way to produce electricity, while releasing little pollution
into the air through the process.
 Conventional hydropower (in opposite to wave and tidal power) is a mature
technology that does not require big technological breakthroughs in order
to develop it further.
 Conventional hydro electric technologies are highly efficient (about 90%).

CONS OF HYDROPOWER

 It does affect the environment, although not in the form of greenhouse

gases and air pollutants. Many types of fish and underwater organisms are
killed in the process of generating hydroelectricty. Creating an electricity-
producing dam, for instance, can change the temperature, flow, and water
chemistry in a body of water, disrupting the natural balance of life. In areas
where salmon must swim upstream to spawn, electricity plants make it
impossible for the fish to do so. The challenge then comes to find a way to
use the energy in water responsibly. In salmon spawning areas, the addition
of fish ladders allows the fish to get to their natural spawning grounds,
while still allowing the energy to be tapped and used. This is just one
 example of the ways in which scientists are working to make hydropower a
more environmentally safe electricity option.
 Water reservoirs can occupy large areas of land.
 A hydroelectric-based power system is vulnerable to large variations in
rainfall and therefore is very dependent on power transmission from other
energy sources.

BIOMASS
The term biomass casually refers to biological material that can be used as fuel. It
can be something as simple as a wooden log or more complex like alcohol.
Biomass for millennia has been the primary energy source on the planet.
Although it is considered that all fossil fuels such as coal and oil are originated
from buried ancient organisms, they are usually excluded from the definition of
biomass.
Plants are a common source of biomaterials. Corn, for instance, can be processed
to make liquid automotive fuel, and wood can be burned for heat energy. Other
sources include residue from forests, such as grass clippings and fallen leaves.
Many plants can be turned into industrial fuel, including willow, corn, and hemp.
Structures like these can be harnessed and used for energy. Since they can be
grown again, this energy source is fully renewable. Another important source of
biomass in the home is garbage, which is approximately 60% biomass. 

HOW CAN BIOMASS BE USED TO GENERATE ENERGY? 

The easiest and most efficient way to use biomass as energy is to burn it. When it
is burned, a part of the internal chemical energy convers to heat. For some
homeowners, certain types of garbage can be burned to heat their homes,
although this is not always a practical in a modern home.
Biomass can also be burned in special plants called waste-to-energy plants. These
plants use the heat energy to create steam, which is then used to either heat
buildings or create electricity. In the about one hundred waste-to-energy plants
currently operating in the United States, garbage is burned to create enough
electricity to power about 3 million homes.
Not only do waste-to-energy plants create electricity using a renewable resource,
but they also allow us to cut down on the amount of trash placed in the landfills
each year. Since the average American creates over 1,600 pounds of waste each
year, this is an even more important benefit of waste-to-energy plants than the
electricity they produce. In addition to creating electricity and heat, biomass can
also be used to create methane gas, ethanol, and biodiesel. Methane gas, the
primary component of natural gas, comes from rotting waste, and this gas can be
harvested. 
Sugar cane and corn are converted into ethanol, a fuel used to power vehicles.
Leftover oils and fats are used to make biodiesel, another fuel used to power
vehicles.
 
PROS AND CONS
The main benefit of biomass is it's a renewable fuel. Not only does this give us a
renewable source of energy to heat our homes, power our vehicles, and produce
electricity, but it also helps us eliminate some of the waste we are throwing out
there for the next generation to deal with. However, if not managed carefully,
biomass can be harvested at unsustainable rates, damage ecosystems, and
consume large amounts of water. Technically, biomass is the only renewable
source that theoretically can be depleted. Another drawback of using biomass as
a fuel is this process produces air pollution such as of carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, and volatile organic compounds. 

While it is not unusual for homes to be heated with firewood, other types of bio-
materials are not as common, and their commercial-scale use is currently very
limited. In 2010 only about 0.5% of total US energy consumption came from
biomass waste and 1.6% from biofuels. Aside from high utility-scale cost, our
energy demand is outpacing biomass production even with the fastest-growing
known energy crops. Meeting a significant portion of the growing primary energy
demand with the use of existing types of plants would require unreasonably large
land areas. It is therefore important to explore the ways of designing bio-
organisms that could be transformed into usable energy in a more effective way
while keeping the pollution levels low.
Biomass Energy
In the past few years, there have been significant improvements in renewable
energy technologies along with declines in cost. The growing concern for the
environment and sustainable development, have led to worldwide interest in
renewable energies and bio-energy in particular. Biomass can be converted into
modern energy forms such as liquid and gaseous fuels, electricity, and process
heat to provide energy services needed by rural and urban populations and also
by industry.

Introduction:

In past 10 years or so, considerable practical experience has accumulated in India

as well as in other developing and industrialized countries, on biomass energy
production and conversion. India is pioneer among developing countries, with
significant indigenous efforts in promoting renewable energy technologies. The
importance of bio-energy as a modern fuel has been recognized. India has about
70,000 villages yet to be connected to the electricity grid. The supply of grid
power to rural areas is characterized by a) Low loads. b) Power shortages. c) Low
reliability. d) Low and fluctuating voltages. e) High transmission and distribution
costs and power losses. Decentralized power generation based on renewables is
an attractive option to meet the energy needs. The availability of biomass such as
wood, cow-dung, leaf litter in rural areas is more. Hence a choice of biomass
energy especially in rural areas is more reasonable but at the same time the
technology is being developed to meet the large-scale requirements using
biomass. Biomass energy has played a key role in the time of Second World War
when there was a fuel deficiency. Many vehicles, tractors and trucks used wood
gasifies, which generate producer’s gas, running an internal combustion Engine.
One of the major advantages of biomass energy is that it can be used in different
forms. For e.g., Gas generated from the biomass can be directly used for cooking
or it can be used for running an internal combustion Engine for developing
stationary shaft power or otherwise coupled to generator for generating electric
power.
Motivation

There are several renewable and non-renewable energy options for power
generation at the decentralized level. It is necessary to understand why biomass-
based energy options should receive priority over other options and to discuss the
advantages to local and global communities as well as the environment. Biomass
is renewable fuel used in nearly every corner of the developing countries as a
source of heat, particularly in the domestic sector. Biomass energy includes
energy from all plant matter (tree, shrub, and crop) and animal dung. Biomass,
unlike other renewables, is a versatile source of energy, which can be converted
to modern forms such as liquid and gaseous fuels, electricity, and process heat.

Advantages of biomass gasify energy over other renewable energy options:

a) Suitable in most locations.

b) Varying capacity can be installed; any capacity can be operated, even at lower
loads; no seasonality.

c) Need for storage of energy is not required.

Advantages and drawbacks of biogas energy over other renewable energy

options:

a) It can be used directly for cooking, or heating water from the abundantly
available dung and dried plant leaves in rural areas.

b) Capacity determined by availability of dung. Not suitable for varying loads.

c) Not feasible to locate at all the locations.

Different Ways of extracting energy from biomass

Solid fuel combustion

a) The simplest and most common way of extracting energy from biomass is by
direct combustion of solid matter.
 b) Majority of the developing countries especially in rural areas obtain the
majority of their energy needs from the burning of wood, animal dung and other
biomass. But burning can be inefficient.

c) An open fireplace may let large amounts of heat escape, while a significant
proportion of the fuel may not even get burnt.

The different methods of biomass extraction can be broadly be classified as:

a) Anaerobic Digestion.

b) Gasification.

c) Liquefaction.

Gasification

Gasification is a process that exposes a solid fuel to high temperatures and

limited oxygen, to produce a gaseous fuel. This is a mix of gases such as carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and methane. Gasification has
several advantages over burning solid fuel. One is convenience – one of the
resultant gases, methane, can be treated in a similar way as natural gas, and used
for the same purposes. Another advantage of gasification is that it produces a fuel
that has had many impurities removed and will therefore cause fewer pollution
problems when burnt. Under suitable circumstances, it can produce synthesis gas,
a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This can be used to make almost
any hydrocarbon (e.g., methane and methanol), which can then be substituted for
fossil fuels. But hydrogen itself is a potential fuel of the future.

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is an old technology with a new lease of life. In its simplest form it
involves heating the biomass to drive off the volatile matter, leaving behind the
black residue we know as charcoal. This has double the energy density of the
original material. This means that charcoal, which is half the weight of the original
biomass, contains the same amount of energy making the fuel more
transportable. The charcoal also burns at a much higher temperature than the
original biomass, making it more useful for manufacturing processes. More
sophisticated Paralysis techniques have been developed recently to collect the
volatiles that are otherwise lost to the system. The collected volatiles produce a
gas rich in hydrogen (a potential fuel) and carbon monoxide. These compounds, if
desired, can be synthesized into methane, methanol and other hydrocarbons.
'Flash' Paralysis can be used to produce bio-crude – a combustible fuel.

Digestion

Biomass digestion works by the action of anaerobic bacteria. These

microorganisms usually live at the bottom of swamps or in other places where
there is no air, consuming dead organic matter to produce, among other things,
methane and hydrogen. We can put these bacteria to work for us. By feeding
organic matter such as animal dung or human sewage into tanks – called digesters
- and adding bacteria, we can collect the emitted gas to use as an energy source.
This can be a very efficient means of extracting usable energy from such biomass
– up to two-thirds of the fuel energy of the animal dung is recovered. A large
proportion of household biomass waste, such as kitchen scraps, lawn clippings
and pruning, ends up at the local tip. Over a period of several decades, anaerobic
bacteria are at work at the bottom of such tips, steadily decomposing the organic
matter and emitting methane. The gas can be extracted and used by 'capping' a
landfill site with an impervious layer of clay and then inserting perforated pipes
that collect the gas and bring it to the surface.

Fermentation

Like many of the other processes described here, fermentation isn't a new idea.
For centuries, people have used yeasts and other microorganisms to ferment the
sugar of various plants into ethanol. Producing fuel from biomass by fermentation
is just an extension of this old process, although a wider range of plant material
can now be used, from sugar cane to wood fiber. For instance, the waste from a
wheat mill in New South Wales has been used to produce ethanol through
fermentation. This is then mixed with diesel to produce 'dishelm', a product used
by some trucks and buses in Sydney and Canberra.
Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic Digestion is a biochemical degradation process that converts complex

organic material, such as animal manure, into methane and other byproducts.

What is Anaerobic Digester?

Anaerobic digester (commonly referred to as an AD) is a device that promotes the

decomposition of manure or “digestion” of the organics in manure to simple
organics and gaseous biogas products. Biogas is formed by the activity of
anaerobic bacteria. Microbial growth and biogas production are very slow at
ambient temperatures. These bacteria occur naturally in organic environments
where oxygen is limited. Biogas is comprised of about 60% methane, 40% carbon
dioxide, and 0.2 to 0.4% of hydrogen sulfide. Manure is regularly put into the
digester after which the microbes break down the manure into biogas and a
digested solid. The digested manure is then deposited into a storage structure.
The biogas can be used in an engine generator or burned in a hot water heater.
AD systems are simple biological systems and must be kept at an operating
temperature of 100 degrees F in order to function properly. The first methane
digester plant was built at a leper colony in Bombay, India. Biogas is very corrosive
to equipment and requires frequent oil changes in an engine generator set to
prevent mechanical failure. The heating value of biogas is about 60% of natural
gas and about 1/4 of propane. Because of the low energy content and its
corrosive nature of biogas, storage of biogas is not practical. There are two major
types of biogas designs promoted in India

a). Floating Drum

Floating-drum plants consist of an underground digester (cylindrical or dome-

shaped) and a moving gas-holder. The gas-holder floats either directly on the
fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas is collected in the gas
drum, which rises or moves down, according to the amount of gas stored. The gas
drum is prevented from tilting by a guiding frame. When biogas is produced, the
drum moves up adn when it is consumed, the drum goes down.
If the drum floats in a water jacket, it cannot get stuck, even in substrate with
high solid content. After the introduction of cheap Fixed-dome Chinese model,
the floating drum plants became obsolete as they have high investment and
maintenance cost along with other design weakness

b) Fixed Dome

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder,

which sits on top of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is
displaced into the compensation tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of
gas stored and the height difference between the slurry level in the digester and
the slurry level in the compensation tank. The costs of a fixed-dome biogas plant
are relatively low. It is simple as no moving parts exist. There are also no rusting
steel parts and hence a long life of the plant (20 years or more) can be expected.
The plant is constructed underground, protecting it from physical damage and
saving space. While the underground digester is protected from low temperatures
at night and during cold seasons, sunshine and warm seasons take longer to heat
up the digester. No day/night fluctuations of temperature in the digester
positively influence the bacteriological processes. The construction of fixed dome
plants is labor-intensive, thus creating local employment. Fixed-dome plants are
not easy to build. They should only be built where construction can be supervised
by experienced biogas technicians. Otherwise plants may not be gas-tight
The floating drum is an old design with a mild-steel, Ferrocement or fiberglass
drum. which floats along a central guide frame and acts as a storage reservoir for
the biogas produced. The fixed dome design is of Chinese origin and has dome
structure made of cement and bricks. It is a low-cost alternative to the floating
drum, but requires high masonry skills and is prone to cracks and gas leakages.
Family biogas plants come in different size depending on the availability of dung
and the quantity of biogas required for cooking. The average size of the family is
5-6 persons, and thus biogas plant of capacity 2-4 m 3 is adequate. The biomass
requirement is estimated to be 1200 liters for a family.

Comparison between two designs:

Fixed dome Floating Drum

Digester and gas holder, masonry or
concrete structure
Requires high masonry skills
Low reliability due to high construction
failure
Variable gas pressure
Digester could be inside the ground
Low Cost (2 m 3 = Rs.5000)
Digester, masonry, Gas holder, mild
steel or fiberglass
Low masonry or fabricating skills
High reliability, gas holder prefabricated
Constant gas pressure
Requires space above ground for three
tanks; inlet, digester, outlet
Low Cost (2 m 3 = Rs.8000)
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108108078/pdf/chap7/teach_slides07.pdf