Elements of Mechanical Engineering 18ME15/25

MODULE 1

ENERGY RESOURCES, STEAM FORMATION & THERMODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION:
Energy exists in the earth or comes from the outer space. The energy existing in the earth
is called capital energy and that which comes from the outer space is called celestial or
income energy. E.g. of capital energy: fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and heat traps. E.g. of
celestial or income energy: Electromagnetic energy, gravitational energy, particle energy and
potential energy of meteorites. The useful celestial energy sources are the electromagnetic
energy of the Sun, called direct solar energy. The gravitational energy of the Moon produces
tidal energy. The other sources such as wind energy, hydel energy, geothermal energy,
biofuels etc. are derived from the direct solar energy.

FORMS OF ENERGY
The various forms of energy are as follows
1. Electrical energy
2. Chemical energy
3. Mechanical energy
 Potential energy
 Kinetic energy
 Thermal energy
4. Nuclear energy
5. Electromagnetic energy
6. Transitional energy
7. Capital energy
8. Celestial energy
9. Stored energy

SOURCES OF ENERGY

The main sources of energy are

 Earth: It is the source for fossil fuels, nuclear fuels, and geothermal energy

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 Sun: It is the source for hydel power, wind power, solar power, ocean thermal power,
bio-fuels.
 Gravitational force effect is the source for tidal power, wave power.
 Planetary motion effect is the source for tidal energy.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY SOURCES

Energy sources are classified as

1. According to availability and usage with respect to time

I. Conventional energy sources
II. Non-conventional energy sources

2. According to possibility of renewability

I. Renewable energy sources
II. Non-renewable energy sources

Conventional energy sources: The sources of energy which provide a net supply of
energy are called conventional sources of energy: These are useful for mass generation of
power. Ex: Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and hydro energy are conventional sources of
energy.
Non-conventional energy sources: The sources of energy which provide energy in a
dilute form are called non-conventional sources of energy. These are useful for
generating power in lesser magnitude. Ex: Solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
tidal energy, etc are non-conventional sources of energy.
Renewable sources of energy are those which are continuously restored by nature. They
are also called inexhaustible sources of energy. Ex: Solar energy, Hydrogen energy, Wind
energy, Tidal energy, Biomass etc.
 Solar Energy: It is the heat energy radiated from sun
 Hydel Energy: I: is the energy obtained from water.
 Wind Energy: It is the energy obtained from flow of wind
 Biomass energy: It is the energy obtained from organic matter of plants and
animals

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Non-renewable sources of energy are those which occur once in nature and on usage
they practically cease to form under new geological conditions. They are also called as
exhaustible sources of energy. –Ex.-Fossil fuels-and-nuclear fuels are non-renewable
sources of energy.

ADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1. The renewable energy sources are non-exhaustible.

2. Renewable energy sources can be matched in scale to the need and also can deliver the
energy required for a specific task.
3. Some of the renewable energy conversion systems can be built on or close to the site
where energy is required.
4. The diversity and technologies of renewable energy conversion systems offer more
flexibility in designing the conversion systems compared to the conventional energy
conversion systems.
5. The local or regional self-sufficiency can be achieved by harnessing locally available
renewable energy, which otherwise would be left unutilized.
6. Except biomass energy, all other renewable energy sources offer pollution-free
environment and maintain ecological balance.
DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1 Some of the energy sources are intermittently available (i.e. not continuously available).
E.g. solar energy, tidal energy, wind energy etc.
2 There is a limit to the rate at which solar energy is received at the Earth.
3 Renewable energy sources like wind energy, tidal energy etc. are concentrated only in certain
regions.
4 State-of-the-art technology in harnessing the renewable sources is yet to be developed
to meet the present day energy requirements.
5 Solar cells, automatic tracking systems for solar energy etc. require advanced
technologies, which are sophisticated and costly.
6 Application of renewable energy sources in transportation sector is not viable as of today.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERG
Sl.
Renewable energy sources
No.
1 Inexhaustible in nature.
Most of the renewable energy sources are
2
freely and readily available in nature.
Non-reliable since energy concentration
3 varies from region to region and time to
time.
4 Initial costs of extracting energy are high.
Rarely used due to limitations in their
5
equipments.
6 Energy transmission cost is less.
7 Eco-friendly in nature.
8 Maintenance cost is low.
Energy conversion equipments are not well
9
developed.
Energy conversion equipments are of low
10
efficiency.
E.g. direct solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, hydel energy, ocean thermal energy,
11 bio energy, geothermal energy, peat, fuel
wood, fuel cells, solid wastes, hydrogen
energy etc.
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Non-renewable energy sources
Exhaustible in nature.
Most of the non-renewable energy sources
are not readily available in nature.
Reliable, since energy concentration is
almost constant in all regions.
Initial costs are comparatively less.
Widely used due to maximum availability
of their equipments.
Energy transmission cost is relatively more.
Not eco-friendly in nature.
Maintenance cost is high.
Energy conversion equipments are well
developed.
Energy conversion equipments are of
relatively high efficiency.
E.g. Fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and
petroleum products), nuclear fuels and heat
traps.
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FOSSIL FUEL

One of the most important sources of energy are fuels which are used in various forms and
have wide applications from cooking to heating houses and power generation. Fuels basically
produce heat which is being generated in two ways:

1. Fuels combine mainly with oxygen resulting in chemical reaction and thereby heat is
produced.
2. Nuclear fuels produce heat by fission or fusion of their nuclei

Fuel is defined as a substance which mostly consists of carbon and hydrogen which on burning with
oxygen produces a large amount of heat. Nuclear fuels are not considered under this category.

PROPERTIES OF FUELS

Fuels require different properties for specific applications. However, the following properties in
general are useful for a fuel:
1 It should liberate high amount of energy per unit mass.
2 Heat production should be eco-friendly.
3 It should be easy to transport and handle.
4 It should be available in large quantity to meet the energy demand.
5 It should be corrosion-resistant.
6 It should not be pungent.
7 It should be less volatile.
8 It should have high evaporation temperature in the operating range.
9 It should be non-toxic and non-poisonous.
10 It should not be chemically explosive.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FOSSIL FUELS

Fuels are classified according to their existence as natural fuels and artificial fuels.
Natural fuels exist in original form such as wood, fatty oils, coal etc. Artificial or manufactured
fuels are products of distillation or other processes such as, coke, petrol, diesel, oven gas, flue
gas, benzene, toluene, etc. Majorly fuels are classified according to their existence as,
1. Solid fuels

2. Liquid fuels, and

3. Gaseous fuels.

Solid fuels: some of the widely used solid fuels are as follows
Wood: Wood is a good domestic fuel particularly used in rural areas where it is found abundantly
and cheaply. It’s by-products like methyl alcohol, acetic acid, etc., obtained by destructive distillation
of wood, and is used in industries. The major limitation of using wood as a fuel is high moisture
content and low calorific value. Also, fuel wood releases large quantity of smoke, which may pose
health hazards.
i. Coal: is the most extensively (widely) used fuel in industries. It is produced by natural decay
of plants over millions of years and compacted under pressure and temperature below the Earth’s
surface. The main constituents of coal are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, moisture
and ash. The various forms/types of coal are mined and used with little or no modification.

a. Peat

It is also a naturally available solid fuel which is mainly formed by partly decomposed plants,
minerals and wood below the ground. This is the first stage of formation of coal from wood. It
contains a large amount of moisture and is therefore dried for one or two months before using it.
It is used as gas producer for steam boilers. In Europe, it is used for heating homes and in Russia
for power generation. In India, its application is limited.
b. Lignite coal: It is an intermediate stage between peat and coal. It often has clay-like
appearance and has moisture, high ash and low calorific value. It is amorphous and breaks easily
while transporting. In India, it is used for household purposes.
c. Bituminous coal: This type of coal is denser and harder than lignite coal. It has high calorific
value and is easy to handle. It is a major fuel in most of the countries for industrial applications
which includes furnaces, boilers and thermal plants. It is also converted in to other forms of
liquid and gaseous fuels.
d. Anthracite: is the most mature and very hard form of coal. It has a lustrous appearance, high

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calorific value and can burn with or without short blue flame. It has vast industrial applications
in boilers, furnaces etc.
e. Wood charcoal: It is obtained by destructive distillation of wood in various qualities which
depends on rate of heating and temperature. During the distillation process, the volatile matter
and moisture are expelled and produces a hard, brittle and porous matter having mainly carbon
and ash.
f. Briquetted coal: It is a kind of artificial fuel which is a produced from coarse powder of coal
by means of a binder or by applying high pressure. This is applied to form a particular shape of
identical blocks. It is briquetted to eliminate the losses in the fuel through openings in the
furnace grates.
g. Pulverized coal: Low grade coal with high ash content is powdered to fine and uniform size
which is known as pulverized coal. This is opposite to the briquetted coal in formation and is
formed by crushing using pulverizing equipments. The coal in its powdered form can be carried
by pneumatic feeder (pneumatic means „using compressed air‟) and it burns quickly as it enters
the burner (furnace). Pulverized coal has high burning efficiency. Upon burning, it produces
high temperature. Also, its burning rate can be easily controlled. This type of coal can be easily
transported in to the combustion chamber using pneumatic feeders or screw conveyors.

2. Liquid fuels: Liquid fuels are mostly found beneath the Earth‟s surface and Is tapped out by
drilling wells. They are formed from animals and vegetative debris, which were buried millions
of years ago and undergo pressure and temperature effects to convert them to petroleum.
Petroleum will have impurities and are filtered out during fractional distillation to obtain petrol
(gasoline), diesel, kerosene, paraffin oil etc. Liquid fuels like coal tar, benzol etc. are obtained
from coal.
a. Petrol (gasoline): It is also known as gasoline and is the most volatile liquid fuel. It is chiefly
used as an I.C. engine fuel to drive automobiles. Gasoline is obtained from fractional distillation
of petroleum and is the lightest of all fuels obtained out of distillation. Gasoline is als obtained
from natural gas, which is condensed and compressed to produce volatile liquid.
b. Kerosene (paraffin oil): Kerosene is also known as paraffin oil. It is obtained by fractional
distillation of petroleum. It is heavier than gasoline and lighter than diesel oil. It is less volatile
compared to gasoline. Kerosene is used as a household fuel for domestic purposes.
c. Diesel oil: Most commonly known as diesel, diesel oil is obtained after gasoline and kerosene
during fractional distillation of petroleum. It may be obtained by direct distillation, cracking or
blending several oils. The name „diesel‟ is given to it since it is extensively used in diesel
engines (engines working on Diesel cycle). Specially synthesized diesel is used as aircraft fuel.
d. Alcohol: Alcohol is one of the liquid fuels prepared by fermentation of vegetable matters. It is
costlier than gasoline and has low energy content (i.e. low calorific value). It is an industrial fuel
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and is hardly used for domestic purposes.

3. Gaseous fuels: Gaseous fuels are classified as:

a. Natural gas (which is obtained usually near petroleum fields beneath the Earth surface).

b. Manufactured gases (which are produced from coal, waste materials etc.).

a. Natural gas: It is obtained from specific locations and beneath the Earth surface. The Earth is
deep drilled to tap out natural gas. Natural gas is mixture of methane, ethane, propane and traces
of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

b. Manufactured gases

i. Coal gas: It is produced by destructive distillation of bituminous coal. The major constituents
of this gas are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen etc.
ii. Coke oven gas: It is produced by destructive distillation of coal in an air tight coke oven and
hence known as coke oven gas. Its characteristics and composition are same as coal gas.
iii. Producer gas: It is prepared by partial oxidation of coal, coke or peat, when they are burnt
with an insufficient quantity of air. It is produced in a specially designed retort (furnace) and has
low CV. It mainly consists of carbon monoxide, hydrogen with traces of other gases.
iv. Water gas: It is produced by blowing steam over incandescent coal or coke (carbon in its red
hot form). Steam splits into hydrogen and oxygen combines with carbon to form carbon
monoxide. C + H2O = CO + H2 .This gas mainly consists of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
whose percentage varies as per coal constituents and temperature. It is also known as blue gas
since it burns with a blue flame.
v. Blast furnace gas: It is obtained by smelting, in which air is forced over layers of coke and
iron ore, during manufacture of pig iron. Blast furnace gas is produced as a by-product and
contains about 20% carbon monoxide. After filtering, it is blended with a richer gas or is used
directly in some cases. The heating value of this gas is very low.
vi. Sewer gas: It is obtained from sewage where fermentation and decay occurs. The main
constituent of this gas is methane. It can be used as a fuel in gas engines.

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LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

The petroleum gas which can be easily liquefied by merely compressing them to 4 or 5
atmospheric pressure is called Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
Liquefaction is carried out to increase the amount of energy contained in the gaseous
form. LPG contains much higher energy which is contained in the same quantity of a gaseous
fuel.
LPG is easy to store, transport and can be used in cooking, burning etc. It is transported
in the liquid form and is converted to its gaseous form when the gas is released or when it
expands.
LPG mainly consists of propane and butane. It also contains other hydrocarbons as
impurities, but it is free from lead and sulfur.
LPG is used as a domestic as well as an industrial fuel. LPG is a clean burning fuel, with
minimal products of combustion like smoke, ash etc. Hence, it is pollution-free. It can be used in
petrol engines with slight modification of the engine, but it cannot be used in diesel engines.
LPG is used compressed to the order of 10, has high octane number and hence high
calorific value of about 44 MJ/kg.
Other advantages: Cost of LPG is less (about 75% of cost of petrol), less polluting (about
15% less than pollution caused by petrol) and produces less amount of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons than petrol.

COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is one the names given to natural gas containing
hydrocarbons, which is pressurized to high pressures of the order of 200 bar. Natural gas is
compressed to increase its energy density. It is also known as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG),
which is liquefied at high pressure and low temperature to further its energy density. It is also
called Piped Natural Gas (PNG) when it is transported in pipelines. Natural gas is obtained
around and in petroleum wells.

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CNG mainly consists of methane. CNG and LNG have almost the same properties.
Natural gas comprises of 90% methane, 4% ethane, 1.7% propane and traces of other
hydrocarbons like butane and propane.
CNG is non-toxic, colorless and lighter than air. When it leaks, it escapes to the
atmosphere and hence, chances of catching fire are less. It is very efficient as an I.C. engine fuel
and is pollution-free.
The octane number of CNG is high and hence used as an I.C. engine fuel. It also burns
providing high amount of heat. It is mostly used a dual fuel (diesel + CNG) in engines.
It can be compressed to high pressures of about 200 bar to increase its energy density.
CNG can also be used in petrol engines (as a dual fuel).

BIOFUELS

The substance created by living stock i.e. mainly plants and animals, is called biomass.
These organic elements (substances) which have high carbon content react with oxygen and in
normal metabolic process, produce fuel which is known as bio-fuel. Liquid bio-fuels Examples
of liquid bio-fuels are alcohols (methanol, ethanol, propanol), biodiesel, etc.
The first generation of biofuel is produced by vegetable oils. These vegetable oils react
with alcohols like methanol and ethanol in the presence of catalyst to produce bio diesel.
Biodiesel can be mixed with the existing diesel (fuel) or the vehicle can be run independently
after a small modification in the engine. Since these types of biofuels are produced using edible
oils, these are not commercially produced and may be extinct due to their high rate of burning as
a fuel. E.g. jatropha (honge), coconut, palm (palm oil) etc. can be used to produce these types of
biofuels. These are also called biodiesels (Jatropha-based, Coconut-based, Palm oil-based etc.).

BIOGAS

Biogas is an asset especially for rural India. The animal excreta, vegetable and fruit waste
etc. are decomposed and fermented to produce a gas called biogas. During this process, some
organic solid and liquid residue is also obtained which can be used as manure or fertilizer.
Rural Indian people use animal dung, agricultural residue and dried plants as fuels, but
their use results in smoky kitchens and health hazards. Their storage attracts insects which is
again harmful, especially in rainy seasons.

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The use of biogas eliminates the age-old practice of burning fuels such as cattle dung,
waste products etc. which contain high carbon content and produce lot of smoke upon burning
them leading to environmental pollution.
The use of biogas also eliminates the use of age-old fuels like wood, kerosene, charcoal
etc. saving a lot of work for the people and reducing environmental pollution.
The danger of biogas explosion is also less since it contains carbon dioxide, which acts as
a natural fire-extinguisher.

Advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels

1. Liquid fuels have higher calorific value.

2. They have high combustion rate compared to solid fuels.
3. The combustion of liquid fuels can be easily regulated and controlled.
4. Residue left out after combustion is negligible.
5. Ash produced after combustion is negligible.
6. Liquid fuels are more eco-friendly than solid fuels.
7. Easy to ignite and sustain the combustion.
8. Do not corrode the containers in which they are stored.
9. Liquid fuels are easy to handle and can be stored in containers/barrels.

Disadvantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels

1. Cost of liquid fuels is higher than solid fuels.

2. The quantity of liquid fuels available in India is very less compared to solid fuels.
3. Special containers are required for storage and transportation of liquid fuels.

Advantages of gaseous fuels over liquid fuels

1. The quantity of excess air required for complete combustion is less.

2. They have better control during combustion.
3. Have good rate of combustion.
4. Easily mix with air.
5. Can be used directly used in I.C. engines.
6. Less environmental pollution.

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7. Lesser amount of impurities in gaseous fuels.

8. Residue left after combustion is negligible.
9. Very rarely produce smoke as product of combustion.
10. Distribution and transportation of gaseous fuels through pipelines is easy.

Disadvantages of gaseous fuels over liquid fuels

1. Need more safety precautions since they are highly inflammable.

2. Need higher capacity storage facility.
3. Need containers at high pressure and low temperature to store the gaseous fuels, when
pipelines are not available.

COMPARISON OF BIOFUELS WITH FOSSILS WITH RESPECT TO EMISSION

Sl. Petroleum-based fuels Biofuels

No.
1 Produced by fractional distillation
2 Non-renewable
3 High emissions
4 Low octane and cetane numbers
5 Calorific value generally ranges between
22 to 45 MJ/kg
6 More environmental pollution due to
high emission of carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), NOX (i.e. NO2 and
NO3), sulfur, etc.
Produced by esterification or fermentation
Renewable
Low emissions except NOX
High cetane number
Calorific value generally ranges between 20 to
46 MJ/kg
Less environmental pollution due to high oxygen
content and less sulfur. But NOX emissions is
more and can be controlled by properly tuning
the engines

SOLAR ENERGY:

In general the energy produced and radiated by sun, more specifically, the term refers to
the sun’s energy that reaches the earth. Solar energy received in the form of radiation can be
converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy, such heat and electricity, which can
be utilized by man. Since, the sun is accepted to radiate at an essentially constant rate for a few
billion years, it may be regarded as an in exhaustible sources of useful energy.
The major drawbacks are the extrusive applications of solar energy are:

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1) The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives at the earth’s surface.

2) The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate

Solar Radiation at the earth's surface:

Solar radiation is received at the earth's surface in different forms because it is subjected to the
mechanism of absorption and scattering as it passes through the earth's atmosphere Refer Fig.
Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapour in the
atmosphere and to a lesser extent due to other gases (like CO 2, NO2, CO. O2 and CH4) and
particulate matter. It results in an increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere. On the other
hand scattering occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate matter in the
atmosphere. The scattered radiation is redistributed in all directions, some goes back into space
and some readies the earth's surface.

Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered, reaches the ground directly from the sun
is called "Direct radiation" or "Beam radiation".
"Diffusion radiation" is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been
changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the scattering of solar
radiation in all directions in the atmosphere, diffused radiations come to the cash from all parts
of the sky.
The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's surface is the sum of the direct and
diffusion radiation which is referred as global radiations.

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In general, the intensity of diffuse radiations coming from various directions in the sky is not
uniform. The diffuse radiations therefore is said to be anisotropic in nature. However many
situations the intensity from all directions tends to be reasonably uniform. It is modeled as being
perfectly uniform and is said to be isotropic in nature.

SOLAR THERMAL HARVESTING

The process of utilizing solar energy to do useful work is called as solar thermal harvesting.
Various devices used for solar thermal harvesting are
1) Solar energy collectors

2) Solar ponds

3) Solar cells

LIQUID FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR:

Where temperatures below 700C are adequate, as they are for space and service water heating
flat plate collectors, which are of the non-concentrating type, are particularly convenient. They
are made in rectangular panels, from about 1.7 to 2.9 m 2, in area, and are very simple in
construction. These types of collectors absorb both beam and diffuse radiation.
The main parts of flat plate collectors are:

1. Absorber plate: It is meant to intercept and absorb incident solar radiation. It is

primarily a blackened heat absorbing plate usually made of copper, aluminum or
steel. It may also be given a coating to minimize the emission of heat from its
surface.
2. Transparent cover: It is made of one or more transparent sheets of glass or plastic. It
is placed above the absorber plate. The cover allows radiation to reach the absorber
plate but it prevents any re-radiation and heat loss due to convection.
3. Fluid tubes or channels: Fluid tubes or channels are arranged in thermal contact with
the absorber plate so that heat can be transferred from the absorber plate to the fluid
in the tubes or channels.
4. Thermal insulation: The thermal insulation is provided under the absorber plate and
fluid tubes to minimize any heat loss by transmission or convection from the absorber
plate and fluid tubes.

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5. Tight container or box: All the above components of the collector are protected by a
tight container or box as shown in Figure 3.1.
The characteristic of flat plate collectors are as follows:

 It absorbs both direct and diffuse radiation.

 It doesn’t need any sun tracking system. Hence, it is mathematically stronger than
other collectors which require tracking system.
 It has simple construction requiring a little maintenance.

Fig 1.2 Schematic of flat plate collector

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SOLAR POND:

Principle: In ordinary pond, when water is heated up by the sun rays, the heated water
rises to the top of the pond. The hot water loses heat to the atmosphere, and so the net
temperature at the top of the pond remains nearly at atmospheric temperature. The solar pond
technology ensures that heated brine water remains at the bottom of the pond due to more brine
concentration and density in it.

Fig 1.3 The Concept of Solar Pond (a) Variation of density, (b) The three zones in the pond,
(c) Variation of Temperature

The solar pond serves the dual purpose of a large flat collector and a thermal storage
system, It consists of a large size brine pond (depth of about 1m) which has salt concentration
gradient in such a way that the most concentrated and dense part of the brine solution is at the
bottom of the pond and brine concentration gradually reduces from bottom to top of the pond
based on the variation of brine solution density. A solar pond has three zones as shown in Figure
3.8. The top zone is surface zone which has the least salt content and its temperature is the
atmospheric temperature. The bottom zone has the maximum salt content and it has a high
temperature (70-85°C). This is the zone that collects and stores the solar energy as heat energy.
In between these two zones there is the gradient non-convective zone.
The hot brine solution from the bottom of solar pond is taken out without disturbing the
brine gradient existing in the solar pond. This solution is taken to heat exchanger to remove heat
from the brine solution by evaporating a refrigerant in the evaporator. These vapors are used to
run a turbine which is coupled to a generator to generate power. The refrigerant vapors exiting
from the outlet of the turbine are condensed to liquid state in a condenser and pumped to heat
exchanger.

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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC PRINCIPLE:

The silicon photocell is fabricated by forming a junction between two different materials
in a single crystal of silicon. The silicon material by itself is a poor conductor of electricity. By
adding of a trace of another element, like arsenic or phosphorus, which contributes one electron
to the silicon and make it conducting. In this material, designated as n-type silicon, conduction is
obtained by the negative free electrons. The p-type silicon is formed by the addition of an
element such as boron, or gallium that contains one less electron than silicon. The absence of in
type material creates positive charges or holes that also cause the silicon to become conductive.
The boundary between the two regions, n-type and p-type in the single silicon crystal,
establishes the n/p junction.
When a semiconductor wafer (a thin strip) is exposed to sunlight (Fig. 6-15a) some of the
solar photons are absorbed in the vicinity of the n-p junction, and in the process the electrons in
the valence band are excited. The excited electrons move from the valence band to higher energy
levels in the conduction band and as a consequence, leave holes in the valence band. This creates
electron hole pairs in the material. The electron in the conduction band bass negative charge and
the hole in the valence band have a positive charge. In effect, the electrons and holes are
respectively negative and positive charge carriers. The electric field of the p-n junction causes
the positive and negative charges to move in opposite directions. The n-type semiconductor
material on one side of the junction is thus negatively charged and the p-type material on the
other side is positively charged.

Fig 1.4 Photovoltaic conversion

A typical solar-cell is schematically illustrated in (Fig. 1.4). When an external load is

connected to the cell, the existing potential difference created between the p and n sides will
cause an electric current to flow through the external circuit and the cell. The newly formed
electrons and holes flow across the junction, in opposite direction, to cause flow of electric
current.

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WIND POWER:

Wind energy is the energy contained in the wind blowing across the earth’s surface. Winds
are caused by uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun. Hence it is an indirect form of solar
energy. It is renewable as well as non-conventional source of energy. The use of wind to generate
electricity was started in 1888 AD.
No device can extract all the wind energy. It has been found that for maximum power output the
exit wind velocity should be equal to one-third of the entrance velocity.
The wind turns the blades, which spin turbine shaft. This shaft is directly coupled to a generator
where electricity is generated.
The energy in the wind turns two or three propellers-like blades around a rotor. The rotor
is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to produce electricity. Wind turbines are
mounted on a tower to capture maximum energy from the wind. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more
above the ground .They can take advantage of faster and less turbulent wind. A blade acts much
like an airplane wing.
The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This
is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much stronger than the wind's force against the front
side of the blade, which is called drag. The combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin
like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a generator to make electricity.

Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or building, or they
can be connected to an electricity grid for more widespread electricity distribution. Wind speed
and the height of the blades both contribute to the amount of energy generated.

Fig 1.5 Wind mill

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Advantages
• Operation and maintenance costs are less.
• Fuel cost is nil and is non-polluting.
• Helps in generating power to houses located off-shore and on-shore remote areas.
• Reliable at elevated sites.

Limitations
• Noisy during operation.
• Large hilly areas are require d for large power generation.
• Needs storage batteries.
• Fluctuations in amount of power generated due to time of the day, location etc

NUCLEAR POWER
• Nuclear energy is the energy released during splitting or fusion of atomic nuclei.
• Any atom consists of a small, heavy, +vely charged nucleus surrounded by e-s. The nucleus is
made up of protons and neutrons.
• A nuclear reaction involves changes in the structure of the nucleus. As a result of such
reactions, the nucleus gains or losses protons or neutrons, releasing useful amounts of energy.
• The nuclear energy measured in millions of electron volts (MeV) is released by either fusion or
fission nuclear reactions.
• Nuclear fuels include uranium, plutonium, thorium
etc. Nuclear Fusion
• Involves fusion of two lighter atoms to form the next heavier element. Ex. Fusion of deuterium
and tritium to form helium.
• Enormous amount of energy is released during nuclear fusion process.

Nuclear Fission
• Involves splitting of nucleus of heavy atoms like uranium, plutonium, thorium etc. in a
controlled chain reaction.
• During fission, heat is released and this can be used to generate high pressure steam to drive
turbines and hence generate electricity.
• U-235 isotope is a fissile material which is used directly as nuclear fuel.

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Fig 1.6 Fission reaction of U-235

Advantages

1. They reduce the demand for coal, gas, and oil.

2. Fuel required is only in kilograms; hence, there is no problem for transportation, storage, etc.
3. It requires less area as compared to any other plant of the same size.
4. The running costs are less.
5. For large capacity, nuclear power plants are more economical,
6. The cost per unit decreases when the power generated is in large.
7. The output control is extremely flexible.
8. These are not affected by adverse weather conditions.
Disadvantages

1. High initial capital cost as compared to other types of power plants.

2. These plants are not suitable for varying loads, as reactors cannot be easily controlled.
3. It is difficult to shield the plant from radioactive radiation.
4. The disposal of fission products is a big problem.
5. The maintenance cost is high.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A HYDROELECTRIC PLANT (HYDEL ENERGY)

The principle of electricity generation in the case of hydroelectric power plant is same as
in thermal power plant; only difference is that the shaft power to the turbine is provided by
pressure and kinetic energy of water.
Hydraulic energy is the indirect source of solar energy. The water from the earth's surface
gets evaporated by solar heat and forms as clouds. This in term results in rainfall. The rain water
flowing as river is stored at high head behind the dams, which is known as reservoir.
The water stored with high potential energy in the reservoir is supplied to turbine through
a penstock. The hydraulic energy of water being absorbed by the turbine and converted into
mechanical energy. A generator is directly coupled mechanical energy of turbine into electrical
energy. After doing useful work water is discharged to the tailrace.

Fig 1.8 Hydroelectric power plant

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Advantages

• Environment-friendly.
*Hydraulic turbines are robust. As they are operating at low speed, there are less mechanical
problems.
• Hydro reservoirs help in agriculture and to control floods.
• Maintenance and operating cost is low.

Limitations

• Leads to deforestation and relocation of people living in surrounding regions.

* Requires large quantity of water
*Rainfall affects the delivery of power
• Construction of dams is costly.
As the sites of hydro electric stations are usually far away from the load centers, the cost of
transmission is high.

STEAM AND ITS PROPERTIES

Steam is formed in steam generators called boilers, where water is taken in at
atmospheric pressure and temperature, and converted into steam by the application of heat. As
the steam is generated, its pressure gradually increases and is supplied from the boilers to the
engines or turbines at constant pressure. To determine the various properties of steam at a
particular pressure, a steam generation experiment is conducted by heating the water from 0o C
at a given pressure. Since the steam is generated at constant pressure, the amount of energy
supplied to convert water into steam is equal to its enthalpy.

Mechanism of the formation of steam:

The process of generation of steam can be represented through a temperature – enthalpy diagram
as shown in the figure.
Consider 1 kg of water at 00 C taken in a cylinder with a pressure P applied by a weight
‘w’ on a free frictionless piston as shown in the figure 1.7. When it is heated keeping the
pressure constant, its volume increases with increase of temperature, until it reaches a point
(point B in the figure 1.6) when steam begins to form. This temperature (T s) at which steam
begins to form is called the saturation temperature. The saturation temperature is different for
different pressures and it increases with rise of pressure. The saturation temperature at
atmospheric pressure of 1 bar is 1000 C.
When steam begins to form at saturation temperature, some water particles may be
present in it . If the steam contains water particles in suspension, it is called wet steam.
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Figure 1.9 Temperature – Enthalpy diagram (TH-diagram)

Figure 1.10 Steam generations

On further heating beyond the point ‘B’, the whole amount of water will be converted to
steam without any further rise of temperature. At the saturation temperature if the steam contains
no water particles, it is dry saturated steam.
If the dry saturated steam is further heated beyond point ‘C’, at the same pressure the
temperature of steam rises above the saturation temperature. The steam which is at a temperature
greater than saturation temperature is called superheated steam.
Thus, during the formation there are three states of steam namely wet steam, dry steam
and superheated steam.

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Properties of steam:

Enthalpy of Water: The total amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
which is initially at 00 C to its saturation temperature, at a given constant pressure is called the
enthalpy of water. It is also called sensible heat. It is denoted by ‘hf’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.
Enthalpy of Evaporation: The total amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water which is
initially at its saturation temperature to dry saturated steam at the same saturation temperature
and at the given constant pressure is called enthalpy of evaporation. It is also called the latent
heat of vaporization of steam. It is denoted by ‘hfg’ and is expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.
Enthalpy of Dry Steam: The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of dry saturated
steam from 1 kg of water which is initially at 00 C and at a given constant pressure is called the
enthalpy of Dry steam. It is denoted by ‘hg’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’. Enthalpy of dry steam is
equal to the sum of enthalpy of water (h f) and enthalpy of evaporation (hfg). Thus it can be
expressed as
hg = hf + hfg kJ / kg

Enthalpy of Wet Steam: Enthalpy of wet steam is defined as the “total amount heat of required
to generate 1 kg of water which is initially at 0˚C to 1 kg of wet steam at the specified dryness
fraction”. It is denoted by ‘hw’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’
Enthalpy of wet steam, hw = hf +x hfg kJ / kg

Where x = dryness fraction of steam

Enthalpy of Superheated Steam: The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of

superheated stream at the stated superheated temperature from 1 kg of water which is initially at
00 C and at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of superheated steam. It is denoted
by ‘hs’ and expressed in ‘kJ / kg’.
Enthalpy of superheated steam, hs = hg + hsup

Where,

hsup= is the heat supplied during superheating, i.e., the heat supplied to the dry saturated steam to
attain superheated temperature ‘tsup’. ‘hsup’ is called the enthalpy of superheat. It can be
determined by using the equation
hsup = Cp (tsup – ts) kJ / kg

The difference between the superheated temperature (tsup) and the saturation temperature
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(ts) is called the degree of superheat.

Dryness fraction: Dryness fraction of steam is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam actually
present in a wet steam to the total mass of wet steam”.

Dryness Mass of dry steam in wet steam

x
fraction,
Total mass wet steam
of

md
x
mw 
md

Where, md — Mass of dry steam, mw — Mass of suspended water molecules. (x should

always be less than 1).

Specific Volume: The volume of a unit mass of steam at a given pressure is called the specific
volume of steam. It is expressed in m3 / kg.
As steam exists in three states, the specific volume is considered for all the three states.

Specific volume of dry saturated steam: The volume of a unit mass of dry saturated steam at a
given pressure is called the specific volume of a dry saturated steam. It is denoted by ‘vg’ and
expressed in ‘m3 / kg’.
Specific volume of wet steam: The volume of a unit mass of wet steam at a given pressure is
called specific volume of wet steam. It is denoted by ‘vw’ and expressed in ‘m3 / kg’.
Wet steam consists of saturated liquid in suspension. If in 1 kg of wet steam there is ‘x’
kg of dry steam, then ‘(1 – x)’ kg will be the saturated liquid. Therefore specific volume of wet
steam
vw = xvg + (1–x) vf m3/ kg
Since ‘(1–x) vf’ is too small quantity it is neglected. Hence
Specific volume of wet steam, vw = xvg m3 / kg

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Specific volume of the superheated steam: The volume of a unit mass of superheated steam at
a given pressure is called the specific volume of superheated steam.
Since superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas, its specific volume can be
determined by using Charles law as follows:

vg v sup T sup
 V sup  Vg
Ts T sup Ts

where, vg —Specific volume of dry saturated steam at pressure ‘p’

Ts —Saturation temperature, K
Tsup —Specified superheated temperature, K
vsup — Specific volume of superheated steam at pressure ‘p’

Specific volume of wet steam: The volume of a unit mass of wet steam at a given pressure is
called specific volume of wet steam. It is denoted by ‘vw’ and expressed in ‘m3 / kg’.
Wet steam consists of saturated liquid in suspension. If in 1 kg of wet steam there is ‘x’
kg of dry steam, then ‘(1 – x)’ kg will be the saturated liquid. Therefore specific volume of wet
steam
vw = xvg + (1–x) vf m3/ kg
Since ‘(1–x) vf’ is too small quantity it is neglected. Hence
Specific volume of wet steam, vw = xvg m3 / kg
 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Environmental issues are defined as problems with the planet's systems (air, water, soil, etc.,) that
have developed as a result of human interference or mistreatment of the planet.

The various environmental issues are

1) Global Warming
2) Pollution of air, water and soil
3) Natural Resource Depletion
4) Climatic Changes
5) Deforestation
6) Acid Rain

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT-GLOBAL WARMING

Radiation from the sun keeps the earth's surface and the atmosphere warm. A
major portion of this incoming radiation is absorbed by the earth's surface and
small amount by the gases present in the atmosphere. Another small portion is
reflected back into the space. Since the radiation absorbed by the earth's surface is re-
emitted, equilibrium is established between the radiation absorbed by and that leaving the
earth's surface. This accounts for the average temperature of the earth remaining constant.
Some the gases present in the atmospheric air absorbs a portion of the thermal infrared radiation
(wavelength region of 4000 to 5000 nm) and remit to the earth's surface. As a consequence, the
earth's surface becomes warm. This phenomenon is referred to as green house effect. This
effect is responsible for maintaining the earth's average temperature at 15°C in the absence of
which it would have been about -15°C.

Greenhouse Gases: The major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide
methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, the most significant
contribution comes from carbon dioxide which is present in the atmosphere in the large quantities.
The natural source of carbon dioxide is the biological degradation of vegetable matter which in
essence is a reverse of photosynthesis.
There is a rapid increase of greenhouse gases particularly carbon dioxide due to,
-- The combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
The burning and biodegradation of bio mass
Deforestation & Increase in industrial activities
Greenhouse Gases: The major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide methane,
ozone, nitrous oxide, and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, the most significant contribution
comes from carbon dioxide which is present in the atmosphere in the large quantities. The natural
source of carbon dioxide is the biological degradation of vegetable matter which in essence is a
reverse of photosynthesis.
There is a rapid increase of greenhouse gases particularly carbon dioxide due to,

The combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
The burning and biodegradation of bio mass
Deforestation
Increase in industrial activities

Global Warming

It is a climatic change that causes due to the emission of greenhouse gases. Global
warming leads to raise in temperature of the oceans and the earth' surface causing
melting of Polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation
such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification.
Causes of Global Warming

1. Emission of Carbon dioxide from the burning fossil fuels in the power plants
2. Emission of Carbon dioxide from burning petroleum products in transportation and
industries.
3. Methane emissions from animals, agriculture such as rice paddies and from Arctic sea
beds

4. Deforestation, especially tropical forests for wood, pulp, and farmland

 Effects of Global Warming
1. It is estimated that the earth will warm up by 4 to 5°C more in the 21st century and
this may raise the oceans by 2 to 3 feet.
2. The raise in temperature could cause glaciers and the ice caps to melt.
3. The winter will be shorter and warmer while the summer will be longer and hotter.
4. Plant and animal pests such as weeds, insects, rodents would thrive better under
warm condition.
5. It may lead to the massive crop failures.
6. The global warming may create more killer storms.
7. Depletion of the ozone layer.
8. Causes unseasonal rains.
9. Causes different types of skin diseases.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The ozone layer is an invisible layer of protection around the planet that protects us from
the sun's harmful rays (ultraviolet radiations). In other words it acts as nature's umbrella
against uv radiations. The ozone layer is about 3 mm thick.
Ozone depletion is the thinning of the earth's ozone layer. This is caused due to the
presence of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. Depletion of the Ozone layer is mainly
due to the interaction of ozone with chlorine and bromide present in Chloflourocarbons
Effects of Ozone Depletion
1. Increases the flux of UV radiation over earth's biosphere
2. Causes skin cancer and eve disorders
3. Decreases the rate of photosynthesis
4. Leads to green house effect
5. It causes decrease in the yield of crops
6. Adversely affects human immunity system and causes genetic abnormalities
7. Causes the degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer materials

THE RM O DYNAM I CSYSTE M

A thermodynamic system is defined as a certain quantity of matter on which we focus our

attention for the purpose of analysis anything external to the system is called surrounding.
The boundary which separates the system from the surroundings is called system boundary.
The system boundary may be real or imaginary.
Thermodynamics systems can be classified in to

(1) Closed system (2) Open system (3) Isolated system

(i) Closed system: A closed system is a system of fixed mass. There is no mass transfer across the system
boundary. But there may be energy transfer into or out of the system.
Ex. 1. Boiling water in a closed pan.

2. Steam power plant

3. Closed cycle gas power plant
4. Vapour compression refrigeration plant.

(ii) Open system: The open system is the one Mass in in which matter crosses the boundary of the
system. There may be energy transfer also i.e., both energy and mass crosses the boundary of
the system. Most of the engineering devices are Energy in generally open system.

Ex.: 1. Air compressor

2. Automobile engine
3. Turbines
4. Heat exchangers

(iii) Isolated system: An isolated system is the one in which there is no interaction between the system and
surroundings. It is a system of fixed mass and energy and there is no mass or energy transfer across the
boundary.

Ex.: 1. A rigid, insulated closed container

2. Flow through pipe

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Thermodynamic properties

The physical condition of a system may be described by certain distinguishing characteristics

are called properties of the system. They describe the state of a system.
Ex.: Temperature, volume, pressure etc

In thermodynamics, there are two types of properties.

(i) Intensive property (ii) Extensive property

Sl Intensive Properties Extensive Properties

N
01 Intensive properties are those properties that are Extensive properties are those
independent of the mass (size) of the Properties whose valves dependent of the
System mass (size) of the system.

02 Intensive properties are represented by lower case latter Extensive properties are
represented by Upper case
latter

03 Ex: Pressure, Temperature, Density, Velocity, Specific Ex: Mass, Volume, Total Energy, Length,
Volume, KE,PE etc Entropy,

Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium with the surroundings, if it is in

(i) Mechanical equilibrium, (ii) Chemical equilibrium and

(iii) Thermal equilibrium with the surroundings.

(i) Mechanical equilibrium: When there is no unbalanced mechanical force acting between a
system and its surroundings, then we say that the system is in mechanical equilibrium with the
surroundings. It ensures that there is no change in the pressure at any point of the system with
time.
(ii) Chemical equilibrium: A system is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium, if the
composition of the system does not undergo any change due to diffusion, mass transfer or
chemical reaction and if there is no tendency for a change in its chemical composition when
the system is isolated.
(iii) Thermal equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings, if
the system ensures uniform temperature throughout and is equal to the temperature of the
surroundings.

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(iv) Temperature

When hot and cold bodies are brought into contact, after sometime the hot body becomes cooler
and cold body becomes warmer. Later they both appear to have same hotness or coldness. Hence
temperature may be defined as degree of hotness or the level of heat intensity of the body. It is an
intensive thermodynamic property. It is measured by means of an instrument known as thermometer.
1.16 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It states that "when two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other".
Consider three systems, A, B and C. Let the systems A and B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then we
can say that A is in thermal equilibrium with B. This law provides the basis for temperature measurement.
Work

Under the concept of mechanics, work is defined as a force 'F' acting through a displacement `s' and
the displacement takes place in the direction of force.
i.e., W = F.ds

Sign Convention: Work is positive, when it is done by the system on surroundings i.e., when work
transfer takes place from the system to the surroundings. On the other hand, if the work is done on the
system, then it is said to be negative.

Characteristics of Work

1. Work transfer is a transient phenomenon i.e., it can be recongnized only when the system is
undergoing a process.
2. Work is a boundary phenomenon i.e., the magnitude of work transfer depends on the system
boundary we choose.
3. Work is a path function i..e, the magnitude of work transfer depends on the process the system is
undergoing.

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Heat
Heat is defined as a form of energy that is transferred across a boundary of a system by the virtue of
a temperature difference. Heat transfer always takes from a region of high temperature to a region of
low temperature. The temperature differerence is the driving potential for heat transfer. The S.I unit of
heat is joule (J).
Heat transfer is the amount of heat transferred within a certain time. The symbol Q is used to represent
the heat transfer.

Heat Sign Convention:

Heat transfer is considered as positive if it takes place from the surroundings to the system and it is
considered as negative if it takes place from the system to the surrounding.
Characteristics of Heat

1. Heat is a transient phenomenon. This means that, heat transfer can be recognized when the system is
undergoing a process.
2. Heat is a boundary phenomenon. That is, the magnitude of heat transfer depends on system
boundary we choose.
3. Heat is a path function. That is, the magnitude of heat transfer depends on thermodynamic process
the system has undergone.
4. Heat is not a property of a system. Hence, we cannot say that a substance at a specified temperature
contains a certain quantity of heat.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Heat and work are different forms of energy. The system may receive energy in the form of heat and
energy may leave the system in the form of work or system may absorb work and reject energy in the form
of heat. Hence, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to other.
This is the statement of law of conservation of energy and forms the basis for the first law of
thermodynamics.

It states that "whenever a closed system executes a cyclic process or cyclic change, the algebraic sum of
work transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of heat transfer",
the
i.e ., algebraic sum of all energy transfer across system boundaries is zero. According to law, the
cyclic integral of heat transfer is equal to the cyclic integral of work transfer.

Mathematically, Q =W

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SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The major limitations of I law of thermodynamics are.

1. It does not specify the direction of flow of heat and work.

2. It provides necessary, but not sufficient condition for a process to occur.

Second law of thermodynamics addresses these two limitations. Following are the two
statements of second law of thermodynamics.

1. KELVIN - PLANCK STATEMENT

It states that "It is impossible to construct an engine working on a cyclic process whose sole
purpose is to convert heat energy from a single thermal reservoir into an equivalent amount of work".

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2. CLAUSIUS STATEMENT

It states that "It is impossible to construct a device which while undergoing a continuous cyclic process
transfer heat from a low temperature region to a high temperature region without the aid of any external
energy input".

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Entropy is the only state function that can be calculated on an absolute basis. This is by virtue of the
Third Law of Thermodynamics, which states that "the entropy of an ideal substance at absolute
zero of temperature is zero". This important statement was first stated by Nernst in 1906, who
postulated that the temperature dependencies of the changes in Gibbs energy and enthalpy for
reactions tended to zero as the temperature approached absolute zero
INTERNAL ENERGY

Internal energy is defined as the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is related to
the molecular structure and the degree of molecular activity and may be viewe d as the sum of the kinetic
and potential energies of the molecules. It is represented by the letter U.

The S.I unit of internal energy is kJ.

Internal energy is associated with mass of the system and hence is an extensive property. The change in
the value of internal energy is the algebraic sum of heat supply and work done.
U = Q — W U – Change in Internal energy

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ENTHALPY

It is a defined as the energy content of a system and is given by the sum of internal energy and
the product of pressure and volume. It is an extensive property of the system and denoted by 'H'.

i.e., H = U + P.V.

Specific enthalpy is the enthalpy per unit mass and it is denoted by 'h'

i.e., h = u + p.v.

The S.I. unit of enthalpy is kJ.

ENTROPY

The application of second law of thermodynamics to processes, leads to the definition of a new
property known as entropy. The term entropy means transformation and it increases with the
addition of heat and decreases with its removal. It is difficult to define the term entropy and easy to
define change in entropy of a working substance.

Entropy is an extensive property of a system, whose change is given by

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