OTC 7057

A New System for On-Line Monitoring of Corrosion and

Bacteria in Pipelines
J.S. Smart Ill, John Smart Consulting Engineers, and T.M. Pickthall, Enhance Co. Inc.

Copyright 1992, Offshore Technology Conference

This paper was presented at the 24th Annual OTC in Houston, Texas, May 4-7, 1992.

This paper was selected for presentation by the OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s), Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and ere subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presentad, does not naceaaarily reflect
any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or its offlcars. Permission to mpy is restrlctad to an abstract of not more than 3GQ words. Illustrations may not ba coplad, The abstract
should sontain conspicuous acknowledgment of whera and by whom the peper Is presentad.

ABSTRACT

A new system for on-line monitoring of ‘internal INTRODUCTION

corrosion and bacteria in pipelines has been developed
which maintains Minerals Management Service data (Ref 1) indicates
till pigging capability in the pipeline. Fluids are that corrosion was the cause of at least half of all
withdrawn from the pipeline and passed through a test pipeline failures in the US Gulf of Mexico for the
chamber specially designed to provide reliable corrosion period 1967-1987, as shown in Figure 1. This
rate measurements under pipeline operating conditions. compares to 20% due to third party mechanical
The system duplicates and measures worst case pipeline damage, and 12% for storm and mud slide induced
corrosion conditions, provides evaluation of corrosion damage. Of the total of 343 offshore corrosion failures
and bacteria control programs in an on-line manner, and in this period, 15% were caused by internal corrosion,
can function in the absence or intermittent presence of 46% from external corrosion, and 39% from “general”
water in the pipeline. Corrosion and bacteria probes are corrosion. Even though gas pipelines have a larger
able to be replaced under atmospheric conditions, population in the Gulf of Mexico than oil lines, half of
greatly simplifying operation, and the unit can be easily the offshore failures were in oil pipelines. Of the
cleaned of accumulated solids. All equipment is built to balance, 28% occurred in gas pipelines, 3% each in
API pipeline codes, and the system can be installed on multi-phase and miscellaneous lines, and 16% not
new pipelines and/or retro-fitted to existing pipelines. reported.

Recently, the 169 KM (104 mile) Forties Field

pipeline was replaced due to internal corrosion (Ref
2). Design pressure of this 32 inch pipeline was 2084
References and Illustrations at end of paper psi (142 bar), and it was fabricated of API 5L X65
pipe with a 19 mm wall thickness. Corrosion was

635
 described as “characteristic of individual corrosion
pitting, general corrosion containing pitting, selective
corrosion attack of girth welds, and areas of relatively
uniform metal loss, which resembles general wall
thinning but with a rough internal surface texture. ”
Most oil and gas pipelines are well designed for
corrosion control in their Mltial operation, but changing
conditions frequently result in offdesign operation afier
some period of time. System add-ens and partial
abandonments change the type and volume of fluids in
the line and create dead spaces. Maturing of oil and gas
fields results in greater amounts of water and smaller
amounts of oil and/or gas. This results in lower line
velocity and allows water to stratify in the bottom of or
at low spots in the line where it can cause corrosion.
Rlcca has also reported that internal corrosion has
occurred in “dead legs” in the Trans Alaska Pipeline
(Ref 3).
Full Well Fluids Transmission (FWFT), has resulted in
substantial volumes of water being transmitted through
offshore pipelines which did not previously transport
water, and for which the pipelines were not designed.
The development of environmental regulations in the
1970’s limited the discharge of oil into the sea. This led
to transmission of the entire liquids production from
offshore platforms, including free water, to shore when
the fluids could not be adequately treated offshore. At
the same time, cost reduction pressures in the gas
industry has resulted in some ofihore gas dehydration
units being shut down, with all well fluids again being
transmitted to shore for dehydration and further
treatment.
Declining oil and increasing water production from
maturing fields, acceptance of off-spec gas to fidfill
contracts when shortages have occurred, increased
construction activity during the past 20 years and the
aging nature of the pipeline system are also important
reasons for internal corrosion failures. Internal
corrosion can also result from process upsets which
introduce liquids into normally dry pipelines.
The allowable corrosion rate for pipelines is usually
very small. Many land based pipelines are designed
based upon a 72% Specified Minimum Yield Strength
criterion for wall thickness. This results in no corrosion
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allowance, thus virtually no corrosion at all is
permitted over the entire life of a pipeline, ofien more
than 50 years. Offshore lines typically are designed on
a 50% SMYS, effectively resulting in some corrosion
allowance. A poll taken by the author indicates that
many pipelines accept a corrosion rate of about 0.3
mpy ( 0.01 mndyr) for pipeline internal corrosion as
something they think they can live with.
INTERNAL CORROSION IN PIPELINES
Crude 011 Pipelines
Crude oil pipelines can be characterized by low water
content and low acid gas partial pressure compared to
crude oil production pipelines. Crude oil pipelines
usually have some beneficial carry-over of corrosion
inhibitor from crude oil production units. Pipeline
crudes, however, are subject to oxygen and bacteria
contamination from truck hauling and from storage in
lease and pipeline terminal tanks, which can negate the
beneficial effect of inhibitor carryover from production
facilities, and make crude oil pipelines significantly
corrosive.
In oil pipelines, water is usually specified to be at a
low level, typically 0.5 to 2% BS&W. Usually, once
oil enters a pipeline, no further effort is made to
remove water until the oil is refined. Indeed, active
efforts are made to keep any water in the oil in
suspension such as by the use of mixers in storage
tanks.
Water can stratify in pipelines, however, if the
velocity in the line is less than that required to sweep
the oil through the line or if the line is operated in a
stop-start mode. The oil velocity at which water is
entrained in flowing oil can be ~timated by the
technique of Wicks and Fraser (4), and depends upon
the relative densities of the oil and water, the
interracial tension between the oil and water, and the
pipe diameter. Entrainment velocity is typically in the
range of 0.8 to 3 feet per second, and is greater in
larger pipe sizes. Once water accumulates in low
points, the pipe wall can become water wet and
corrode at a rate determined by the properties of the
water, the condition of the pipe wall, and whether or
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not bacteria are in the line. Monitoring corrosion in low
spots can be very difllcult, however, as they are
frequently under a river or offshore.
Gas Pipelines
Wet gas pipelines present a more complex internal
corrosion problem, as they typically are in multi-phase
flow and have higher partial pressures of corrosive
gasses such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
Gas pipelines experience many different regimes in
multi-phase flow, including stratified flow (liquids in
gas and watty in hydrocarbon), slug flow, and annular
mist flow. The corrosion parameters of these different
flow regimes can be different, and include condensing
water conditions leading to possibly large volumes of
water and a high water/oil ratio, diftlculty in estimating
the velocity required to sweep water through the
pipeline, and difllculties in applying corrosion inhibitors
under changing flow regime conditions.
Bacterial Corrosion in Pipelines
Microbiological corrosion has proven to be a major
problem in pipelines (Ref. 5,6,7). Bacteria can enter a
pipeline as early as its hydrotest, and remain viable for
long periods. Further, most pipelines receive fluids
from bacterially contaminated production systems which
continuously feed bacteria contaminated fluids into the
pipeline.
Low flow or stagnant conditions such as stratified water
or start-stop operation in a pipeline are ideal for
bacterial growth, and can lead to serious bacteria
corrosion problems in pipelines. Bacteria frequently
cause corrosion at rates far greater than estimated on the
basis of, for example, COZ content, with bacterial
corrosion rates frequently in the range of 60-100 mpy
(Refs. 8,9). Treatment of bacteria corrosion in pipelines
usually requires a combination pigging and batch
chemical treating program or sustained bactericide
treatment (Ref. 10).
Monitoring for bacteria in pipelines can also be
difficult, due to the very low quantities of available
water for sampling unless the pipeline is carrying large
amount of water such as in Full Well Fluids
637
Transmission service.
FEDERAL REGULATIONS ON MONITORING
INTERNAL CORROSION IN PIPELINES
Currently, the US DOT Pipeline Safety Regulations
(Ref. 11) require internal corrosion control and
monitoring of gas and hazardous liquid pipelines.
These include corrosion control measures, monitoring,
and inspection and repair, replacement or derating of
corrosion damaged pipe.
MONITORING INTERNAL CORROSION
IN PIPELINES
In review, on-line, accurate and representative
monitoring of corrosion in pipelines can be a difllcult
task for several reasons, including:
1. many pipelines contain only small amounts of
free water in which corrosion rate
measurements can be made using either
coupons or probes, or from which samples can
be taken for iron counts, inhibitor residual, or
bacteria analysis.
2. sections of the pipelines where water may
exist can be inaccessible, such as offkhore or
under the middle of a river,
3. Water draw off points can become stagnant
and non-representative of pipeline conditions
due to lack of circulation, and otlen fill up
with debris and are hard to clean,
4. Pigging operations in pipelines can destroy
coupons or probes inserted into the line unless
they are recessed or flush mounted.
Despite these diftlculties, there is a real need for an
on-line system to give early warning of problems and
to be able to evaluate corrosion control programs in-
situ. Typical monitoring of pipelines is currently
performed by placing coupons in the pipeline,
preferably in the 6:00 o’clock position downstream of
a low spot in a location where “fluid washing” would
occur (Ref. 12). In gas pipelines, coupons are often
installed in drip pots to try to find water. Drip pots
frequently become filled with pipeline solids and
develop stagnant conditions which do not reflect actual
pipeline corrosion rates.
Often the fwst sign a pipeline operator has of internal
corrosion problems is when he finds rouge or black
deposits on his pump filters. Rouge is a fine iron oxide
corrosion product, and is considered to be a nuisance
due to plugging up the filters. The meaning of finding
significant amounts of rouge in the filters is open to
interpretation. Superilcially, the uniform corrosion rate
in a ~ipeline represented by finding rouge is minuscule.
For instance, if 1 pound of rouge per day is recovered
in the filters from 50 miles of 8 inch line, the uniform
corrosion rate in the pipeline would be only 0.011 roils
per year (.0005 rnm/yr). Corrosion in pipelines is
seldom uniform, however, and occurs over an unknown
but usually very small fraction of the internal pipe wall.
If the corrosion is assumed to occur in a band 0.5
inches wide along the bottom of the pipe and to occur
along only 1% of the length of the pipe, then the
equivalent corrosion rate would be 50 mpy, capable of
penetrating most pipelines within a few years or causing
the line to leak or burst.
If black iron sulfide deposits are found, it is a strong
indication that bacteria corrosion is occurring in the
line. Bacteria corrosion is even more diftlcult to predict,
and any iron sulfide found should be taken seriously.
Once corrosion is suspected in a system, intelligent pigs
are the best way to inspect for existing corrosion
damage. Intelligent pigs describe actual damage which
has occurred to the pipeline, but must be run frequently
to determine corrosion rates.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ON-LINE INTERNAL
PIPELINE CORROSION AND BACTERIA
MONITORING SYSTEM
Design
For an internal pipeline corrosion monitor to be able to
function in an on-line, representative and reliable
manner, it must:
1. duplicate conditions in the pipeline;
638
2. have a water zone in which to make
continuous corrosion measurements;
3. have non-stagnant conditions representative of
fresh pipeline fluids, and be capable
of determining changes in the
corrosivity of pipeline fluids in a short
time;
4. preferably, the pipeline should remain
piggable.
To meet these requirements, a new pipeline corrosion
monitoring system has been developed, shown
schematically in Figure 2, which is capable of mtilng
accurate and continuous on-line corrosion rate
measurements on fresh pipeline fluids under worst
case conditions. The system developed consists of a
by-pass arrangement connected to the pipeline through
access fittings, including a test chamber through which
pipeline fluids are circulated and tested, and then
returned to the pipeline. Measurements are made at
pipeline operating pressure and temperature.
The corrosion test chamber features 3 sections:
1. Fluid contact;
2. Oil-Water Separation; and
3. a water section in which the corrosion and
bacteria measurements are made.
Pipeline fluids are metered into the test chamber by a
positive displacement circulating pump. The flow rate
is designed to give effective mixing of the pipeline
fluids with the test chamber water phase without
emulsifying the two phases, clean separation of
pipeline hydrocarbons from the water phase, provide
conditions suitable for bacteria to colonize the test
instruments, and to provide rapid response to changing
conditions in the pipeline.
Corrosion and bacteria coupons and probes are located
in the water section of the test chamber, and additional
coupons can also be located in the vapor space and in
the hydrocarbon layer. Any number of access points
can be built into the test chamber. Liquid sampling
valves are also included to allow water and
hydrocarbon sampling for analysis.
Construction
The pipeline monitor system is built to all applicable
pipeline codes, with the standard unit equipped with
ANSI 600 fittings with a nominal 1440 psi working
pressure. Higher or lower pressure capacities are
available. The monitor is fully weld inspected,
hydrotested, and internally coated. Electric power is
required to operate the circulating pump, and is
preferred for operation of the data gathering system. All
electrical equipment is NEMA Class I so that the unit
can be installed in Class I areas such as inside tank farm
walls, on offshore platforms, or even on refinery piping
runs.
Installation
Welded standard access fittings equipped with isolation
valves are used to connect the monitor to the pipeline.
Location of the monitoring system at a known existing
point of internal corrosion is recommended if electric
power is available in those locations. These locations
can be determined from either intelligent pig inspection
or leaks on a pipeline. For a new pipeline, fluid flow
analysis can be used to indicate points where water
would collect and corrosion would be most likely.
The inlet sampling point should be located in the six
o’clock position to collect as much free water as
possible, with points of previous corrosion being the
most likely points where water collects. This is not a
requirement, but gives the monitoring system a more
rapid response to changing conditions, and is more
likely to capture bacteria if they are present in the
pipeline water.
The corrosion monitor can be attached directly to the
pipeline through flanged standard access fittings, shown
in Figure 3, or located above ground or near the line
and connected through flexible tubing, as shown in
Figure 4. Offshore units can be skid mounted.
Connection directly beneath the pipeline will give the
most rigorous monitoring as the unit will operate at
essentially the same temperature as the pipeline,
however, the flow rate through the monitoring system
is suftlciently large to minimize temperature changes
except under extreme conditions.
639
Operation
The monitoring system is attached to the pipeline, and
the test chamber containing the coupons and probes is
filled with water. Water from the pipeline system is
preferred, if possible, to minimize initial differences
between pipeline conditions and those in the test
chamber. The isolation valves are opened, and fittings
and probes tested for leaks. Closing the isolation
valvw allows work on the unit, such as changing of
coupons and probes and cleaning of the system to be
done under ambient pressure conditions. This greatly
simplifies operation and eliminates the need for
pressure retrieval equipment.
During operation, any free water from the pipeline is
mixed with the test chamber water, which is
continuously diluted at a rate depending upon how
much free water is in the incoming pipeline fluid. If
no free water is present, gas-liquid or liquid-liquid
contact exchange with the test chamber water transfers
the corrosion properties of the pipeline fluids to the
water, e.g. acid gas concentration, oxygen, oil soluble
organic acids, and corrosion inhibitor activity, in a
manner equivalent to the fluids passing over stratified
water in the bottom of a pipeline. Factors such as
salinity and the presence of bacteria would be
transferred more slowly in the absence of free water
through the contact of emulsified water in the crude
with the test chamber water. By initially filling the test
chamber with water taken from the pipeline system,
this problem can be minimized.
In operation, pipeline fluids are circulated though the
test chamber by a positive displacement circulation and
metering pump at a rate designed to provide rapid
response to changing conditions in the pipeline while
maintaining the integrity of the water zone and
conditions suitable for the monitoring of bacteria.
When pigging is carried out in the pipeline, samples of
the pipeline fluids before and after the pig enter the
test chamber in the normal manner, carrying with it
the debris generated by the pig, including water, dirt,
and bacteria.
LABORATORY TESTING
To test and demonstrate the operation of the monitor, a
full scale clear plastic model was constructed for use in
the laboratory. The laboratory system model differed
from the field model design in only two ways:
1. the hydrocarbon and water phases were taken
from a reservoir, circulated through the
monitoring system, and recirculated to the
reservoir; and
2. a centrifugal circulating pump and a flow
control valve were used rather then a positive
displacement metering pump. This was done to
be able to conveniently change the circulation
rate to establish the operating range of the
device.
Stable operation with good liquid-liquid contact was
established between the hydrocarbon and water phases,
and rapid and complete separation achieved over a
range of operating conditions, including flow rate,
water/oil ratio, and oil density and viscosity. Response
time to changes in the fluids ranged from about two
minutes to about ten minutes, with the most rapid
response occurring when mostly fkee water entered the
monitoring system. A vapor space was seen to develop
at the top of the unit when gases were introduced into
the monitor. This vapor space remained in the unit until
the top-side fluid sampling valve was opened.
One objective in the development of this monitoring
system was to maintain clean water in the test chamber
for the long term accurate performance of the
polarization probes. If the electrodes of polarization
probes become contaminated with oiI, they can give
erratic results. Clean water was observed during the
initiaI operation of the plastic monitoring system model.
The plastic model test chamber water eventually became
cloudy, however, due to using a high shear centrifugal
pump, a high shear flow control valve, and recirculation
of the fluids during laboratory testing. This is not
expected to be a problem in field operation as a low
shear positive displacement metering pump is used, the
flow control valve is not used, and fluids are not
recirculated except possibly when the pipeline is not
flowing.
640
MONITORING EQUIPMENT
Four monitoring devices are suggested for use in the
standard unit, although there is no limit on the number
of coupons and probes which can be installed in the
device. These are:
1. coupons,
2. galvanic probe,
3. linear polarization probe,
4. bacteria probe.
In addition, oil and water fluid sampling points are
provided to permit the measurement of fluid properties
such as water pH and analysis, iron counts, cmrosion
inhibitor residuals, other bacteria testing, and oil
properties of interest. Other monitoring probes also
can be included, such as hydrogen probes for use in
sour systems, and there is no limit on the number of
probes and coupons which the unit can be designed to
include. Automatic data logging equipment is
recommended for continuous monitoring of the
Galvanic Probe and the Linear Polarization Probe.
Coupons are included as they fulfill US DOT
monitoring requirements, and can monitor corrosion in
all three phases, including the vapor space at the top
of the monitor. They also give long term cumulative
corrosion results, and are usefid for comparison to
past monitoring results. Coupons also would determine
if scale or parafiln problems are occurring in the
pipeline.
Bacteria monitoring is performed by a sessile bacteria
probe installed in the water layer which provides a
large surface area for bacteria to colonize. The
bacteria probe provides convenient samples to culture
upon removal from the unit, or examine using
microscopy or other rapid assay tests.
On-Line Monitoring
Both the linear polarization probe and the Galvanic
Probe give continuous readings of system conditions,
and thus on-line capability.
Computer driven polarization probes can be used to
enhance the capacity of this type of probe, including
the tendency towards pitting. Electrochemical techniques
have also been shown to detect the presence of bacterial
corrosion. (Refs. 13,14). Linear polarization probes are
also very useful in evaluating the actual performance of
corrosion inhibitors in-situ, and can thus evaluate the
need for and performance of corrosion inhibitors in a
pipeline.
The Galvanic Probe also provides continuous output,
and thus, on-line capability. The Galvanic Probe has the
advantage of being a rugged device suitable for field
operation, but the disadvantage of not giving
information from which a corrosion rate can be directly
calculated. It consists of a brass rod and a steel rod
connected through an external resistor and ammeter.
Two different metals in an electrolyte create an
intentional galvanic cell similar to a battery. The
controlling resistance in the electrical circuit, and thus
the determination of the amount of current flowing in
the probe, is the strength of the cathode (brass)
electrochemical polarization film.
Parameters which affect the strength of the cathode
electrochemical polarization film cause the output of the
galvanic probe to vary. Principle among these are
oxygen, chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfate reducing
bacteria, and corrosion inhibitors (Ref 15). This makes
the galvanic probe a very useful device in monitoring
the most important causes of pipeline corrosion: oxygen
and bacteria. Both oxygen and SRB’S cause cathode
depolarization, decreasing its electrical resistance, and
thus causing the amount of current passing through the
ammeter to increase. On the other hand, corrosion
inhibitor films cause the polarization film to be
enhanced, and lower the current produced.
Pipeline Applications
The pipeline monitoring system can be used to measure
the base corrosion rate of any fluid in a pipeline, such
as crude oils, finished products, fluids such as LPG, or
wet gases to determine if the pipeline fluids are
corrosive and if control programs are required to
protect the line. It can then evaluate the effect of
corrosion control programs such as corrosion inhibitor
injection by comparing the relative performance of
inhibitors and determining the concentration required
for protection. Bacteria problems can be handled in the
same manner. Other problems such as oxygen
641
contamination are quickly detected, permitting
treatment at the source or use of oxygen scavengers as
appropriate.
One potential use involves the proposed evaluation of
the treatment of crude oil entering a long sub-sea
pipeline from an offshore producing field. The
monitor would be installed at the beginning of the line
to evaluate inhibition of fluids entering the line, and
possibly again at landfall. Due to the properties of the
crude, the operating conditions in the line, and the
vital nature of the pipe line, the operator was
concerned that the inhibition program must be
effective.
A second application would install the monitor at the
inlet manifold to a pipeline terminal receiving crude
oil from several different fields. Corrosive crude oil
was being received intermittently at the terminal but
the source was unknown. This required the terminal
operator to treat the crude at his own expense. By
manifolding the inlet lines into the monitor, the source
could be quickly switched to the different sources,
allowing the operator to determine when and from
whom he was receiving inadequately treated and
corrosive fluids.
Another application involved a products pipeline which
carried several different products in batches ranging
from liquid mixed ethane/propane to distillates. Rouge
was being picked up on the pipeline pump filters even
though all products were being inhibited. The operator
was treating everything in the line uniformly and at a
standard rate, but management questioned:
1. what level of treatment, if any, was required for
each individual product to have effective inhibition,
and
2, could the program save money by not treating some
products.
Long term exposures by coupons could not distinguish
the effectiveness of individual batch treatments, and
normal laboratory test could not be performed on
some products due to their high vapor pressure. This
type of program could be handled in the field by this
 monitor system with its on-line capability, and provide 8. Private Communication, M. A. Clarke,
the answers needed in this evaluation. Monitor Ltd

9. Unpublished field results, J, S. Smart.

CONCLUSIONS
10. Smart, J. S. and G. L. Smith, “Pigging and
1. A new system for continuous on-line Chemical Treating in Pipelines” given at the
.
monitoring of internal corrosion and bacteria in 3rd I nternational Svm~os ium on eline
pipelines has been developed which maintains ~inr and Intemitv Ins~ectionx Houston, TX
full piggability in a pipeline. February, 1991

2. This system can be used for the determination 11. US Dept of Transportation
of corrosion rates in a pipeline, and evaluation Research and Special Programs Administration
of corrosion control programs. Pioeline Safety Remdation$
Natural Gas, Parts 191-192
Hazardous Liquids, Part 195

12. Wu, Yulin, K. E. McSperitt, and G. D.

REFERENCES Harris, “Corrosion Inhibition and Monitoring
in Sea Gas Pipeline Systems” Materials
1. J. S. Mandke “Corrosion Causes Most Pipeline Perforrnanc~ December, 1988 Pages 29-34,
Failures in the Gulf of Mexico” Oil and Gas NACE, Houston, TX.
Journal, Ott 29, 1990, pgs. 40-44
13. Gerchakov, S. M., B. J. Little, and P.
2. “In Line Inspection Prompts Forties’ Line Wagner, “Probing MicrobiologicaIly Induced
Replacement” Oil and Gas Journal, Vol 37 June Corrosionn Corrosion Vol 42, No. 11, pages
17, 1991 689-692, 1986 NACE Houston TX

3. Ricca, P. M. “Ultrasonic Inspection Prompts 14. Rlngas, C., and F. P. A. Robinson,

Chemical Inhibitor Program” Oil and G* “Corrosion of Stainless Steel by Sulfate-
_ April 22, 1991 Reducing Bacteria -- Electrochemical
Techniques” Corrosion VO144 No. 6, June
4. Wicks, M. and J. P. Fraser, “Entrainment of 1987 pages 386-396 NACE Houston, TX
Water in Flowing Oil” Materials Performance,
Vol. 13, No.5 May, 1975, NACE, Houston, 15. J. S. Smart, “The Galvanic Probe,”
TX pages 9-12. presentation to the S. C. Regional NACE
Conference, New Orleans, 1978
5. Cunningham, P. “Offshore Internal Pipeline
Corrosion Control” Presentation to the 1991
Gulf Coast Corrosion Control Symposium on
Jnternal Corrosion in Pi~elines=

6. Private Communication.

7. Pope, D.H. et al, “Mitigation Strategies for

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion in Gas
Industry Facilities” CORR’89 Paper #192,
NACE, New Orleans, LA 1989

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