Civil Engineering Department

Geotechnology 2 (CIVL 0016)

Coursework
Prepared by:

ID:

Summated to:

Dr. Lema Dakssa

Spring 201
 Table of Contents
Declaration Form…………………………………………………………………………….i
Table of Content……………………………………………………………………………..ii
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………..iv
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………...v
1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….1

2.0 Materials, Methods of Analysis and Results………………………………………………2

2.1 Retaining Walls…………………………………………………………………….2

2.2 Design Philosophy of Embankment Dams………………………………………..15

2.2.1 Brief background……………………………………………………………15

2.2.2 Design aspects……………………………………………………………...17

2.2.3 Seepage analysis……………………………………………………………21

2.2.4 Seepage management……………………………………………………….22

2.3 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations……………………………………………23

2.4 Slope stability analysis …………………………………………………………....31

3.0 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………34

3.1 Retaining Walls……………………………………………………………………34

3.2 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations……………………………………………..35

3.3 Slope stability analysis……………………………………………………………...36

4.0 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….36

5.0 References…………………………………………………………………………………..37

i
 List of Figures
Figure 1. Retaining Wall Dimentiosns and Properties………………………………………….3

Figure 2. The Total High of the Inclined Retaining Wall……………………………………….5

Figure 3. Soil Presure Due to Inclined Surface………………………………………………….5

Figure 4. Inclined Retaining Wall Sections……………………………………………………..6

Figure 5. The Overturning of the Wall………………………………………………………….7

Figure 6. The Sliding of the Wall……………………………………………………………….8

Figure 7. The Pressure Diagram of the Wall……………………………………………………9

Figure 8. The Dimentiosns of the Stem Wall…………………………………………………...10

Figure 9. The Dimentiosns of the Base Slab……………………………………………………11

Figure 10. The Slab Base Diagram of the Wall…………………………………………………12

Figure 11. Final section reinforcement detailing………………………………………………..15

Figure 12. General Shape of an Embankment

Dam……………………………………………...16

Figure 13. The Plane 3 × 3 Section of the Square Group Piles……………………………………

24

Figure 14. A Pile Properties (square in cross-section) of the Group Piles part a…………………
25

Figure 15. Variation of Nq with soil friction

angle……………………………………………….26

Figure 16. The Plane 3 × 3 Section of the Circular Group

Piles………………………………….28

II
Figure 17. A Pile Properties (circular in cross-section) of the Group Piles part b………………
28

Figure 18. The Rotating Soil divided into Vertical Slices……………………………………….32

List of Tables
Table 1. The Backful Soil Properties……………………………………………………………3
Table 2. The Calculation of the Resistance Moment……………………………………………6
Table 3. Shows the Different Purposes of Embankment Dams…………………………………18
Table 4. Factor of Safety of the Dynamic and static and dynamic loads –Part 1……………….19
Table 5. Factor of Safety of the Dynamic and static and dynamic loads –Part 2……………….20
Table 6. The Group Pile Properties part a……………………………………………………….24
Table 7. Typical values of δ and Ks……………………………………………………………..27
Table 8. The Group Pile Properties part b……………………………………………………….28
Table 9. Obtaining the Adhesion Factor by Cu/Pa Ratio………………………………………...30
Table 10. Comparison of Features of Limit Equilibrium
Methods……………………………….32
Table 11. The Soil Characteristic in the Slope…………………………………………………..32
Table 12. The Slope Slices Properties……………………………………………………………
33
Table 13. The Solution Table of FS using Simplified Bishop Method……………………………
33

III
1.0 Introduction

Geotechnical Engineering is a branch of civil engineering that deals with rock and soil in relation
with human-made or natural structures that is positioned on it. For example, when a structure is
constructed, the foundation that have a direct contact with soil in which the load is being
transfers through the foundation from the structure to the ground; therefore, it is important to
assess and evaluate the soil properties and identify if the construction of the structure is feasible
at the proposed location (Hauge 2018).

The objective of this coursework is to design and analysis geotechnical structures problems with
different properties and types of soil using appropriate mathematical methods. In which this
coarse work aims to analyze the flow of water through soils by using flow nets and its effect
through earth-dams and below structures. Add to that, predict the performance of piled
foundations as well as analyze the stability of slopes and retaining structures. In addition, the
seepage concept in permeable ground is also included in this coarse work.

This coursework has progressed in a sequence of phases: introducing the topic of the report;
mapping out the data collection and analysis methods; carrying out three geotechnical
engineering problems (in areas of: design of inclined retaining wall, design of group piles in
different conditions and analyze the stability of slopes); discussing the design philosophy of
embankment dams; presenting the results and illustrate the findings; concluding the report by
outlining the work accomplished.

1
2.0 Materials, Methods of Analysis and Results

In this coursework, two methods are used. Those methods are documentary analysis and
calculation approach. The documentary analysis is very important in this this research to get a
detailed information on the different topics of design philosophy of dams (containing brief
background, design aspects, seepage analysis and seepage managements) as well as documentary
analysis is important to support the calculation results with literatures. On the other side, a
calculation approach is used to design and solve geotechnical structures problems. Three
numerical questions are solved using calculation approach with limited soil data. The inputs from
this approach: a calculator, a pin to write, a laptop to read and write (type), papers to write on
and an eraser to rub unwanted things.

2.1 Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are rigid walls mostly used to retain earth laterally at different levels on the two
sides such as rock or soil or any other materials, in which the conditions of the soil it do not
permit the mass to assume its natural slope. Many types of materials can be used to construct a
retaining walls such as treated timbers, poured concrete, concrete blocks and rocks. Some of
those are easy to use and work with, others have short-life-span, however, all of those can retain
soil. The retaining walls are classified into five main types: Gravity, Cantilevered, Sheet piling,
Bored pile and Anchored (Civil Engineering Home 2017).

In this coursework, the focus will be only on cantilever retaining wall; specifically inclined wall.
Cantilever retaining wall are mostly used of reinforced concrete like reinforced Portland-cement
concrete (PCC) and typically work on the leverage principles. It is characterized with thin stem
and it uses the backfill soil weight to provide big amount of the resistance to overturning and
sliding. Cantilever retaining wall is the most popular type of earth-retaining structure. To
calculate the pressure applied at any point on the wall, some considerations should be taking into
account: height of water table, type of wall, nature and type of soil, material used in the
construction of wall and subsoil water movements.

2
  Structural Design of Inclined Retaining Wall

Structural design of retaining wall with surface inclined at 12o:

Figure 1. Retaining Wall Dimentiosns and Properties

Table 1. The Soil Properties

Tensile Strength (fyk) 500 N/mm2

Compression Strength (fck) 30 N/mm2
Soil Unit weight (γ ) 14.4 kN/m3
Soil friction angle (∅ ') 36o
Soil cohesion (c) 29 kPa=29 kN/m2
Slope angle (β) 12o
γ concrete 25 kN /m3

 Euro-code 7 Approach
γG;unfav=1.35
γG;fav=1.0
γQ=1.5
γϕ’=1.0

3
a) Design material properties
ϕ’d = ϕ’/γϕ’= 36o
b) Design actions

 Favorable forces
Stem: 0.4x4.6xγconcrete x γG;fav
Base: 4×0.5x γconcrete x γG;fav =
Soil on heel: 1/2×2.2×0.476 x γsoil x γG;fav

Lateral earth pressure (Pa) =?

γ GK , unfav =1.35

γ QK , unfav =1.5

For inclined retaining wall the coefficient of active earth pressure (ka):

cosβ− √ cos 2 β−cos2 ∅ '

Ka=cosβ
cosβ + √ cos 2 β−cos 2 ∅ '
Where:
 β is the slope angle
 ∅ ' is the angle of shearing resistance with respect to effective stress
Substitute in the equation:

cos 12− √ cos 2 12−cos2 36

Ka=cos 12
cos 12+ √ cos 2 12−cos 2 36
0.978− √ 0.957−0.654
Ka=0.978
0.978+ √ 0.957−0.654
0.432
Ka= =0.27
1.532

4
 Figure 2. The Total Height of the Inclined Retaining Wall
From the figure 3:

H ' =H 1 + H 2 + H 3
H 1=2200 tan β=467.624 mm=0.467 m

H ' =2200 tan β +4000+ 500

H ' =467.624+4000+ 500=4967.624 mm=4.967 m

 Unfavorable Forces:

Figure 3. Soil Presure Due to Inclined Surface

5
Lateral earth pressure due to backfill:
1
Pa= γ H ' 2 Ka γ Gk , unfav
2
1
Pa= ×14.4 × 4.967 2 × 0.27× 1.35
2
Pa=64.74 kN
Pv =Pa sinβ=64.74 × sin 12=13.43 kN /m

Ph=Pa cosβ=64.74 ×cos 12=63.32 kN /m

Figure 4. Inclined Retaining Wall Sections

Table 2. The Calculation of the Resistance Moment

Section No. Area Action Magnitude Moment arm form Moment
(m2) (Weight/unit Toe (point c) (kN.m/m)
length) (m)
(kN/m)
1 (wall stem) 0.4×4=1.6 1.6×25×1=40 0.4/2+1.4=1.6
64

6
 2 (wall base) 4×0.5=2 2×25=50 2
100

3 (Heel) 2.2×4=8.8 8.8×18=158.4 0.4+1.4+1.1=2.9

459.36

-------- ----- Pv=13.43 4 53.72

4 ------ ΣV =261.83 ---- Σ M R=677.08

Design effects and resistance:

 Factor of safety against overturning:

H' ( 4.967
The overturning moment M o=P h ( )
3
= 63.32 ) × (3 )
=104.836 kN . m

Σ M R 677.08
FSoverturing = = =6.46>2 ok !
M 0 104.836

Figure 5. The Overturning of the Wall

7
 Stabilizing moment M s=40 ×1.6+50 × 2+158.4 ×2.9+13.43 × 4
Therefore Σ M s=677.08 kN . m/m
 Factor of safety against sliding:

Vertical load = 261.83 kN/m, which is the same as the vertical reaction at the base of the
retaining wall (Rv)

 Design resistance=R v tan θ' =677.08 tan 36=491.92 kN

 Active horizontal thrust causing sliding
Pv =13.43 kN /m

491.92
Factor of safety against sliding ( Fs )= =36.6 Not OK ‼
13.43

Figure 6. The Sliding of the Wall

 FS against bearing failure

ΣV 6e
q max∧min = [ ]
B
[1 ± ]
B
B Σ M R −Σ M 0
e= −
2 ΣV
4 677.08−104.836
e= −
2 261.83

8
 B 4
e=0.185< = =0.666 mmiddle third rule satisfied . Hence ,no tension is expected !
2 2
261.83 6( 0.185)
q max = [ 4 ][
1±
4 ]
q max ⁡(toe )=83.622 kN /m 2

q min ⁡( heel)=47.293 kN /m 2

Figure 7. The Pressure Diagram of the Wall

 Structural design:
a) Bending reinforcement (Design for flexure)
i) Stem (or Wall) – Cantilever wall

9
 Figure 8. The Dimentiosns of the Stem Wall

Pa=64.74 kN
Pv =13.43 kN /m
Ph=63.32kN /m
Moment about centerline of the base slab:
4 4
M Ed =13.43 0.2+ ( 3 ) ( )
+63.32 0.2+ =117.68 kN . m
3
Assume:
 Nominal cover =50 mm
 Main rebar & dist. rebar.dia =20 mm

Mean d=D-Cnom – [center of main bar from Cnom +center of dist. bar from Cnom)/2]

d=400−50−20=330 mm

M Ed 117.68 ×106
K= = =0.036<0.167 ( limiting K ) OK !
b d2 f ck 1000 ×330 2 ×30
So, compression reinforcement is not required (SRB).
z=[ 0.5+ √0.25−0.882 k ] d ≤ 0.95
z=[ 0.5+ √0.25−0.882(0.036) ] ×d =0.967 d

10
0.967 d >0.95 d
So take z=0.95 d =0.95× 330=313.5 mm

M Ed 117.68 ×106 2
A S= = =862.93 mm
0.87 f yk z 0.87 ×500 ×313.5

As
no . of rows= 2
862.93 mm
Area of each ¯¿= =2.7 ≅ 3 ¿
π (10)2 mm2

Where π (10)2=314 m m2:

1 row→314 mm2

3 row→ x

As, provided=314×3=942 mm2

Spacing=length/ no. of rows= 1000/3=333.33 mm2

Provide 3H20 @ 333.33 mm spacing (As = 942 mm2)

f ctm
A s ,min =0.26 bd ≥ 0.0013 bd
f yk

2.9
A s ,min =0.26 ( 1000 ×330 ) ≥ 0.0013× 1000× 330=497.64 mm 2 ≥ 429 mm 2
500

A s ,min =497.64 mm2 < Areas of steel provided (A s , pro=942 m m2 )

A s ,max =0.04 A c =0.04 ×1000 ×330=13200 mm 2

A s ,min < A s , pro < A s , max . Hence Ok !

ii) ) Base slab

11
 Figure 9. The Dimentiosns of the Base Slab

For heel slab:

Heal weight =0.5×2.2×25=27.5 kN/m

Load on heal= 2.2×14.4×4.967=157.354 kN/m

Upward forces:

Figure 10. The Slab Base Diagram of the Wall

2.2 4
= ⟶ b=45.992 kN /m2
b 83.622

Taking moment about the centerline of the stem wall:

2.2 2.2 2.2 1 2.2

M Ed =
[( 2 ) ] [(
+0.2 × 27.5× 1.35 +
2 )
+0.2 × 1.35 ×157.354 −
] [(
2 ) ][(
+0.2 × 2.2× 83.621 −
2 3 )
+0.2 ×2.2 ×

M Ed
168.5 ×10 6
K= 2 = =0.0515<0.167 ( limiting K ) OK !
b d f ck 1000 ×330 2 ×30

So, compression reinforcement is not required (its singly reinforced heal)

z=[ 0.5+ √0.25−0.882 k ] d ≤ 0.95

z=[ 0.5+ √0.25−0.882(0.0515) ] ×d=0.95 d

12
0.95 d >0.95 d

So take z=0.95 d =0.95× 330=313.5 mm

M Ed 168.5× 106
A S= = =1235.58 m m2
0.87 f yk z 0.87 ×500 ×313.5

As
no . of rows=
1235.58 mm 2
Area of each ¯¿= =3.9 ≅ 4 ¿
π (10)2 m m 2

1 row→314 mm2

4 row→ x

As, provided=314×4=1256 mm2

Spacing=length/ no. of rows= 1000/4=250 mm2

Provide 4H20 @ 250 mm (As = 1256 mm 2/m width), top heel slab reinforcement. Same size for
distribution steel.

f ctm
A s ,min =0.26 bd ≥ 0.0013 bd
f yk

2.9
A s ,min =0.26 ( 1000 ×330 ) ≥ 0.0013× 1000× 330=497.64 mm 2 ≥ 429 mm 2
500

A s ,min =497.64 mm 2 < Areas of steel provided (A s , pro=1256 m m2 )

A s ,max =0.04 A c =0.04 ×1000 ×330=13200 mm2

A s ,min < A s , pro < A s , max . Hence Ok !

iv) Toe slab

Downward forces:

Toe slab weight =0.4×1.4×25×1.35=18.9 kN/m

Upward forces:

Load on Toe slab = 83.622×1.4=11707 kN/m

13
Taking moment about stem centerline:

1.4 1.4
M Ed =
[( 2 )
+ 0.2 ×18.9 −
2 ] [( ) ]
+ 0.2 ×117.07 =−88.353 kN .m

M Ed 88.353 ×10 6
K= = =0.027<0.167 ( limiting K ) OK !
b d2 f ck 1000 ×330 2 ×30

So, compression reinforcement is not required (its singly reinforced Toe slab)

z=[ 0.5+ √0.25−0.882 k ] d ≤ 0.95

z=[ 0.5+ √0.25−0.882(0.027) ] ×d =0.97 d

0.97 d >0.95 d

So take z=0.95 d =0.95× 330=313.5 mm

M Ed 88.353× 106 2
A S= = =647.88m m
0.87 f yk z 0.87 ×500 ×313.5

As
no . of rows= 2
335.38 mm
Area of each ¯¿= =2.06 ≅ 2 ¿
π (10)2 m m2

1 row→314 mm2

2 row→ x

As, provided=314×2=628 mm2

Spacing=length/ no. of rows= 628/2=314 mm2

Provide 2H20 @ 314 mm (As = 628 mm2/m width), top heel slab reinforcement. Same size for
distribution steel.

f ctm
A s ,min =0.26 bd ≥ 0.0013 bd
f yk

2.9
A s ,min =0.26 ( 1000 ×330 ) ≥ 0.0013× 1000× 330=497.64 mm 2 ≥ 429 mm 2
500

14
A s ,min =497.64 mm 2 < Areas of steel prov ided( A s , pro =628 mm 2)

A s ,max =0.04 A c =0.04 ×1000 ×330=13200 mm2

A s ,min < A s , pro < A s , max ok

Figure 11. Final section reinforcement detailing

2.2 Design Philosophy of Embankment Dams

2.2.1 Brief Background

Dams are structures that are built across a river, an estuary or a stream to retain water. A dam is
important to provide water for human consumption, for irrigating of semiarid lands and arid or
also used for industrial processes. They are used to increase water depth of water in a river to
allow barges and ships to travel more easily and to improve navigation. Add to that, dams are
used to increase the amount of water available to generate hydroelectric power, in order to peak

15
discharge of floodwater produced by heavy snowmelt or large storms (Guthrie and Jackson
2018).

Earth Dam or also called Earth-fill dam or Embankment Dam, is built up compacting continuous
earth layers, by using impermeable materials to act as a core and place the most permeable
substances on downstream and upstream sides. An embankment dam is known as an enormous
artificial dam. Usually embankment dams are consist of compacted semi-plastic mound of many
compositions such as clay, sand and rock. As the materials used in constructing the embankment
dam are the most impervious materials, the dam has semi-pervious waterproof natural and dam
impervious to seepage or surface erosion (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica 2018).

Figure 12. General Shape of an Embankment Dam (Virajain 2014)

There are two main types of Embankment dams: the earth and rock-fill dams. Each type differ
from the predominant fill material used. The Earth dams have been used since the beginning of
civilization. The main feature of them that they are typically constructed from soil (earth). On the
other side, the rock-fill dams are mainly constructed from pieces of rocks or rockfill. Rock-fill
dams requires more strong foundations than earth dam (Bureau of Reclamation 2012).

The earliest known construction of an embankment dam happened about 2900 B.C. The first
well-defined design and construction was in Egypt (Sadd el-Kafara Dam). The earliest history of
embankment dams includes countries such as Iraq, China and India. Embankment dams have
served humans for not less than 5,000 years. The leftovers of civilizations and ancient structures
and civilizations shows that the mankind had a huge efforts in the engineering and construction
of dams. In 1980, a writer introduced the first complete history and background of the

16
embankment dam from the BC period BC to the 20th century. Nowadays, the embankment dams
are constructed with more than 300 meters in high and several millions of cubic meters of fill.
Numerous embankment dams exceeded 20 m in height that have been designed and constructed
all over the world. At present, the leader in embankment dam construction is China (University
of Nevada 2002).

As the standard manual stated by the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), the
dams having a more than 15 m height are considered as "high dams". Currently, there are more
than 14,000 high dams registered throughout the world and more than 70% of them are
embankment dams. A new study on the topic of high dam construction showed that among
around 1,000 of high dams constructed in last two years, only 20% are concrete dams and the
remaining 80% are embankment dams (University of Nevada 2002). The embankment dams are
popular because:

 Materials available within short haul distances are used.

 It can accommodate a range of foundation conditions.
 It is less costly when compared to other types of dams.

2.2.2 Design aspects

The design of an embankment dam nowadays is very complicated than 100 years ago. At
present, there are numerous books, professional papers, college courses, computer programs,
professional groups, etc. that includes the modern design of embankment dams as a main topic.
Big amount of uncertainties and unknowns related to the design of embankment dams have been
removed as a result of the evolution of engineering research, education, knowledge and
experience. In addition to that, several professional organizations have been formed to deal
regularly with and publish papers on the topics of design and construction of embankment dams.
Examples of those organizations includes: the International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD), Unites States Society on Dams (USSD), The Institution of Civil Engineers and the
International Society on Soil Mechanics (Aichi Institute of Technology 2002).

The main objective of the design process is to produce an acceptable purposeful structure at a
lowest total cost possible. In order to accomplish the lowest cost, the design of the dam must
include the use of the most economical materials available, the materials which are excavated for

17
the foundation of the dam is a good example. An embankment dams must be stable and safe
throughout all stages of construction and operation. To do that, it is required to provide a
defensive design measures. Those measures includes filters and drainage features in order to
protect against internal erosion and control leakage or seepage that in some causes finds its way
into the impervious zones. Additionally, it is important to design filters and drains in order to
increase the widths in earthquake zones in the world to provide for the possible occurrence of
displacement or cracking of the embankment during an earthquake (Aichi Institute of
Technology 2002).

It is a very complex process to design an embankment dam. The initial step is to conduct a
comprehensive subsurface and geological explorations, in which the characteristics of the
abutments, foundation and borrow areas are identified. The second step is to conduct a full study
on the physical properties and type of materials that will be used as an embankment. This study
must include identifying the sequence and quantities that will become available. The design
process must include all of testing, analyses, studies and assessments to confirm that the
embankment suits the requirements and all technical criteria (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
2004).

In order to design an embankment dam, the following must be considered as Amr El-Sayed
(2016) explained:

a. Identify the purpose of the dam project.

Table 3. Shows the Different Purposes of Embankment Dams

The Purpose Features

Water supply Requires a high reservoir
Silt retention --------------
Irrigation --------------------
Transportation --------------------
Electricity generation -----------------
Recreation and beautification Requires a constant reservoir level
Flood mitigation Requires a low reservoir

18
b. Architecture layout and selecting the best place for the dam.

In the process of planning, the best place to construct an embankment dam site is from aerial
photography and contour maps. The best place is a narrow gorge. However, the site can be
change and other alternative sites can be considered through additional investigations.

c. Site Investigation

The failures of the dams mostly occurs as a result of the low appreciation of the way a specific
dam site will respond to the superposition of the reservoir and dam. It is therefore vital that
Engineers and Geologists must conduct a detailed site investigation and study the possible
sources and access of materials.

d. Laboratory and Field Testing

In this part, parameters such as unit weight, soil shear strength and dry density must all be
studied and estimated by using several laboratory tests and field tests.

e. Hydrology study

Hydrology is all about the prediction of future natural events by studying and relating them to the
past of the place. Based on old information, the storage capacity of the reservoir will be
determined. The hydrology study also includes the design of emergency spillway and the feasible
lake assessment power supply or navigation.

f. Loading and Factor of Safety

Dynamic and static and dynamic loads that will act on the body must be calculated. Tables, and
shows the minimum factors of safety for embankment dams.

Table 4. Factor of Safety of the Dynamic and static and dynamic loads –Part 1 (El-Sayed
2016)

19
 Table 5. Factor of Safety of the Dynamic and static and dynamic loads –Part 2 (El-Sayed
2016)

g. Foundation Design

The foundations of a dam should have the ability to withstand without the load imposed upon it
by the structure deforming unacceptably, for both long term and immediately after filling the
reservoir.

h. Seepage control design

The seepage which is under an embankment is a lot more dangerous than the concrete dam, as
the embankments of embankments dams are generally built on soft material which is vulnerable
to influx of water and also liable to be scoured out.

i. Slope Stability

Embankment dam failure can occur from the instability of either the downstream or upstream
slopes. The failure of the surface may transform to the embankment and thus the foundation soil.
The design and construction process of upstream slope are mostly critical during rapid
drawdown and at the end of construction and. For the downstream slope, its mostly have critical
stages during steady seepage after the reservoir is full and at the end of construction.

j. River Diversion design

No matter what is the type of the dam, it is important to de-water the site for final geological
assessment, in order to improve and prepare the foundation and also for the initial stage of the
construction of the dam. The cost of the works on river diversion, the method and magnitude will
mostly depend on bed material in the river, the cross-section of the valley, consequences of
failure of any part of the temporary work and the predictable hydrological conditions throughout
the time compulsory for this point of the work.

20
2.2.3 Seepage analysis

Any dam must be designed to maintain a safe control seepage. With an excessive seepage leads,
many issues may occurs if it was not treated carefully. Seepage is the constant movement of
water from the upstream face of the dam to its downstream face (Journal of Mechanical and Civil
Engineering 2013). The purpose of seepage analyses is:

 To assess the effectiveness.

 To estimate exit gradients.
 To uplift pressures at the toe of an embankment.
 To estimate pore pressures of the foundation or embankment.
 To estimate the phreatic surface of the embankment.
 To estimate seepage flow amount.

There are many software used in seepage analysis of embankment dam. Those software includes:
MODFLOW, SEEP/W, PLAXIS, ANSYS, PDEase2D and SVFLUX.

There are many methods used to analyze the seepage of an embankment dam, the following are
two of the most important methods as explained by Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering
(2013):

Theory of Seepage in Embankment Dams

Darcy's law is used in order to define the flow of water through soil for both conditions,
unsaturated and saturated. The law is stated as:

21
Only when the seepage is in a stable, the permeability coefficient is essential as the terms
depends on the time disappears and also the term of water storage drops out. However, in order
to solve transient seepage problems related to the two conditions unsaturated and saturated soil
system, the coefficient of permeability and water storage are compulsory.

Finite Element Method (FEM)

The finite element method (FEM) is an important analytical tool that is used in the process of
seepage analysis of embankment dams and this method has huge contribution in the various
software used for the seepage analysis of embankment dams. FEM is one of the major numerical
solution techniques used worldwide. This method has many advantages including that a
computer program can be established simply to study numerous types of problems. On other
words, FEM can handle any complex shape of problem that are associated with suggested
conditions.

2.2.4 Seepage management

The seepage under the embankment is very dangerous as it is built mostly on a soft material that
is vulnerable to influx of water and liable to be scoured out. Worldwide, there are many
situations in which the dam is damaged by the seepage. Therefore, a good management of the
seepage is required to prevent those consequences. In most cases, the seepage may be present but
it do not show visible signs (Canadian Dam Association 2015).

The basic seepage problems includes:

Excessive loss of water

Piping
Heave or slope failures caused by seepage forces

There are three main methods that are used to control seepage:

Use of filters to prevent piping and heave

Seepage reduction
Drainage

To reduce the consequences of the seepage two terms must be followed as U.S Department of
Environmental Conservation (2006) explained:

22
 Controlling

How much the control of seepage is needed depends on the location, content and quantity of the
seepage. The process of reducing the amount of seepage after the dam is already constructed is
very expensive and difficult. This typically done only in the case that the seepage has
endangering the dam or lowered the pool level. There are many methods used to control the
seepage quantity, including upstream blanket installation and grouting. However, the grouting
method is less effective and mostly appropriate to zones of leakage in foundations, abutments
and bedrock. A professional engineer who is experienced with dams is the one who should
supervise the design and construction of the dam.

 Monitoring:

It is important to regularly monitor the seepage in order to prevent the failure of the dam. To
determine if the seepage is a steady or changing condition, it is important to have the knowledge
of the dam's history. Written records of the seepage exit points are essential as well as the type of
vegetation, size of wet area and quantity and content of flow to make a comparison in future
studies. The records must be reserved with the Maintenance and Inspection Plan for the dam.
The inspector must continuously look evidences of flow carrying soil particles and also
incensement in flow, this works as an indicator of a serious problem being developed.

2.3 Bearing Capacity of Pile Foundations

Piles are either cast in place or driven. Steel and Concrete piles are mostly used. Piles
foundations are used when the soil around the foundation is not able to support the loads on the
foundation as a result of the possibility of excessive settlement or either low bearing capacity
(Institute of Structures Mechanics 2015).

Full-displacement piles are driven piles that tend to displace a great amount of soils due to the
driving process. On the other side, Cast-in-place piles do not tend to move soil or cause
displacement as a result of that, they are called non-displacement piles (Texas Transportation
Institute 1970). Load carrying capacity of piles depends upon several factors:

- Pile length
- Pile cross section

23
 - Pile shape
- Pile installation method
- Soil configuration
- Short and long-term soil properties
 Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity of a Group Pile:

For most scenarios, piles are used in groups. The aim of using group piles is to transmit the
structural load to the soil. Over the group piles, a pile cap is constructed. The cap used mostly is
placed in a contact with the ground or in case of offshore platforms well above the ground
(Tomlinson 1994).

 Part 1:
Table 6. The Group Pile Properties part a

Dimensions 3m ×3m
Length (L) 20 m
Soil cohesion (C) zero
Soil Unit weigh (γ) 14.4 kN/m3
Soil friction angle (θ ) 36o
Soil type Sandy soil

Figure 13. The Plane 3 × 3 Section of the Square Group Piles

24
 Figure 14. A Pile Properties (square in cross-section) of the Group Piles part a

Qug
η=
n× Qu

Where,

η =the group pile efficiency.

n=number of piles

Q ug=total ultimate load bearing capacity

Q u=ultimate load bearing capacity of a single pile

Since it is a sandy soil (. and driven (one of the method of insulation), the spacing between the
piles will be large, and thus the group efficiency will be equal to one:

η=1

Hence,

Qug=n × Qu

The ultimate capacity:

25
Q u=Q b+ Qs

For sand soil the tip resistance:

Q b = A b ( F b + P 0)

Where F b=N q σ v ∧σ v =γ × L

σ v =14.4 ×20=288 kN /m2

The bearing capacity factor (Nq) is a crucial part of the pile design, the following figure is used
to determine it:

Figure 15. Variation of Nq with soil friction angle (Das 2016)

As the soil friction angle is 36o, from the graph Nq=92.5

Where F b=92.5 × 288=26.64 kN /m2

P0=σ v =288 kN /m 2

Ab =3 ×3=9 m2

Q b=9 ( 26.64+288 ) =2831.76 kN

For sand soil the friction resistance:

Q s =A s × Fs

26
A s=4 × B× L=20 ×3 × 4=240 m 2

The ultimate skin friction (Fs) can be determine by using the following equation:

Fs= K s ×σ v ×tanθ

The average value of F́s=K s × σ´ v ×tanθ

The coefficient of lateral earth pressure (Ks) is determine by using the following table or
simply divide the value of Nq by 50. By the table K2=2.0 and Nq/50 =1.85.

Table 7. Typical values of δ and Ks (Atkinson 2005)

288
F́s=2× × tan36=¿ 209.244 kN /m2 ¿
2

Qs =240 ×209.244=50218.56 kN

Q u=50218.56+ 2831.76=15386.4 kN

Qug=n × Qu

Q ug=3 ×3 × 15386.4

Qug=3 ×3 × 15386.4=138477.6 kN

27
 Part 2:

Table 8. The Group Pile Properties part b

Dimensions 3m ×3m
Length (L) 20 m
Soil Unit weigh (γ) 14.4 kN/m3
Soil friction angle (θ ) 36o
Soil cohesion (C) 29 kpa=29 kN/m2
Soil Type Saturated Clay Soil

Figure 16. The Plane 3 × 3 Section of the Circular Group Piles

Figure 17. A Pile Properties (circular in cross-section) of the Group Piles part b

28
Assuming D=0.35 m, d= 1m

π π
Ab = D 2= × 0.352=0.0962 m 2 ≈ 0.1
4 4

C b ( for Clay )=85.1(¿ notes)

Lg =B g=2d × D

Lg =B g=2×1+ 0.35=2.35 m

L g 2.35
= =1
B y 2.35

L 20
= =8.5
B g 2.35

Since L/Bg ratio is equal to 8.5, the value of NC=9 (from Graph 18)

Figure 18. Variation of Nc* with L/Bg and Lg/Bg (Inti International University 2013)

 Case 1 (Piles assumed to act individually):

The ultimate capacity:

Qu=n1+n2 (Q b +Qs )

For clay soil the tip resistance:

Q b=N c ×C b × Ab

Q b=9 ×85.1 ×0.1=76.59 kN

29
 For clay soil the friction resistance:

Q s =Σα ×Cu × ∆ L

As there the piles are penetrating only one layer of clay, there is only one value of adhesion
factor (α).

Cu 17.5
= =0.175
Pa 100

Table 9. Obtaining the Adhesion Factor by Cu/Pa Ratio

Since the ratio of Cu/Pa is equal to 0.175, α is equal to (1+0.92)/2 =0.96.

0.35
P=2 × π ×r =2× π × =1.099≈ 1.1
2

Qs =0.96 ×17.5 ×1.1 ×20=369.6 kN

so , Q u=3 ×3 ×(76.59+369.6)

Qu=4015.71 kN

30
 Case 2 (Piles acting as a block)
The ultimate capacity:

Q u=Q b+ Qs

For clay soil the tip resistance:

Qb=L g × B g × Cu x N c

Q b=2.35× 2.35× 17.5 ×9=869.793 kN

For clay soil the friction resistance:

Qs =Σ2(Lg+ Bg)× cu × ΔL

Q s =2(2.35+2.35)×(17.5 ×20)

Q s =3290 kN

so , Q u=869.793+3290=4159.793 kN

2.4 Slope Stability Analysis

Slope stability is one of the most important topics in geotechnical engineering; therefore, it is
essential for civil and mining engineering to conduct a slope stability study by extensive
profession on rock and soil engineering. To apply the proper slope stability principles,
hydrology, geology and soil properties must be studied well. To test the stability of a slope, the
result of analyses must be compared with the safety factors and considering acceptable risk. To
create a stable wall, it is important to follow a number of levels and steps of analyses, both to
assess the performance of the design. Several methods are used for this purpose and many
software are established to study and analyses the data. There are many limit equilibrium
methods that are used in the slope stability analysis, but some of them have the superior over the
others, in which their limitations are overcome. Table 10 shows the methods that are used are
based on different equilibrium conditions or assumptions to be satisfied (Middle East Technical
University 2008)

31
 Table 10. Comparison of Features of Limit Equilibrium Methods (Middle East Technical
University 2008)

 The Simplified Bishop Method

Figure 18. The Rotating Soil divided into Vertical Slices

Table 11. The Soil Characteristic in the Slope

Soil cohesion ( c ) above GWT 29 kpa=29 kN /m 2

Soil friction angle ( θ ) 36 °
Soil Unit Weight (γ ) 14.4 kN /m3
γ water 9.81 KN /m3
Soil Cohesive ( C ) below water surface 0
γ sat for clayey sand 20 KN /m3(Geotechdata 2013)

32
 Table 12. The Slope Slices Properties

Slice Slice width, b Depth or , z Water height hw Slice angle,α Pore- Water pressure, u
o
No. (m) (m) (m) (kPa)
1 3.3 1.35 1.05 6.5 13.243
2 3.15 2.25 0.6 19.5 5.8
3 3.15 3.15 0 3.4 0
4 3 2.7 0 51.5 0

To calculate the factor of safety of the slope, the Bishop’s simplified method of analysis will be
used. The Initial FS is assumed as 1.5 and 1.8.

Table 13. The Solution Table of FS using Simplified Bishop Method

Slice W =γzb W . sin α C'. b ( W −ub ) tanθ 4+5 secα

(2) (3) tanα .tanθ
no. (4) (5) (6) 1+ 6×7
FS
-kN- -kN- -kN-
(1) (8)
(7)
1.5 1.8 1.5 1.8
1 83.556 9.46 0 39.854 39.8 0.947 0.951 37.741 37.8
2 112.644 37.61 0 68.383 68.4 0.853 0.926 58.33 63.3
3 142.88 8.488 0 103.8 103.8 0.971 0.978 100.8 101.5
4 116.64 91.32 0 84.7 84.7 0.886 1.001 75.07 84.7

-------
-------- -------- Σ=146.888--------- ---------- -------- --------- Σ=271.94 Σ=287.3

The final FS is calculated down below to be compared with the assumed FS.

when FS=1.5 , FS1= Ʃ ¿ ¿

when FS=1.8 , FS1= Ʃ ¿ ¿

Since the calculated FS1 1.8 > 1.5 (assumed FS 1), 1.8 should be taking and a second iteration
should be carried out. The assumed FS and the calculated FS are approximately equal

33
(1.89≅1.8). Since the factor of safety (assumed FS) and the calculated FS are approximately
same, additional iteration is not required.

3.0 Discussion

3.1 Structural Design of Inclined Retaining Wall

In this part, a geotechnical and structural design of a retaining wall was carried out. By using the
methods of Eurocode 7 (geotechnical) and EC2 (structural). The wall designed was a cantilever
retaining wall with a surface inclined at 12o.

To design the retaining wall, two phases were followed. The initial step is the lateral earth
pressure, in which the entire structure is checked for its stability. This stage was important to
study the safety factors of overturning, sliding, and bearing capacity failures. The safety factors
were calculated and they were acceptable. Add to that favorable forces and unfavorable forces
along with the stabilizing and destabilizing moments were studied. After that, the next step was
checking the strength of each structure component (structural design). The geotechnical design is
mostly a part of the process for studying the retaining wall stability. After that, the structural
design were conducted for wall stem, wall base and toe slab. Each design was carried out and the
following were satisfied for each section of the wall:

A s ,min < A s , pro < A s , max

The As provided obtained in the design of wall stem, wall base and toe slab are 942 mm 2, 1256
mm2 and 628 mm2 respectively. Add to that, the As min was 497.64 mm2 same for all sections
and the As max was 13200 mm2 also for all. Through the structural design, the number of rows
of the wall stem were calculated and equal to 3 with 333.333 mm center to center spacing and
main bars are 20 mm in diameter. For the wall base, the number of rows obtained were 4. Main
bars are 20 mm in diameter with center to center spacing equal to 250 mm. For the design of the
toe slab, the calculated number of rows are 2. Center to center spacing is equal to 314 mm with
20 mm in diameter. Figure shows the reinforcement detailing of the wall. The stress in the wall
stem and base is resisted by the steel reinforcement. Retaining wall is economical to a height of
about 8 m.

34
3.2 Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity of a Group Pile

Piles are used in deep foundation. Deep foundations are have a below depth that is greater than
its smallest dimension. The question on the group pile were divided into two parts. The first part
was for piles having 20 m length, square in cross-section and driven into a sandy soil. The
second part, was a piles having 20 m length, circular in cross-section and driven into a statured
clay soil.

For the first part, the soil was cohesion-less soil (sand) and therefore the group pile efficiency is
equal to 1. The ultimate load carrying capacity was obtained by using the drained parameter ϕ
and assuming that the contribution of C’ is zero. By adding the ultimate base resistance with the
ultimate skin friction, the ultimate load carrying capacity were obtained. The ultimate base
resistance of the sandy soil was calculated by multiplying effective overburden pressure with
bearing capacity factor and the cross section area of the pile base. It was found that the ultimate
base resistance was equal 2831.76 kN. For the ultimate skin friction, was calculated by
multiplying average value of the ultimate skin friction by the surface area of the pile. It was
found the ultimate skin friction was equal 50218.56 kN. The ultimate load carrying capacity
were obtained equal 15386.4 kN.

For the second part, the soil was studied in two different cases. This part is easier than the first
part as the soil is driven into a statured clay soil. The ultimate load carrying capacity was
calculated first assuming that the piles are acting individually. It was found that, the ultimate
load carrying capacity 4015.71 kN. The second assumption was that the piles are acting as a
block. The ultimate load carrying capacity was found to equal 4159.793 kN. There is a small
different in the amount of ultimate load carrying capacity when piles are acting individually or as
a block. Generally piles are driven as groups to support the structural loads. As the load of the
structural is applied to the pile cap, it gets distributed into the individual piles. The efficiency of
pile group depends many factors including spacing of piles, pile characteristics and total number
of rows in a group and in a row.

3.3 Slope stability analysis

35
In this part, the factor of safety of a slope were determined using simplified Dishope method.
Bishop’s simplified method is the most widely used method. To apply the method, the first step
was dividing the rotating soil into slices. To determine the factor of safety, a table is created. In
the table, weight of soil within each slice was calculated by multiplying the volume of the slice
by the soil’s unit weight.

To calculate the factor of safety of the slope, the Initial FS was assumed as 1.5. After carrying a
first iteration, the FS calculated was bigger than the assumed one (1.8 > 1.5). A second iteration
was required. In the second iteration, the assumed FS was 1.8. The FS calculated from the
second iteration was approximately equal to the assumed one. No further iteration is required. As
the factor of safety is equal to 1.8, the rotating soil will stable if its slope was 1.8.

4.0 Conclusion

The objective of this coursework was to design and analysis geotechnical structures problems
with different properties and types of soil using appropriate mathematical methods. The main
importance of this report can be seen as it helps in developing new skills in the process of
analyzing the flow of water through soils by using flow nets and its effect through earth-dams
and below structures. Add to that, predict the performance of piled foundations as well as
analyze the stability of slopes and retaining structures. In addition, the seepage concept in
permeable ground is also included in this coarse work.

This coursework was important to independently carry out the design and analysis of
geotechnical problems with limited data. The problems of this coursework were challenging and
exciting at the same time. The problems which included topics such as design philosophy of
embankment dams, design of retaining wall, bearing capacity of pile foundations and slope
stability analysis has contributed to the process of understanding the different geotechnical
problems besides enhancing the teaching and learning process in the class.

Although this coursework covered different importance areas of Geotechnical Engineering, less
attention was paid to the process of creating new skills by particle side as there were no
experiments or visual observations. In this coursework mathematical models and calculations
were used to present and obtained the required results. Add to that, with limited data given for
each question, there were some difficulties to have a clear idea of the analyze process.

36
From this coursework, it was concluded that Geotechnical Engineering is an important a sub-
discipline that deals with study of soil or rock with relation with human-made or natural
structures that the soil positioned on it. For example, the foundation rest on the soil and thus
transform the load effect into it and then form the structure to the ground. Therefore, it is
important for a civil engineer to have the enough knowledge of the soil properties in order to
decide whether the construction of the structure is acceptable at the planned location or not.

5.0References
1. Aichi Institute of Technology (2002) “Design and Construction of Embankment Dams” The
List of References Illustrated [online] available from
http://aitech.ac.jp/~narita/tembankmentdam1.pdf [1/6/2018]
2. Bureau of Reclamation (2012) “Embankment Dams” The List of References Illustrated
[online] available from https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/designstandards-
datacollectionguides/finalds-pdfs/DS13-2.pdf [13/5/2018]
3. Canadian Dam Association (2015) “Seepage Management Control” The List of References
Illustrated [online] available from http://www.klohn.com/wp-
content/uploads/2016/01/150808_CDA-2015-Paper-Morrison-Dam-Submitted-ID1036.pdf
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Considerations” The List of References Illustrated [online] available from
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amr-el-sayed [19/5/2018]
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7. Hauge (2018) “What is Geotechnical engineering” The List of References Illustrated [online]
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37
8. Institute of Structures Mechanics (2015) “Pile Load Capacity” The List of References
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4%20(6).pdf [1/6/2018]
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[13/5/2018]
10. Middle East Technical University (2008) “Slope Stability Analysis And Design” The List of
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14. U.S Department of Environmental Conservation (2006) “Seepage Through Earthen Dams”
The List of References Illustrated [online] available from
https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/67244.html [1/6/2018]
15. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (2004) “General Design and Construction Considerations for
Earth and Rock-Fill Dams” The List of References Illustrated [online] available from
https://www.publications.usace.army.mil/Portals/76/Publications/EngineerManuals/EM_111
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17. Virajain (2014) “Embankment Dam Types, Earthen Dam, Rockfill Dam, Hydraulic Fill Dam,
Semi” The List of References Illustrated [online] available from
https://www.slideshare.net/virajain/embankment-lecture-1 [14/5/2018]
18. Das (2016) Principles of Foundation Engineering. Boston: Global Engineering
19. Atkinson (2005) Structural Foundation Manual. London: Span Press
20. Inti International University (2013) “Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) In Civil Engineering”
The List of References Illustrated [online] available from
http://ecampus.intimal.edu.my/examodas/Mis/Main/Upload/Question33085.pdf [12/5/2018]
21. Martin, J. Budden, D and Norman, S (2015) “Pile tests to justify higher adhesion factors in
London Clay” The List of References Illustrated [online] available from
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_Pile_Tests_to_Justify_Higher_Adhesion_Factors_in_London_Clay.pdf [12/5/2018]
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