MAURYAN EMPIRE

 Empires are defined by extensive territory and their glory was said to lie in monumental
architecture (statement of power), grandiose public works and imperial proclamations.
Oriental despotism treated empires outside Europe as autocracy and backward.
 Land was entirely owed by state. Revenue was agrarian.
 Empires control a differentiated economy unlike kingdoms where the economic base is more
uniform. Kingdoms di not make an attempt to restructure the access to resources. Empires
attempt to erase variation for homogeneity. Cultural H =new ideology(dhamma). In ME
structuring was majorly for commercial exchange.
 Mauryan empire- 321 BC to 185 BC. Founded by CM:Chandragupta Maurya/ sandrocottos
who defeated Nanda
 Get to know from stories as well as play MUDRARAKSHASA by Vishakadatta.
 Buddhist text: kashtariyas
Brahmin text: shudras.
Belonged to heterodox sect
 Political power was open accommodating any varna
 CM conquered the ganga plains and the north-west areas. Also defeated selucus
nicator(eastern afganistan, Baluchistan, makran).
 Campaigns were imp for: capturing territory, revenue, land routes.
 Megasthenes(Indica)
 CM became a jain. Succedded by Bindusara(amitrochates)
 Ajivika sect-bindusara
 Ashoka: chakravartin ekkavatti(universal monarch).
 Rock surfaces-minor and major rock edicts.- pilar edicts-
 Dhamma(Greek: eusebeia) was an ethical behavior for some and teachings of buddha for
another.
 Ashoka was first the governor at Taxila and Ujjain.
 Kalinga war was to obtain resources.
 Third buddhist council at pataliputra in 250 BC.
 Buddhism did not make caste barriers for monks and followers.
 Ashokan inscriptions were generally in local script/greek/Aramaic/prakrit/brahmi.
Peshawar(kharoshti).

WELDING OF A SUBCONTINENTAL SOCIETY:

 Megasthenes speaks of Mauryan society as having seven divisions.
1. Philosophers- were exempt from taxes
a) Brachmanes (brahmans)
b) Sarmanes(shramanas)-included ascetics, monks and followers of buddhist,
jain, ajivika an ors.
2. Farmers- include shudra cultivators and laborers. They used to migrate rather than
revolting. No slavery existed under Mauryan empire according to meg. But kautilya
mention and specifies different forms of slavery. Child from the master to the slave
then women would be free. Shudras free laborers.
3. Traders
4. Soldiers- many elephants and horses. Membership was not restricted to shudras.
5. Herdsman- pastoralists- hunter gatheres and shifting cultivators. Referred to a
atavikas.
 6. Artisans- depend of particular craft. Metal workers have higher status.
7. Magistrates and Councilors- administrators. Either brahman or kshatriyas.
 All seven divisions do not follow identical rules. By the seven div he meant varnas.
(occupation based). However, he was perhaps describing the principle of jati and not varna.
No mention of untouchables.
Birth and occupation were connected.

 Arthashtras taking strong position on chandals.

 Women were bodyguards, spies, perfomers.
 People supported heterodox religions rather than Brahmanical norms.
 No mention of varna or jati in the Ashokan edicts which show that they were not so popular
social categories.

ASHOKA’S DHAMMA:

 Dhamma is the prakrit form of the word dharma meaning universal law, righteousness,
social or religious order found in society.
 Ashoka gave it a wider meaning, wider than only the teachings of buddha.
 Buddhism then was not only a religion but was a social and intellectual movement.
 He made a distinction between his personal belief in and support for buddhism and his
obligation as a king and a statesman to insist that all religions must be respected.
 He did not see dhamma as a piety, resulting from good deeds that were inspired by formal
religious beliefs, but as conformity to a social ethic.
 Use dhamma to reduce social conflict and intolerance.
 Even though mauryas favored heterodox sects( questioned Brahmanical ideas and suggested
alternative ways of life)they were not hostile to Brahmanism.
 With such divergent forces focus or common perspective was required. The empire included
multiple cultural and social systems in the north-west.
 Hellenistic society has two div: master ans lave, ganges plain had 4 varnas, innumerable jatis,
atavikas. They could be welded by force or persuasion. Ashoka choose persuasion. He
modified dhamma by his personal definition.
 Principles of dhamma would be acceptable to any religious sect.
 Consideration towards slaves and servants, respect for teachers, obedience to mother and
father, generosity towards friends, acquaintances and relatives, regard for and donations to
brhamnas and shramanas, concern for all living beings. An abstention from taking life.
 Refraining from violence, renounciation of war, restraint on killing of animals.
 Officers of dhamma-mahatmas

POLITICAL ECONOMY:

 Arthashtra: blueprint of how a kingdom should be governed.

 Revenue producing economy was largely agrarian. Predictability of revenue from these taxes
would have created a sense of fiscal security.
 Kautilya refers to methods of taxation.
 Villages still maintained animals and these were listed as items that were assessed and
taxed.
 Commercial enterprises were also taxed.
 Private owners also paid various taxes
 Private property receded gradually.
 Waste lands and crown lands were cultivated under the supervision of the state.
 Wage labourers were employed by the state.
 Greek writers argue that land was ultimately owned by the state.
 Shudras were initially exempt from taxes but once they started working the land they had to
pay taxes.
 Dasa-karmakara- slaves and labourers
 Megasthenes while commenting on slavery, his views differed perhaps because Athenian
and Indian pattern differed.
 Slave (by birth, by voluntarily selling himself, by being captured in war, result of judicial
punishments) labour in households and mines and some craft associations.
 Caste and not slavery was immutable
 Land revenue was of atleast two kinds: tax on areas and one on assessments of produce.
Ashoka’s inscriptions (bali and bhaga)
 Pindakara- taxes taken jointly from a village.
 Labour tax=vishti=provided free labour to state
 Taxes for water for irrigation
 Famines mentioned in jaina tradition
 Agrarian economy helped to build an empire which in turn furthered the trade and
agriculture.
 Armourers and ship builder were exempt from taxes.
 Worker’s associations: shreni or puga
 Toll and trade tax
 Shows improved standard of living
 Many buildings were of timber.
 Northern black polished ware
 Major towns: Mahastan, Shishupalgarh, Amaravati, Sopara, Kandahar
 Punch-marked coins and uninscriped cast copper coins
 Terracotta figures
 Stone-cutting and carving acquired significant dimension
 Stone figures of yakshas and yakshis.
 Stone elephant at dhauli
 Stone sculpture was evidently the preferred medium of the wealthy and powerful in
contrast to the humble terracotta images.

ADMINISTRATION:

 Centralized bureaucracy
 Kings power had increased tremendously= paternal kingship
 Was expected to consult his ministers, however the final decision lay with the monarch
 Treasurer(keeping an account of income in cash and for storing the income in kind) and
chief collector(kept record of taxes)
 Large staff of superintendents and subordinate officers.
 One quarter of revenue was saved for salaries of officials
 Cm=purohita
 Public works= Sudarshan lake
 Centrally administered influence would have been more in smaller areas such as
magadh.
 At the hub was magadh(pillar edicts)=metropolitan state
  Pivot
 Most centralized
 Expanded by conquering
 Revenue highest
 Core areas
 Less under central control
 Restructure to bring them into metropolitan state
 Ashokan edicts
 Major rock edicts
 Gandhara(way to Hellenistic kingdoms), Raichur, southern Karnataka(gold), kalinga,
saurashtra
 Copper In rajasthan, iron in south bihar,
 Peripheral areas
 Viewed as buffer zones
 Forested areas
 Atavikas
 Norms of forest dwellers were different from the settlers
 Edicts make it clear that the society was diverse.
 Centres of provincial administration- Taxila, Ujjain, dhauli, suvrnagiri, girnar.
 Governors were selected from common people
 Senior officers(pradeshikas)
 Judicial officers(rajukas)
 Yukta-recoding information
 Provinces should be sub-divided into districts, each into group of villages(had an accountant
and a tax collector),
 Final unit is the village
 Frequent use of spies

SALIENT FEATURES OF HARAPPA CIVILISATION:

Town Planning
The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of townplanning on the lines of
the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right
angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks. Harappa, Mohenjodaro and
Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. Below the
citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the
common people. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions
and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan
culture. Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting
all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.The most
important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23
feet breadth and 8 feet depth. Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There
are side rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks.
Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of
the Bath led to a drain. It must have served as a ritual bathing site. The largest building
in Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet breadth. But in the
citadel of Harappa we find as many as six granaries.
Economic life
There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture,
industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides
sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep,
goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A
number of other animals were hunted for food including deer. Specialized groups of
artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and
terracotta manufacturers. Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of
the Harappan metal craft. Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places.

Pottery  remains plain and in some places red and black painted
pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.
Internal trade was extensive with other parts of India. Foreign trade was mainly
conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-
precious stones were imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as
wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including cotton goods,
pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products. There is much evidence to prove
the trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have
been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The seals and the terracotta
models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport
and boats and ships for river and sea transport.
Social Life
Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the Harappans. The dress of
both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment and the other
lower garment. Beads were worn by men and women. Jewelleries such as bangles,
bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerrings were worn by women. These
ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones. The use
of cosmetics was common. Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells,
ivory and metal have been found at Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks,
knives are made of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls and
dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull
fighting were other pastimes. There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such
as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.
Arts
The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of workmanship. Figures of men and
women, animals and birds made of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show the
degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor. The figure of a dancing girl from
Mohenjodaro made of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its right hand rests on
the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture. Two
stone statues from Harappa, one representing the back view of a man and the other of a
dancer are also specimens of their sculpture. The pottery from Harappa is another
specimen of the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted with
various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs
consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees.
On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock.
Script
The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The number of signs is between 400
and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants. The script was
mostly written from right to left. In a few long seals the boustrophedon method –
writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines – was adopted. Parpola and his
Scandinavian colleagues came to the conclusion that the language of the Harappans
was Dravidian. Agroup of Soviet scholars accepts this view. Other scholars provide
different view connecting the Harappan script with that of Brahmi. The mystery of the
Harappan script still exists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan
script will throw much light on this culture.
Religion
From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious
life of the Harappans. The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in
seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded
by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different direction). Two
deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in
terracotta figurines. In latter times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals
were also worshipped by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil forces and
used amulets as protection against them.
Burial Methods
The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan,
Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans. Complete burial
and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit
was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins were also found
at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of
skeletons. However, there is no clear
evidence for the practice of Sati. 
Decline of the Harappan Culture
There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the decline of the Harappan
culture. Various theories have been postulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods,
drying up of rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation and
occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the Harappan cities.
According to some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The
destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human
skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded by
foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have
enabled them to become masters of this region
The important sites of the Harappan culture are Harappa in the Punjab, Mahenjodaro in
Sind, Chanhudaro situated at a distance of 130 kilometers from Mahenjodaro, Lothal in
Gujrat and Kalibangan in Gujrat and Rupar near Simla.

This civilisation in the beginning was called as the Indus Valley Civilisation .as Harappa
and Mahenjodaro were situated on the Valley of the Indus. But during the subsequent
periods the remains of this culture were unearthed from various places in Sind.

Rajasthan and Gujrat. So scholars named this civilisation as Harappan Civilisation as the
ruins of this civilisation were first discovered at Harappa.

Historians have expressed different views regarding the date of this civilisation.
According to John Marshall the civilisation flourished during the period from 3250 B.C to
2750 B.L. On the other hand Sir Martimer Wheeler has opined that this civilisation
developed during the period between 2500 B.C. and 1500 B.C.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

In spite of these different views most of the scholars believe that this great civilisation
flourished during the period from 3000 B.C. to 2500 B.C.. More than five hundred seals
have been discovered from the ruins of Mahenjodaro and Harappa but historians so far
have been unable to decipher the scripts.

So the information regarding the Indus culture and civilisation is purely based on the
objects unearthed from Mahenjodaro and Harappa. The Harappan Civilisation was an
urban civilisation.

The people of Nile valley had constructed huge pyramids, palaces and temples but the
Indus valley people had given more emphasis on their comforts of life. Scholars believe
that the Dravidians were the founders of this civilisation.

Town Planning :

ADVERTISEMENTS:

From the ruins of Mahenjodaro and Harappa it is known that Indus valley people lived an
advanced and cultured life. The people were expert in the art of town planning.

The distance between Mahenjodaro and Harappa is about 600 kilometers. Harappa was
bigger than Mahenjodaro. But the ruins of the buildings of these two places reveal
similarity in style and structure.

The city of Mahenjodaro was well planned. Mahenjodaro means “The Mound of the
Dead” . The ruins of the city reveal elaborate system of drainage and sanitation. All the
roads and streets were straight. These roads and streets ran straight from North to
South and from East to West and cut each other at right angles.
The main streets were 30 to 34 feet wide. There were covered drains on the both the
sides of the main streets. The drains of the private houses were connected with the
street drains. There was also arrangement for street lighting which is evident from the
discovery of lamp posts in the street and lanes.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The buildings of Mahenjodaro can be divided into three groups, such as dwelling houses,
public building and the Great Bath. The dwelling houses were of different size and
structure.

The houses were made of well burnt bricks. Houses were mostly built on elevated or
raised platforms. Those were simple and comfortable. The people of the Indus valley
laid emphasis on simple and comfortable life. So they were not particular about the
artistic decoration of their dwelling houses.

The houses, varied in size and structure. Each house was provided with doors, windows,
bath rooms, kitchen, drains, and proper system of ventilation. The houses were generally
double storeyed. There were staircases with high and narrow steps leading to upper
floor.

The ruins of some spacious buildings of elaborate structure and design have also been
discovered from Mahenjodaro. It is difficult to know the nature and exact purpose of
these buildings. However it is surmised that these buildings were palaces, Temples or
Municipal Halls.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

The ruins of some great buildings have been discovered from Harappa. These buildings
measure 50 feet in length and 20 feet in width. These buildings were used as granaries.

The most remarkable structure of the city of Mahenjodaro is the Great Bath was 180 feet
in length and 108 feet in breadth. In the centre of the Bath which consisted of a
quadrangle with galleries on all sides.

In this Bath there is a swimming enclosure which is 39 feet in length, 23 feet in breadth
and 8 feet in depth. There was arrangement for the supply of water to the swimming
enclosure an adjacent well through the vertical pipes.

Similarly there was provision to take out dirty water from the swimming enclosure
through a horizontal drain. The walls of the swimming enclosure from were made
completely water tight. The galleries and rooms built all around the swimming pool were
used by the people as places to change clothes after bathes.

The architecture of the Indus valley people does not reveal decorative or artistic
elements because they preferred a simple and comfortable life.

Social Life:
Food :

The social of the people of Harappan culture quite well- organised. Their food was quite
simple. Wheat and barley were their staple food. Milk, milk products, mutton, pork, fish
and vegetables were also commonly used. The river Indus facilitated the growth of
agriculture and enabled the people to produce wheat, barley, rice, and date palm.

Dress and Ornaments :

The Indus people used different kinds of clothes made of both cotton and wool. Their
dress was simple. From the ruins of Mahenjodaro a large number of spindles made of
backed earth have been discovered. From this it is known that the people of Indus valley
known the art of weaving clothes. Both male and females wore ornaments.

The ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, ivory precious and semi precious
stones. Ornaments like necklace, armlets, finger rings and bangles were used by both
men and women. However the ornaments like girdles, fillets ear, ring armlets bracelets
were used only by the females.

The poor people were using ornaments made of bones, shell copper and terracotta. The
women wore long hairs. From the ruins unearthed at Mahenjodaro and Harappa it is
evident that the females used hairs pins, face-paints and mirror of bronze.

Household articles:

Various types of household articles and utensils have been discovered from the ruins of
Mahenjodaro and Harappa. These articles and utensils are made of clay, stone and of
metals like bronze and copper.

Articles of domestic use of the Indus valley people included needle, razor, daggers and
mirrors. Their furniture’s included chair, stools, and cots. The discovery of the toys like
whistles rattles and dolls refers to the fact that the children were fond of toys.

Gambling, fishing and hunting were the favorite past times of the Indus valley people.
The people also enjoyed dancing and singing.

The domesticated animals of the people included humped bulls, cows, buffaloes,
sheeps, elephants and camels. They were also familiar with cats and dogs and with the
wild animals like deer, tiger, bears and wolves. They did not know the use of horse.

The people used different kinds of weapons of warfare. Axes, spears, daggers, bows and
arrows were used as offensive weapons and these were usually made of copper and
bronze.
Their defensive weapons included swords, shields and helmets. The people did not
know the use of iron, because no iron tools or weapons have been discovered from
Mahenjodaro and Harappa.

The Harappans had developed their own process of writing, which is evident from the
discovery of seals at Mahenjodaro and Harappa. More than four hundred seals have
been unearthed but it is unfortunate that so far the historians have been unable to
decipher the nature of the Indus scripts.

Authentic information would be available regarding the Indus valley civilisation when the
scripts written on these seals would be deciphered or read. Figures of goddess and of
different animals are also engraved on the seals.

From the archaeological remains it is clear that industry and trade developed
considerably in the Indus valley. Traders and merchants of this valley established their
commercial relations with Sumer, Egypt and Crete.

This fact is corroborated by the discovery of Indus valley objects at various sites in
Western Asia. They imported copper, tin and silver from Southern India. However no
definite information is available regarding the medium of exchange in the sphere of
trade and commerce.

The Indus valley people used a kind of weights and measure. The unit of weight was
equal to 1750 grams.

Religion :

The seals, statues and different object & unearthed from Mahenjodaro and Harappa
throw light on the religious life of the people. The worship of mother Goddess was
widely prevalent among the people.

Figurines of mother Goddess on seals and pottery have been discovered. The people
considered female energy as the source of creation.

A seal bearing a figure with two horns on two sides of the head surrounded by wild
animals and sitting in a meditative posture, have been discovered. Accordingly it is
believed that the Indus people worshipped Pasupati or Lord Siva.

The people believed in animism and worshipped trees and stones and animals like bulls,
tigers, elephants and crocodiles. Above all they worshipped sun, water and fire.

This great prehistoric civilisation began to decline towards the year 2000 B.C. The
civilisation was destroyed due to the change in the course of the river Indus. The Aryans
also came to India through the Khyber Pass.
They defeated the people of the Indus valley or the Dravidians. When the Dravidians
were driven out from the Indus valley, their civilisation finally came to an end

Module:
 Etched carnelian bead= characteristic harappan object
 Trade with Mesopotamia and Persian gulf.
 City was divided into smaller citadel area(to the west) and larger citadel area to
the east.
 Huge man made brick platforms to protect from floods.
 Grid patterns
 Sewage systems
 Large water reservoirs
 Citadel areas has defence walls and bastions
 Harappan cities do not display any spectacular wealth in houses or graves
 Gold was imported from Mesopotamian cities
 Wheat, barley, rice, millet
 Monumental buildings= granaries, warehouses, collegiate buildings, ritual centre,
tank etc.
 Seals were used
 Elephant, bull, tiger
 Female figurines
 Proto-shiva
 Sculptures in stone and Bronze

Main sources for writing of Indian History:

Ancient Indian history. Like, Sir William Jones (judge), in 1784, founded 'Asiatic Society
of Bengal', for learning, understanding and publishing sources of A.I. History. Then, after
the formation of Archaeological Survey of India in 1861, search for archaeological
sources get legal-momentum. Then, after the discovery of Indus civilization in 1922,
boosted love for ancient Indian history among Indians. Then, up till now, various types of
sources are coming forth and their interpretation is becoming more challenging job for
the historians of Ancient India. The sources of Ancient Indian History 1) Literary/written
2) Material-Archaeological (i) Religious (ii) Secular (iii) Scientific (iv) Sangam (v) Foreign
Accounts/Travelogues (a) Vedic (b) Buddhist (c) Jain (a) Histories (b) Eulogies (c)
Literature Epics Dramas Poetry Compilations (i) Inscriptions (ii) Coins (iii) Ancient
Monuments (iv) Sculptures & Paintings (v) Archaeological Remains (a) Epigraphs (b)
Copper-plates (a) Secular (b) Religious Buddhist Hindu 3 Section-1 Literary/written
sources The literary/written sources to reconstruct Ancient Indian history can be
classified among three major categories, (i) Religious, (ii) Secular and (iii) Scientific. It
also comprised of some different kinds of sources like (iv) Sangam literature and (v)
travelogues of foreign travelers. (i) Religious sources Religion was the backbone of
society of Ancient World. India was not an exception. Hence, we find large amount of
canonical/religious literature of various religions, prevalent in Ancient India. These throw
light on the, along with religious, socio-economic aspects and political thought and
ideology of the period under study. However, such sources should be used with caution.
Because, first of all, most of the religious sources are retained through oral traditions
and put into writing, hundreds of years after their actual creation. Besides, 'what-we-
have-now' are the editions of actual writings. Secondly, religious literatures were mainly
written to provide guidance with an idealist approach. Hence, whatever written is there,
is 'dos and don'ts' kind of nature and not 'as-actual'. Sometimes, the body of works like
Puranas, though written in 4th century AD onwards, written as if they were created 1000
years before and prophesying something about 1000 years after! Hence, with tools like
internal and external criticism, a historian can make use of these sources and
reconstruct the history of Ancient India. (a) Vedic/Hindu canonical literature It
comprised of sources like four Vedas, Brahmans, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Shad-
darshanas, Shad-angas, Sutras, Smritis and Puranas. 1. Vedas The Aryans have created
four Vedas; Rig, Yajus, Sam, Atharva. The Vedas (from Vid=to know) were basically
compilation of prayers of Aryans for the Gods, which were mainly the powers in nature.
According to Aryans, the Vedas were heard (and not created by men), hence these were
called 'Shrutis' and 'a-paurusheya (not created by any man)'. The Vedas are also called
as 'Samhita'. Rig-Veda: Rig-Veda is the earliest among four Vedas. It is comprised of 10
mandalas and 1028 suktas. These were prayers to the gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni,
Parjanya, Vayu, Marut etc. It gives us information regarding socio-economic, 4 religious,
political condition of Early Aryans, located in the area of Sapta-Sindhus. For example, the
'Purushsukta' of Its 10th mandala depicts the origin of Varnasystem in India. Yajur-Veda:
It comprised the prayers to be recited while performing sacrifices or yadnya. Actually,
the major parts of the prayers are borrowed from the Rig-Veda, itself. It has two parts,
Shukla and Krishna and six other samhitas. The Vajasaneyi Samhita of Yajurveda throws
ample lights on various Vedic sacrifices. Sam-Veda: It comprised the prayers to teach
how to recite the prayers while performing sacrifices. Again it comprised the prayers
from Rig-Veda, and provided methods to recite them. Hence, it is considered as the
origin of Indian classical music. Atharva-Veda: It comprised assorted subjects like
magic, black-magic, superstitions etc. We find origins of medicines, botany, and surgery
in this Veda. The fours Vedas throw light on life-ways of Vedic Aryans. We come to know
that, when the Aryans, initially were settled in Saptasindhu region, their life-style was
different. The second to ninth mandala of Rig-Veda tells us about this. But when they
migrated to more eastern part of their actual location, and came into contact with other
communities, we find drastic changes in their life-ways. The first and 10the mandala of
Rig-Veda and other three Vedas inform such change. Hence, to understand Vedic
Aryans, we have to think in two parts: Early Vedic and Later Vedic. After Vedas, some
other important works were compiled by Vedic Aryans. These were basically created to
explain the thoughts and laws in the Vedas: to make them more understandable. Hence,
these work as appendices of Vedas and were mostly in prose. These were comprised of,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Shad-darshanas. 2. Brahmanas: The
Brahmanas were created to teach the procedure of sacrifices that were compiled in the
Vedas. Hence, each Veda has its own Brhamana, e.g. of RigvedaAitareya Brhamana, of
Samveda- Jaiminiya Brahamana, Yajurveda-Shatapath and of Atharvaveda-Gopath. From
these Brahmanas, we get information of Vedic Aryans' various institutions, like, four
Varnas, four Ashramas, philosophy etc. 5 3. Aranyakas: The Aranyakas were created to
teach the learning of Vedic religion, especially sacrifices & mystic philosophy into
seclusion. Aitareya Aranyaka is meant for RigVeda whereas Taiteriya Aranyaka is for
Yajur-Veda. 4. Upanishads: The word Upanishad means 'to learn, by sitting close to one's
teacher'. These were to created to teach the learning of Vedic spiritualism, comprising
the subject of, like, knowledge of one's self, knowledge of God, relations between self
and God, creation of Universe, our place in such a vast Universe, etc. Traditionally there
are 108 Upanishads, however, some of the important are, Ken, Kath, Prashna, Aiterya,
Chandogya etc. As these come, chronologically, at the end of Vedas, hence, the
Upanishads are also known as 'Vedanta'. The basic backbone of Indian religions were
based, mostly, on Upanishads, hence, with the help of later, we can understand Indian
religions more holistically. 5. Vedanga: These were created to make Vedas more
understandable, as follows: • Shiksha: How to pronounce the Vedic prayers in proper
manner • Kalpa: Rules to perform sacrifice in a proper manner • Vyakaran: To know the
proper grammar of Sanskrit language • Nirukta: Etymology of words, mentioned in the
Vedas. • Chanda: Various meters in which Vedic shlokas are structured to recite. It
comprised of Gayatri meter (chanda), Anushtubha meter (chanda) etc. • Jyotish : It deals
with proper time (Shakun) on which sacrifices should be performed. It also discusses
the subjects of astronomy like Sun, Moon, and constellations and, on cycles of seasons
etc. 6. Shad-darshanas: These works deal with philosophical teaching or aspects in the
Vedas. These are six, like, Vaisheshik (Kanad), Nyaya (Kanad), Sankhya (Kapil), Yog
(Patanjali), Mimansa (Jaimini), Uttar-mimnsa (Badrayan). These cover topics like the
theory, logic, unity of soul with God, atoms, Vedic rituals, structure of universe etc. 6 7.
Sutras The 6th century BC was the milestone in the history of India. The period
witnessed emergence of early states and growth in economy and coinage. In this period,
India went through its second urbanization. This was the period where heterodox
religions like Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivakas were grew and developed. They challenged
Vedic religion and its shortcomings and provided a strong alternative. Besides, during
that period, India was came into closer contacts with foreigners. Such was the period of
constant churning and speedy processes. In response to such changes, the custodians
of Vedic religion resorted to reconstruct and regulate their religion. Hence, Sutras were
created to provide norms, rules and regulation to consolidated Vedic religion. Sutras
were compiled around 6th c. BC. These were comprised of three sutras, viz.
Dharmsutras, Shrautsutras and Grihyasutras; together they are called as Kalpasutras.
They throw ample light on such processes, going through during 6th c. BC. 8. The
Smritis During the last centuries of BC and first centuries of AD, India again witnessed
the period of speedy changes. The economy was flourished, India had great relations
with Roman world, Buddhism was at its peak, local dynasties were forming empires:
thus no area, be it society or culture, was untouched by such changes. Such was the
dynamic and vibrant scenario. Vedic religion, again, felt to reconstruct their religion and
thus created the Smritis. The Smritis, like Sutra, are the books of norms, codes, rules,
regulations to consolidate and reconstruct Vedic religion. These were written by various
scholars, like, Manu, Narad, Parashar, Yadnyavalka etc. Hence, we find many smrities on
their name, e.g. Manu-smriti, Narad-smriti etc. 9. Puranas Up to 3-4th century AD,
Buddhism was its peak. Under Mahayana, the idol of Buddha was started worshipping;
and thus, it gained popularity. On the other side, Vedic religion was felt alienated and
needed popularity among the masses. It was introspecting and experimenting in its
thoughts. As a result, Vedic religion, for 7 common mass, created a certain kind of
literature and, through it, opened the doors of religion to common mass. The genre of
literature is called as 'Puranas'. The Puranas are mainly comprised of 18 Puranas and
these were classified according to the devotional cults, prevailed in 3rd-4th c. India. For
example, the Puranas of Shaiva consisted of Shaiv Puranas, Vayu Puranas, Skanda
Puranas; whereas the Vaishnavas venerated Vishnu Purana, Garud Purana, Matsya
Purana, Varaha Purana. The Shakti cult (devoted to mother goddesses) and Ganapatya
cult also created their own Puranas. Such Puranas have common sections, like, origin of
universe, stories regarding respective God and its Family, importance of pilgrim centres
and pilgrimages, political dynasties and myths of lineages (vansha and vanshanucharit)
etc. Subsequently, other related subjects were also touched in the Puranas, like,
iconography, architecture (Vishnudharmottar Purana), medicines, geography, political
history etc. In short, to understand India of 3rd to 6th century AD, the Puranas help
historians in a large manner. (b) Buddhist Canonical Literature Buddhism was the
religion of masses; hence, their literature and the language of them were maintained as
of the followers. Hence, these are in various languages, like, Prakrit (Pali), Tibetan,
Chinese, Sinhali etc. To challenge Vedic religion, these were also written in Sanskrit
language. The vast body of Buddhist literature comprised of, mainly, the Pitakas, the
Jatakas, etc. 1) Pitakas: The Pitakas comprised of three compilations, viz. Vinaya, Sutta,
Abhidhamma and together they are known as 'Tri-Pitakas. The Vinay- Pitaka was
compiled by Upali and comprised of five books. These were basically created to provide
codes of conducts for Monasteries, Bhikus, Bhikkunis, their daily routine, ethics etc. It
has parts like Sutta-vibhanga (origin of codes regarding Bhikkus), Khandaka (rules
regarding entry into monastery and admissions etc) and Parivar. 8 The Sutta-pitaka
compiled by Ananda. These were created to teach Buddha's teaching with examples,
parables and lectures. This body of literature is oriented towards common people. The
Sutta-Pitaka comprised of five books (nikayas), like Digha-nikay, Mazzim-nikaya,
Sanyukta-nikaya, Anguttar-nikaya, Khuddak-nikaya. The Khuddak-nikaya was an
important volume consisting of works like, Dhammapada, Suttanipata, Thergatha and
Therigatha. Jatakas were also become part of Khuddak-nikaya. The same, i.e. Buddha's
teaching is the main theme of Abhidhamma-Pitaka, however, it has a philosophical &
scientific form. Obviously, these were meant for Buddhist scholars. It comprised of
'Kathavastu' an important Buddhist book. In, short, these books throw ample light on
thoughts and codes-of-conducts of Buddhism. 2) The Jatakas The Jatakas are the
compilation of the stories regarding previous births of Buddha. To solve the problems of
his followers, Buddha devised a beautiful method to tell the stories from his own-
experiences that of his previous births, and, the skeptic or problem follower drew
answers from these stories. These were the Jatakaas who throw light on India during
6th c. BC. 3) Dipvamsha and Mahavamsha These Buddhist works are of Shri Lankan
origin. They inform us about Ashokathe Mauryan Emperor and various Buddhist
scholars. 4) Divyavadan This Buddhist work is of Napali origin. It tells Buddhist stories
and throws light on northern dynasties, from Mauryan kings to Shunga period. The
Buddhist literature also comprised of other important works, like, MilindPanha
(discussion between Bhikku Nagsen with Milind (Menander) Buddhist turned Greek king;
Ashvaghosha's Buddha-Charit (biography of Buddha); Mahavastu, Lalitvistar, Manjushri
Mulkalpa etc. (c) Jain Canonical Literature Ancient Jain literature is in various
languages, like, Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni), Tamil, Sanskrit etc. The literature can
mainly be classified into two parts, 9 Anga (14) and Agamas (purva). Besides,
Chedasutras (6) and Mulsutras (4) are alos important parts of it. 1) Anga and Agam
These works throw light on the teaching of Mahavir. The Acharang Sutra reflects on
codes-of-conducts of Jain monks'; whereas, Bhagavati Sutra throws light on Mahavir's
biography and his exploits. 2) Philosophical These comprised of Samaysar,
Pravachansar etc. These were mainly created by Acharya Kundakunda, reflected upon
Jain spiritualism. 3) Puranas The Jain Puranas were based on the framework of Vedic
epics and Puranas; however, with the main content of Jain philosophy. These comprised
of Harivamsha purana, Maha-purnana, Padmacharit etc. 4) Biographies These were
comprised of Bhadrabahu-Charita, Jasahar-chariu, Naykumar-chariu etc. The
Bhadrabhau -charita throws light on the events related to Mauryan Emperor
Chandragupta and his teacher, Bhadrabhau-Jain Acharya. The Jain literature also
comprised of Kathakosh of Harisen, Parishishta-parva of Hemchandra Suri, Dhananjay-
mala (thesaurus), Alankar-chintamani (on literature), Mahavir-ganit-sarsamgraha
(mathematics), Niti-vakya-mrita of Somdeva (Political Science) etc. (ii) Secular Literary
Sources India was not totally engulfed itself in religions, as half-learned people may
think. It also created a large hoard of secular literature throughout thousand years of its
history. A mere cursory glance through it may testify this. (a) Histories India was not
unaware of history-writing. We would understand some regional histories in following
lines. 10 Rajtarangini: This is perceived as the first-book of history of India, as per
modern lines of historiography. It is the history of Kashmir, written by Kalhan (born in
1100 AD in Kashmir). He completed this book within two years, during the reign of King
Jaysimha of Kashmir. It is in Sankrit, comprising eight Khandas (chapters/volumes) and
7826 sholkas (verses). It gives history of Kashmir from the period of Mahabharata-war
up to 12th century AD; however, only from 9th century, a precise history can be seen.
Kalhan was an unbiased historian who, for writing history, utilized large body and variety
of sources. He undertook field-work and traveled through out Kashmir. During his travel,
he, not only collected sources but also interviewed local people and collected oral
traditions. Thus based on literary sources and oral tradition and through extensive field-
work, he wrote 'Rajatrangani'. His work shows his love of Kashmir and respect of his
patron king. However, as a historian, he also criticizes the negative-points of his king.
The work shows his beautiful narrative-descriptive style, dramatic dialogues, sprinkled
with good-advises here and there. Rajatrangini shows importance of sources and variety
of them for writing of history. It also stresses the impartiality and unbiased nature of
historian. According to Kalhana, ''...Such person (historian) should be praised whose
writing abstained itself from any kind of anger-hatred and remained impartial while
describing historical events..". Such was the urge of Kalhana and work like Rajtarangini.
Hence, it is called as first book of History in India. Apart from Rajtarngini, the 'Rasmala'
and 'Kirtikaumudi' (written by Someshvar) inform us about the history of Gujarat during
the Chalukya (of Lata) period. (b) Eulogies The Eulogies are those works which are
created to praise the patron king (and his deeds) by a charan/bhat/poet in the court.
Such work, though one-sided, informs us about king, his dynasty and family, his deeds &
policies etc. 1) Vikramank-deva-charit: This eulogy is written by Bilhan who praises the
king Vikramaditya (of Chalukya dynasty) and his various deeds. 11 2) Gaudavaho:
Vakpati wrote this eulogy in praise of Yashovarman's (of Malwa) victory over Bengal
(Gaud region). 3) Harsha-charit: This eulogy was written by Banbhatta in praise of
Harshavardhana. Besides, some other notable eulogies comprised of Kumarpala-charit
(by Hemchandra), Hammir-mad-mardan (by Jaychand Suri) etc. (c) Literature The
literature comprised of dramas, poetry, epics etc. These are secular kind of literature
hence we find factual information regarding society and economy, sometimes polity of
specific period. However, these should be used with caution as their purpose was not-to-
write-history but to entertain readers. 1) Epics Epics comprised of Mahabharata (by
Vyasa) and Ramayana (by Valmiki). We get information from these epics of vast areas
of interests, like, the movement of Aryans throughout Indian subcontinent, their relations
with local or native communities and tribes, their political thoughts, institutions, society,
social customs and traditions, forest tribes, economy etc. It also deals with long-term
processes like Aryanization of India, inception of Urbanization, conflicts between two
modes of economies (Pastoralism and agriculture) etc. In short, to understand India
during 8th to 6th century BC, these epics proved to be important source. 2) Dramas The
'Sariputta-prakaran' was considered as the first drama, written by Ashvaghosha. Then,
one scholar-Bharat wrote his famous 'Natyshastra' on dramatics. Some of the important
drams are as follows: Mudra-rakshas: This is a drama, written by one Vishakhadatta.
The drama deals with one incident concerned with Chanakya (the prime minister of
Chandragupta Maurya) and Rakshasa (Amatya of Dhanananda). The play gives
information on Chankyas politics, espionage and the foundation of Mauryan Empire. 12
His drama 'Devi-chandraguptam' deals with the life of Chandragupta II of Gupta dynasty.
Mrichcha-katika: This drama revolves around the love between one poor Charudatta and
beautiful Ganika (prostitute) Vasantasena. It is written by Raja Shudrak which sheds
light on economical affluence of ancient India, the prostitutes and respect to them in
society, the social structure etc. It also gives passing reference on people's revolt
against unjust king. Malvika-agnimitra: This play was written by Kalidasa, great poet and
dramatist during Gupta period. The subject of the drama is the love between one
Malvika and Agnimitra, brave king of Shunga dynasty. Kalidasa also wrote beautiful
dramas like Vikramorvashiya, Shakuntal etc. Nanganada, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika: These
plays were written by king Harshavardhana. These reflect upon socioeconomic condition
and religious outlook during his reign. Other dramas of importance comprised of Uttar-
rama-charit and Malati-madhav of Bhavbhuti, Svapna-vasavdatta of Bhasa, etc. 3) Poetry
After early centuries of Christian era, and especially during Gupta times, India witnessed
growth of classical literature. The 'Raghu-vamsha', 'Kumar-sambhav', 'Riti-samhar' and
'Meghaduta' were the classic creation of Kalidasa. The last two are world-famous and
the description of nature and cycles of seasons, written therein reflects, not only the
classicality India received at that time, but, the contemporary ecology of that time. Other
works of poetry consisted of Dashakumara-charit (Dandi), Kiratarjuniya (Bharavi), Ravan-
vadha (Bhatti), Vasavadatta (Subandhu) etc. 4) Compilations Some compilations are of
worth mentioning regarding secular sources; 13 Gatha-saptashati 'Hal' the Satavahana
king was himself a great man of literature. He collected folk tales/songs and compiled
into 'Gatha-saptashati, a compilation of 700 shortpoems. It has a great literary merit. As
a source, it is an impartial source which gives information of common folks during early
historic Godavari-valley. It touches, mainly the human relations, various relationships
and complexities, the cropping patterns, social structures etc. Then, some other
compilations include Brihat-katha (of Gunadhya), Brihatkatha-manjari (of Kshemendra),
Panchatantra (of Vishnusharma). These are basically universal stories, told to inculcate
ethics and moral values in the hearts and minds of peoples and children, by using
imaginary dialogues between trees and animals. (iii) Scientific Treaties Ancient India
was not unaware of scientific attitude. Hence, considerable amount of scientific work
were created during that period. The treaties mainly comprised of works on Political
sciences and Grammar, however, after early centuries, many scientific works were
started showing up on subjects like medical science, agro-irrigation science,
mathematics, astrology-astronomy, art-architecture, iconography etc. Especially, Gupta
period witnessed the emergence of various sciences. 1) Arthashastra: This main subject
matter of this book is 'Political Science', written by Chanakya/Kautilya, the prime
minister in Chandragupta Maurya's court. He defines Arthashastra as 'the science to
teach how to be benefitted by the power and how to preserve it'. In short, it informs us
about methods to acquire power and various types of administrative systems/policies to
sustain it. This book is a firsthand document which informs us about the polity and
administrative system of Mauryan Empire. As it is an administrative document and
especially 'written-for-the-king, it is in courtlanguage, i.e. Sanskrit. To write this book,
Chanakya took review of, pervious researches of 18 scholars on the subjects. The
Arthashstra comprised of 15 parts (pradhikaranas), 150 chapters (adhyayas), 180
headings (up-vibhagas) and 6000 verses (Shlokas). 14 The Parts are as follows: 1.
Vinaya-dhikar (appointments of ministers) 2. Adhyaksha-prachar (responsibilities of
administrator: forts, taxes, weightsmeasure, espionage etc.) 3. Dharmasthiya (Laws
regarding marriages) 4. Kantak-shodhan (punishments) 5. Yogvritta (duties of servants)
6. Mandal-yoni (External Polices: who are friends and who are enemies) 7. Shada-guna
(External Affairs) 8. Vyasana-dhikaraka (how to search for the origin/cause of problems)
9. Abhiyasytkarma (Preparation before war) 10. Sangramic (war-strategies) 11. Sangha-
vritta (how to divide and rule) 12. A-baliyas (how to defend weak state from more
powerful enemy) 13. Durga-labhopay (how to capture forts) 14. Aushad-nishadak
(various methods to defeat the enemy) 15. Tantra-yukti (the meaning of Arthashastra,
i.e. political science) In short Arthashastra have touched upon various matters of state-
concerns, like, the integral parts of state system (theory of Saptanga), relations among
various states, duties of officers and servants, administrative divisions of Empire,
taxation system, laws, foreign affairs etc. Other subjects are also dealt with, like, social
conditions in various regions, medicinal plants, mines and the art of mining, cropping
pattern, irrigation systems etc. Other political treaties comprised of Niti-sar (by
Kamandak), Niti-vakya-mrit (by Somadevsuri). 2) Ashtadhyayi and Mahabhashya:
Ashtadhyayi deals with Grammar, written by Panini. It throws light on socialchurning of
6th century BC, i.e. the period of second urbanization in India. Similar 15 work is
Mahabhashya, written by Patanjali, informs us about social condition during Early
Historic period. 3) Charak-samhita and Sushrut-samhita: These works inform us about
medical sciences during Ancient India and considered as the basis of Ayurveda-branch
of medicines. 4) Brihat-samhita: It is written by Varhamihir and of an encyclopedic
nature. It touches various subjects like, crops, cropping pattern, agriculture technology,
how to foresee earthquakes, astronomy, astrology etc. It testifies the scientific progress
in India during Gupta period. He also has written 'Pancha-siddhantika', concerns with
eclipses, path of planets and pace of constellation etc. Other works on astronomy and
astrology comprised of Aryabahatiya (by Aryabhatta), Brhama-sphuta-siddhant (by
Brahmagupta) etc. (iv) Sangam Literature The Sangam literature gives us information
regarding early historic and historic Southern India. The Sangam means an assembly.
The body of Sangam literature comprised of the poems, presented in three assemblies,
by Tamil poets. These poems were actually collected by the poets, from various eco-
regions in southern India. Thus, these are basically folk-lore, compiled by urban poets.
The important works are Shilappadikaram, Manimekhalai, Pattupattu etc. There are five
eco-regions in Tamil-land, called as 'Tinai' and these are five, hence, 'Ain-tinai'. Each 'tinai'
has a specific kind of ecology and, naturally, specific kind of response (or mode of
subsistence) to their surrounding ecology. Thus, the poems in hilly regions display
different subject-matter or surroundings than those were of coastal region. However,
these folk-songs were created on two basic themelines, i.e. Love (ekam) and War
(puram). Thus, 'waiting on the coast for her lover who was not written from fishing' is a
matter of tension in coastal region and 'fear of attacks of wild animals on her lover' is a
concern of hilly regions. Such type of literature is mostly a secular one and reflects true
nature of common men-women and their life-style. If we look deeply into that, vast hoard
of 16 information could come forward of utmost importance, like, ancient ecology,
modes of subsistence and methods/techniques to acquire food, forest/sea/plain-
products, cropping patterns and their cycle, methods of irrigation, social condition and
tensions in social groups, independence of eco-regions and interdependence upon each
other whereas on other sides, Tamil polity, kingship and duties of kinds, towns and
townadministration, laws, judiciary, city-layouts, internal and external trade etc. (v)
Foreign Accounts After the invasion of Persians and Greeks, India was re-exposed to
ancient world. The wars were some incidents; however the process of mobility of people
between two counties became a sustainable phenomenon of Ancient India. Such
travelers were foreigners hence they had no obligation to any king of the region. Hence,
their accounts are impartial and; being 'eye-witness' gives us first hand information on
the subjects they touched upon. However, it should be kept in mind that, as they were
foreigners and not-rooted in India, it is not possible to expect from them a perfect
knowledge of the socio-economic and political thoughts and institutions in India. (a) The
Greeks and Romans 1) Herodotus: He is considered as first historian of the world. He,
while describing the war between Persian and Greece, mention Indian soldiers, fighting
along the side of Persians. 2) Megasthenes: He was the ambassador of Seleucus
Nicator, posted in the court of Chandrgupt Maurya. In his work, 'Indica', he gives
description of the layout of Pataliputra, like, a big city, with an extent of 14 km x 2 km,
fortified with 570 bastions and 67 gateways with one huge royal palace etc. He also
touches upon social structure, caste-system, caste-relations etc. It should be noted that
the original Indica is lost; hence, we can't use any information, actually written in there.
However, the travelers, who came into India after Megasthenes, have referred Indica and
quoted it. Thus, through them i.e. indirectly, we can use 'Indica' as a source. 17 3)
Peryplus of the Erythraean Sea: This travelogue is an anonymous work, presumed to be
written by one fisherman on Egypt coast. The work gives us impartial and objective
information on the Indo-Roman trade during Early Historic period. It informs us about the
ports on India's coast-line, trade-centres in India, the trade-routes-connecting trade
centres and ports, distance between centres, the list of items-of-trade, the annual
volume of trade, the rates, types of ships etc. (b) Chinese 1) Fa-Hien (Fa Xian) (337-422
AD): This Chinese traveler visited India during Gupta period. He was a Buddhist monk,
visited India to seek knowledge from Dev-bhumi (i.e. India) and visit Buddhist pilgrimage
centres. On the basis of his three years of travel, he has written, in his chronicle 'Records
of Buddhistic Kingdoms', on society and culture of North India, besides, various factors
in Gupta administration. 2) Hiuen-Tsiang (Xuan Zang) (602-664 AD) This Chinese
Buddhist monk, against all odds, visited India during Harshavardhana's reign. He started
his journey in 629 AD, from Gansu, and then through, Gobi Desert-Kyrgyzstan-
Uzbekistan-Samarkand-Balkh came to India in 630 AD. He visited Buddhist pilgrimage
centres, stayed at Nalanda University and studied Buddhism, gone through original
Buddhist works, collected original manuscripts and mementos, made copies, attended
Harsha's assembly and after 15 years of travel throughout India, returned to China in 645
AD. In China he wrote his account as 'Si-Yu-Ki' (Great Tang Records on the Western
Regions). This chronicle give vivid description of what he had witnessed in India. He
gives information of kings especially Harsha and his generosity, people and customs of
various regions in India, life-ways etc. He has written of habits and nature of
Maharashtrian people. Other chronicles consists of Taranath's (Tibetan Buddhist monk)
Kangyur and Tangyur, reflect upon early Medieval India.

RELIGION OF VEDIC PEOPLE:

Knowledge of Vedic religion is derived from surviving texts and also from certain
rites that continue to be observed within the framework of modern Hinduism. The
earliest Vedic religious beliefs included some held in common with other Indo-
European-speaking peoples, particularly with the early Iranians. Though it is
impossible to say when Vedism eventually gave way to classical Hinduism, a
decrease in literary activity among the Vedic schools from the 5th
century BCE onward can be observed, and about that time a more Hindu character
began to appear.
Vedic Texts
The only extant Vedic materials are the texts known as the Vedas, which were
composed and handed down orally over a period of about 10 centuries, from about
the 15th to the 5th century BCE. The Vedic corpus is composed in
an archaic Sanskrit. The most important texts are also the oldest ones. They are the
four collections (Samhitas) that are called the Veda, or Vedas. The Rigveda, or
“Veda of Verses,” the earliest of those, is composed of about 1,000 hymns
addressed to various deities and mostly arranged to serve the needs of the priestly
families who were the custodians of that sacred literature. The Yajurveda, or “Veda
of Sacrificial Formulas,” contains prose formulas applicable to various rites, along
with verses intended for a similar purpose. The Samaveda, or “Veda of Chants,” is
made up of a selection of verses—drawn almost wholly from the Rigveda—that
are provided with musical notation and are intended as an aid to the performance
of sacred songs. Finally, the Atharvaveda is a later compilation that includes
incantations and magic spells.
To each Veda is attached a body of prose writings of later date
called Brahmanas (c. 800–600 BCE), which explain the ceremonial applications of
the texts and the origin and importance of the sacrificial rites for which the Vedas
were composed. Further appendices, the Aranyakas (c. 600 BCE) and
the Upanishads (c. 700–500 BCE), respectively expound the symbolism of the more
difficult rites and speculate on the nature of the universe and humanity’s relation to
it.
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When Vedic religion gradually evolved into Hinduism between the 6th and 2nd
centuries BCE, the texts, taken collectively, became the most sacred literature of
Hinduism. They are known as Shruti (“What Is Heard”), the divinely revealed
section of Hindu literature—in contrast to the later strata of religious literature
known as Smriti (“What Is Remembered”), traditional texts attributed to human
authors. But in modern Hinduism the Shruti, with the exception of the Upanishads
and a few hymns of the Rigveda, is now little known, while some of the Smriti
texts remain extremely influential.
Mythology
Vedism was a polytheistic sacrificial religion involving the worship of numerous
male divinities (and a few goddesses), most of whom were connected with the sky
and natural phenomena. The priests who officiated at that worship were drawn
from the Brahman social class. The complex Vedic ceremonies, for which the
hymns of the Rigveda were composed, centred on the ritual sacrifice of animals
and the drinking of a sacred, mind-altering liquor pressed from a plant called soma.
The basic Vedic rite was performed by offering those to a sacred fire, which was
itself deified as Agni and which carried the oblations to the gods of the Vedic
pantheon. Agni and Soma were at the same time material elements of the ritual
offering: Agni was the fire of the sun, of lightning, and of burning wood; Soma
was the deified aspect of the liquid poured in the oblation. The god of highest rank,
however, was Indra, a warlike god who conquered innumerable human and demon
enemies and brought back the sun after it had been stolen, among other feats.
Another great deity was Varuna, who was the upholder of the cosmic
and moral laws. Vedism had many other lesser deities, among whom were gods,
goddesses, demigods, and demons.
Ritual
The ancient Vedic worshippers offered sacrifices to those gods in the hope that
they in return would grant abundant numbers of cattle, good fortune, good health,
long life, and male progeny, among other material benefits. To ensure
the efficacy of their prayers, the people came to believe that their offerings could
be made more acceptable to the gods if accompanied by songs of praise and other
invocations of the gods’ might and power. Thus originated the rites described in
the Vedas. Every sacrifice was performed on behalf of an individual, the patron
or yajamana (“sacrificer”), who bore the expenses.
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The rites of Vedic sacrifice were relatively simple in the early period, when the
Rigveda was composed. They required neither temples nor images. The
ceremonies took place in an open space that was consecrated afresh for every
important occasion. The altar (vedi) was a quadrangle marked out by hollowing or
slightly raising the ground. The agnyadheya (“installation of the fire”) was a
necessary preliminary to all the large public rituals and was preceded by the
patron’s fast.
The sacrifices themselves were of two major types—domestic (grihya) and public
(srauta, or vaitanika). The domestic rites were observed by the householder
himself or with the help of a single priest and were performed over the domestic
hearth fire. Some occurred daily or monthly, and others accompanied a particular
event, such as the samskaras, sacraments marking each stage of an upper-caste
Indian’s life, from conception to death.
The grand rites performed in public, by contrast, lasted several days or months and
could usually be undertaken only by wealthy men or kings. They required the
services of many priests and were usually performed at three fire-altars. Most
characteristic of the public ceremonies was the soma sacrifice, which ensured the
prosperity and well-being of both human beings and gods. In that basic ritual, a lay
sacrificer was first consecrated, after which juice was pressed three times from the
soma plant, part being offered to the fire and part consumed by the priests. Each of
the three occasions was preceded and followed by recitations and chants. Edibles
such as meat, butter, milk, and barley cake could also be offered to a sacred fire.

Animal sacrifice—the killing of a ram or goat—existed either independently or as

an integral part of the sacrifice of soma. The celebrated ashvamedha, “horse
sacrifice,” was an elaborate variant of the soma sacrifice. Human sacrifice
(purushamedha) is described and alluded to as a former practice but probably was
merely symbolic. The sacrifice of the mythical giant Purusha, from whose
dismembered limbs sprang up the four major social classes (varnas), probably
served as a model for the conjectured human sacrifices. Other ceremonies marked
fixed dates of the lunar calendar, such as the full or new moon or the change of
seasons.
Development And Decline
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Over the centuries, the Vedic rites became increasingly complex and governed by
innumerable rules, which were embodied, together with the hymns
and prayer formulas used, in the Vedas. During the late Vedic period the
complexities of ritual were emphasized to such an extent that only highly trained
Brahmans could carry them out correctly, and it was maintained that improperly or
incorrectly performed rites could, unless rectified, bring about disaster or death.
In reaction against this excessive emphasis on ritual (as well as the growing power
of the Brahmans), Vedic thought in its late period became more speculative and
philosophical in approach. Much speculation was directed toward the search for
harmony and for correspondences between macrocosm and microcosm, with the
ultimate goal being a reduction of reality to an all-embracing unity by way of
successive equations. In the Aranyakas, Vedic ritual is interpreted in a symbolic
rather than literal manner, and the Upanishads question the very assumptions on
which Vedism rested. The crucial idea that emerged from that period of intense
questioning was that of brahman, the ultimate reality and also a sort of guiding
principle. The central theme of the Upanishads is that the atman, the unchanging
core of a human being, is a part of brahman. The equation of atman
with brahman became the basis of Hindu metaphysics. The spread in the 6th
century BCE of the related concepts of reincarnation, of karma, and of the
attainment of release (moksha) from this cycle (samsara) by meditation rather than
through sacrifice marked the end of the Vedic period.
The legacy of Vedic worship is apparent in several aspects of modern Hinduism.
The basic stratification of Vedic society into four varnas—
the Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors or rulers), Vaishyas (traders),
and Shudras (servants)—by and large persisted in later Hinduism. Sacrifices
performed according to Vedic rites continue to be performed in India occasionally,
and the offering of oblations to a sacred fire (homa) is an important element of
much modern Hindu worship (see yajna). The Hindu rite of initiation (upanayama)
is another direct survival of Vedic tradition. Vishnu and Shiva, the major deities of
classical Hinduism, are briefly mentioned in Vedic mythology, and Indra remains
the king of the gods in narratives, although he is no longer worshipped.

Vedic Religion:

The origin of Hinduism can be traced to the Vedas which depict the Divine Truth revealed by the
rishis and sages in their state of supernormal consciousness. The heart of the Vedic culture was their
religion which manifested itself with the chanting of Vedic mantras.

Nature Worship:

The religion of the Vedic people was very simple in nature. The Aryans led pastoral life and spent
their time amid the bounties of nature. The towering peaks of the mountains, vast green fields,
boundless seas encircling the land on three sides, the splendor of changing seasons all these
produced a purifying effect on them.
These lustrous natural phenomena inspired the Vedic Aryans to worship nature with awe and
reverence. They were conscious of both the creative and destructive aspects of natural forces. So
they wanted to please these forces to receive their blessings and keep away their wrath and
destruction. The “Vedic gods worshipped by the Aryans were generally personified powers of
nature. These gods can be classified into three categories corresponding to three orders.

Following are the gods of the three orders:

1. Terrestrial sphere (Prithvi sthana)—Prithui, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati and the rivers.

2. Intermediate sphere (Antariksha sthana)—Indra, Apam- napad, Vayu-vata, Parjanya, Apah,

Matarisvan.

3. Celestial sphere (Dyu sthana)—Dyaus, Varuna, Mitva, Suiya, Pushan, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Ashvini.

This classification is founded on the basis of natural forces that the deities represent. Hence, such a
division is quite practical and is least open to objection. All the gods worshipped by the Aryans
numbered thirty-three divided into the above three groups.

The gods are described to have been born, though not simultaneously, but are immortal, unlike
human beings. In appearance, however, they are humans, though sometimes they are conceived as
having figures of animals. For example, Dyaus appears as a bull and Surya as a swift horse. These
gods usually travel in the air by chariots driven by steeds and occasionally by other animals.

Human food articles like milk, grain, flesh etc. becomes the food of the gods when offered during
sacrifice. On the whole, the Aryan gods were benevolent. But some of them had malevolent traits
like Rudra (Fire) and Marut (Air or Wind). Splendor, strength, knowledge and truth were common
attributes of the deities. It was the firm belief of the Aryans that gods subdued forces of evil,
regulated the natural and social order, rewarded the righteous and punished the sinner.

Brief description of Gods of different spheres:

The Vedic sages conceived the existence of individualized spiritual principles behind the inert matter.
For instance, Prithvi was mentioned as a personification of earth. Usha was regarded as the goddess
of dawn to whom a number of hymns were addressed. Ratri was the spirit of the night who had a
beautiful hymn to herself. Aranyani was the goddess of the forest – a deity of lesser importance.

India was the most powerful god of the Vedic age who fulfilled the dual functions of the gods of war
and weather. Marut was the god of wind whose chief sphere of action was the ethereal middle
region. Surya (Sun) was the destroyer of darkness. He embodied light, energy, life and wealth. Agni,
the god of fire, was the intermediary between gods and acted like a coordinator among all divinities.

The offerings poured into the holy fire were supposed to be sent by Agni to various other deities. So
every family had a hearth to invoke Agni. Soma was a divinity of special character. He was regarded
as the god of wine but afterwards the priests identified him with the moon. Varna was the god of
Truth and no sinner could escape from his clutches. Mitra, a god with solar characteristics, was
mainly connected with vows and compacts. Yama, the god of the dead, was the guardian of the
world of the ancestors. In addition to these divinities, others like Prajanya, Savitri, Saraswati,
Brihaspati were also venerated by the Vedic Aryans.

Mode of Worship:

A very simple mode of worship was adopted by the Aryans to worship these gods and goddesses.
Prayers and offerings to these divine figures were made not only for material gains but also for
enlightenment and knowledge. Gayatri mantra was the most popular in this regard which was
recited daily—a practice still in vogue in India.

The Aryans were not worshippers of images or idols. They could ignite fire with sacred wood by
chanting different mantras or reciting hymns. This tradition of fire ceremony or yajna was a
characteristic ritual to worship the gods and goddesses. Milk, ghee, grains, fruits, Somarasa (wine)
etc. were offered to this holy fire. They believed that such rituals would please the gods who in
return would shower their bounties on the devotees.

Every Aryan family had a special place of worship. All the members of the family gathered there to
participate in the religious offerings and sacrifices. They believed that such offerings would bring in
material, prosperity. Vedic literatures also refer to the holding of annual sacrifices. Ashvamedha
yajna was specially performed by emperors to mark their military supremacy. It may be mentioned
here that in spite of such rituals the method of early Vedic worship was quite simple and acceptable
to all.

This simple flavour of early Vedic religion, however, underwent profound changes in the later Vedic
period. One glaring example is that in the early Vedic age every householder was his own priest who
performed religious ceremonies and rituals in the precincts of his own family. But with the
introduction of Varnashram and division of the society according to birth and profession, the
institution of priesthood came into prominence in the later Vedic age.

Belief in Monotheism:

As discussed above, the Aryans used to worship various manifestations of nature. The worshipping
of various forces of nature as gods generally gives the impression that Aryans were polytheists.
However, that was not the real case. Behind the worshipping of several natural phenomena, the
Aryans sincerely believed in a single Absolute Truth permeating all natural phenomena.

The following is one of the oft-quoted hymns of the Rig Veda that signifies the unity of one
godhead:

Indram Mitrarn Varunamagnimahu

Atho Divya sa Suparno Gurutmana

Ekam Sat Vipra Vahudha Badanti

Agnim Yamam Matariswan Mahu

[Truth is one and is variously named by the Vedic sages as Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, Yama and
Matariswan. All these divinities are one and indivisible and belong to the Absolute one.]

Doctrine of Karma and Transmigration of Soul:

Vedic religion had attached much importance to doctrine of Karma or action. In other words, a good
soul who performed good deeds was rewarded whereas the evil soul was punished for evil deeds. So
the concept of heaven and hell dominated the Aryans’ religious belief.

Apart from the doctrine of Karma the Aryans strongly believed in the concept of transmigration of
soul, meaning life after death. Action determines the destiny of man. However, soul is immortal and
leaves the body, which dies, to be reborn elsewhere. It enjoys or suffers according to the action
performed in this mundane world. The Aryans used to burn their dead and then consigned the ashes
to the water because they believed that only then would the soul rest in peace.
ASHOKA’S DHAMMA:

Ashoka’s Policy of Dharma:

Ashoka’s policy of dharma has often been equated with his
conversion to Buddhis. He is credited with the propagation of the
tenets of the Buddhist sect.

It appears that diverse religious ideas and practices existed in the

vast empire of the Mauryas.

But the followers of such sects as Buddhism. Jainism and Ajivikism

were held in contempt by the brahmanas, whose position they must
have undermined.
 Image Source: upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/EdictsOfAshoka.jpg

ADVERTISEMENTS:

The ideological conflict between the Vedic brahmanas and the

followers of the newly-born protestant creeds may have been a
potential source of social and religious tensions. Another element in
these heterogeneous strands, co-existing during the Mauryan period
was the presence of a large foreign population in the North-West.

It would have been a difficult task for any ruler to maintain unity in
an empire composed of such diverse elements as outlined above.
Perhaps the only alternatives available were either to enforce
control through armed strength or to unify the population through a
common set of beliefs. Ashoka adopted the second alternative as his
policy of reform.

It was against this background that he expounded his policy of

dhamma to eliminate social tension and sectarian conflicts, and to
promote a harmonious relationship between the diverse elements of
the vast empire. Ashoka’s dhamma was neither a new religion nor a
new political philosophy. Rather, it was a way of life, a code of
conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and practised by the
people at large. (Dhamma is Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word
Dharma).

ADVERTISEMENTS:

One of the striking features of Asoka’s edicts is that he regards

himself as a father figure. He constantly speaks of the father-child
relationship between the king and his populace. In spite of his
religious eclecticism, Ashoka denounced all useless ceremonies and
sacrifices held under the influence of superstition. The first Rock
Edict prohibits the ritual of animal sacrifice and festive gatherings.

The second Rock Edict describes the various measures taken by him
such as the construction of roads and medical centres for men and
animals. This is followed by advice to be liberal and generous to
both Brahmins and sramanas. This again stresses the fact that the
ruler was not bigoted about one religion.

In the seventh Pillar Edict he orders the dhamma-mahammatas to

look after the Brahmins and Ajivikas. The Dhamma-mahammatas
were a special cadre of officicals started by Asoka in the fourteenth
year of his reign and they were responsible for the practical aspects
of the propagation of dhamma and the welfare of the different
religious sects.

This indicates that the moral precepts preached by him were

different from Buddhism. Asoka also started a system of
dhammayatas or Yatras whereby be toured the country and
preached the dhamma to the people.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Thoughout his edicts Ashoka stresses the importance of the family.

The emphasis is on respecting elders including religious elders, a
humane and just attitude towards servants and slaves and a high
degree of social responsibility and civic ethics.

Though himself convinced of the truth of Buddha’s teaching,

Ashoka never sought to impose his sectarian belief on others. The
prospect that he held before the people at large is not that of
sambodhior nirvana but of svarga (heaven) and of mingling with the
Devas.

Main Features of Contents of the Dhamma (Edicts):

The edicts gave Asoka the opportunity to expound his dhamma.
While different major rock edicts talk about various aspects of the
dhamma, the Major Rock Edict XI contains an elaborate
explanation of the dhamma, apart from dealing with charity and
kinship of humanity.

It clearly indicates that Dhamma was a secular teaching. From this

major rock edict as well as the other major rock edicts we can
mention the following as the main features of the dhamma:

1. Major Rock Edict I:

Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive fathering’s.

2. Major Rock Edict II:

Describes the medical missions sent everywhere (land of Cholas,
Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputras, Ceylon, Antiochus) for men
and animals. Plantation of medicinal herbs and trees and digging of
wells along the roads.
3. Major Rock Edict III:
On 12 years of his consecration, Yuktas (subordinate officers)
rajukas (rural administrators) and the Pradesikas (head of the
districts) were ordered to tour every five years and propagate
Dhamma. It also mentions about being generous to Brahmans and
sramanas and obedient to one’s mother and father, friends and
relatives.

4. Major Rock Edict IV:

The sound of the drum has become the sound of Dhamma showing
the people the divine form.

5. Major Rock Edict V:

Mentions about the introduction of the institution of the dhamma-
mahammatas, the officers of the Dhamma in his fourteenth year of
reign. It also mentions about humane treatment of servants by
masters and of prisoners by government officials.

6. Major Rock Edict VI:

It-makes the relationship between the king and his subjects via the
Mahamattas more clear and now the Mahamattas are told to make
their reports to the king at any time and place.

7. Major Rock Edict VII:

It pleads for toleration amongst all sects.

8. Major Rock Edict VIII:

In the tenth year of his reign Asoka went on a visit to Bodh-Gaya, to
see the Bodhi-tree. Following this event he started a system of
Dhamma-yatas which is described in this edict. Dhamma-yatas
were occasions when he toured the country for the furtherance of
Dhamma.

9. Major Rock Edict IX:

All ceremonies are useless except Dhamma which includes respect
for others and regard even for slaves and servants and donations to
sramanas and Brahmans.

10. Major Rock Edict X:

In this edict, Asoka denounces fame and glory and reasserts that the
only glory he desires is that his subjects should follow the principles
of Dhamma.

11. Major Rock Edict XI:

It contains a further explanation of Dhamma. Here he refers to the
gift of Dhamma, the distribution of Dhamma, the kinship thorugh
Dhamma.

12. Major Rock Edict XII:

It is a direct and emphatic plea for toleration amongst the various
sects.

13. Major Rock Edict XIII:

It is among the most important document of Asokan history. It
clearly states that the Kaling war took place eight years after his
consecration.

It mentions about the replacements of bherighosa (sound of war

drums) by dhammaghosa (sound of peace), i.e., conquest through
dhamma instead through war.

14. Major Rock Edict XIV:

It is a short edict in which Asoka explains that he has had these
edicts inscribed throughout the country in complete or abridged
versions.

Asoka Maurya occupies a unique place among the rulers of India as

well as of the world.

He occupies a unique place in the history of the world not because

of his conquests and the vast empire ruled by him but because of the
policy of Dhamma or Dharma enunciated and implemented by him.

Nevertheless, Asoka’s policy of Dhamma has become a topic of

debate among historians because different scholars interpreted the
contents and nature of Dhamma of Asoka from different
perspectives.

For many years, historians have interpreted Asoka’s Dhamma as a

synonym for Buddhism and believed that he made Buddhism the
state religion.
 Image Source: upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/EdictsOfAshoka.jpg

However, this view has been questioned by modern historians who

are of the opinion that Asoka’s Dhamma is not merely piety, moral
life and righteousness based on religious beliefs but an attitude of
responsibility of a ruler in a pluralistic state. These modem scholars
are of the opinion that the ultimate aim of Asoka’s Dhamma is to
create a harmonious atmosphere in the state where all people
irrespective of their religious and cultural diversities, lived in peace
and harmony as true friends recognizing their social responsibility
with humanistic spirit in their day-to-day activities.

Our sources of knowledge about Asoka’s Dhamma are his edicts and
administrative measures. Asoka’s major rock edicts, minor rock
edicts and pillar edicts that were placed at different places in India
contain his views about his Dhamma. By placing them at different
localities, Asoka wanted them to be read by all people and
translated into action by everyone. These epigraphs of years of his
rule clearly reveal an evolution of his policy of Dhamma.

A critical study of the epigraphs and their contents show that Asoka
made a distinction between personal faith and state policy. Asoka
consciously made this distinction because he realized the necessity
of such a policy for the stability and security of his kingdom to
reduce the tensions created by the rise of new socio-economic
formation during the Mauryan age. Though there is no evidence,
direct or otherwise, of the prevalence of tensions undermining the
solidarity of the social fabric, politico-economic structure, and
religious harmony, Asoka might have anticipated and realized that
if no earnest conscious effort was made to arrest the undercurrent
of incipient tensions, the stability of the Mauryan empire would be
in danger and it made him choose a mechanism of Dhamma.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Romila Thapar’s observation that Asoka’s Dhamma was an attitude

of social responsibility aimed at building of an attitude of mind in
which the social responsibility, the behaviour of one person towards
another, was considered to be of great relevance appears to be very
near to the truth. Further, the Dhamma of Asoka was a plea for the
recognition of the dignity of man, and for a humanistic spirit in the
activities of society.

Asoka found it necessary and useful to conceive a Dhamma on those

lines because by family tradition, the Mauryans favoured heterodox
sects that believed in the dignity of man. Tension in the shape of the
status of the mercantile community, the power wielded by the urban
guilds, the strain of a highly centralized political system and sheer
size of the empire influenced Asoka to proclaim and practise such a
Dhamma as would build bridges among all segments of society.

The Dhamma of Asoka has traits like toleration, non-violence and

welfare measures. Asoka defined tolerance as “consideration
towards slaves and servants, obedience to mother and father,
generosity towards friends, acquaintances and relatives as towards
priests and monks. Its basis is the control of one’s speech, so not to
extol one’s own sector disparages that of another on unsuitable
grounds. Therefore concord is to be commended so that men may
hear one another’s principle”.

Asoka’s banning of gatherings at festivities indicates that he has

perhaps, a lingering fear that such meetings may lead to declaration
of open rebellion or may be the starting point of opposition to his
policies. (Such attitude among kings is observed even during the
medieval period when the Delhi Sultanate was ruling. Allaudin
Khilji forbade his governors and subjects to gather on festive
occasions.) Realizing this existing situation and understanding the
vicissitudes of human behaviour, Asoka stressed on toleration and
non-violence. For Asoka, non-violence implied both a renunciation
of war and conquest by violence and a restraint on the killing of
animals.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Besides these two aspects of tolerance and non-violence, Asoka

tried to put into practice what he considered to be the welfare
measures of utmost importance for the good of both men and
animals, like planting of trees on both sides of the roads, building of
rest-houses, digging of wells, etc. In order to implement his concept
of Dharma, he appointed Dharmamahamatras.

However, in course of time, these appear to have become a type of

priestly class interfering in the day-to-day activities of the people.
The people naturally disliked their actions. It is to be admitted that
though Asoka’s Dhamma was theoretically a sound proposition in
principle, yet because of its loftiness, the ordinary people could not
appreciate it. They could not understand the ideals as an instrument
to establish equity and a sign of his real concern for the well-being
of his subjects a socially relevant responsibility.

Yet, Asoka’s concept of Dhamma deserves all praise because he was

the first known ruler who realized the need and necessity of the
principle of Dhamma as a binding force between men belonging to
divergent creeds, cultures and faiths to live in peace. His vision and
effort to establish a friction-free society makes him shine bright in
the galaxy of kings. Asoka deserves our appreciation and praise for
evolving a new philosophy suitable to govern a pluralist society
MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION:

he Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with the imperial capital at
Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the name of the four provincial capitals were
Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the
north). According to Megasthenese, the empire exercised a military of 600,000
infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. For the purpose of internal and
external security, there was a vast espionage system was there to keep a watch on
the officials and messengers went to and fro. Kings appointed officials to collect
taxes from herders, farmers, traders and craftsmen etc.

The king was the centre of administrative superstructure and king used to select
ministers and high officials. Administrative structure was as follows:

King assisted by Mantriparishad (council of ministers) whose members included

Mantriparishad Adhyaksha and below him was as following:

Yuvaraj: The crown prince

Purohita: The chief priest
The Senapati: The commander in chief
Amatya: Civil servants and few other ministers.
Scholars suggest that Mauryan Empire was further divided into various departments
with important officials:

Revenue department:- Important officials: Sannidhata: Chief treasury, Samaharta:

collector general of revenue.
Military department: Megasthenese mentions a committee with six subcommittees
for coordinating military activity of these, one looked after the navy, the second
managed transport and provisions, and the third was responsible for foot-soldiers,
the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.
Espionage Department: Mahamatyapasarpa controlled Gudhapurushas (secret
agents)
Police department: The jail was known as Bandhangara and it was different from
lock-up called Charaka. There were police head quarters in all principal centres.
Provinicial and Local Administration: important officials: Pradeshika: modern
district magistrates, Sthanika: tax collecting officer under Pradeshika, Durgapala:
governor of fort, Antapala: Governor of frontier, Akshapatala: Accountant general,
Lipikaras: Scribes, Gopas: responsible for accountants etc.
Municipal Administration: Important officials: Nagaraka: incharge of city
administration, Sita- Adhyaksha: Supervisor of agriculture, samastha-Adhyaksha:
superintendent of market, Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships, Sulkaadhyaksha:
Collector of tolls, Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of Iron, Akaradhyaksha:
Superintendent of mines and Pauthavadhyaksha: Superintendent of weight and
measures etc.
Megasthenes referred for six committees of which five were to look after
Pataliputra’s administration. Industries, Foreigners, Registration of birth and deaths,
Trade, Manufacture and sale of goods and Collection of sales tax were under the
control of administration.

https://www.gktoday.com/gk/maurya-administration-and-life/

JAINISM AND BUDDHISM:

 Vinay pitaka, sutta pitaka, abhidhamma pitaka : changing thoughts

 Jatakas form a part of the sutta.
 Iron technology evolved
 New wealthy class was developed- lead to inequalities-this strengthened the four-fold
division of society-lead to growth of untouchability
 Newly developed features of the social and economic life of the people did not fit in with the
vedic ritualism and animal sacrifice which had become a source of sensless decimation of
cattle wealth, the main basis of the new plough agriculture.
 The conflict between vedic religious practices and aspirations of the rising social groups led
to the search for new religious and philosophical ideas which could better fit with the basic
changes in the material life of the people.
 Annihilationism=leading to charvaka school
 Jain principle: ahimsa, taking no property, possessing no property of one’s own, truthfulness
(parshvva in 7th century BC) Mahavira added celibacy to it
 Concept of god being irrelevant
 Accepts a group of tirthankara
 Theory of syadavada
 Salvation cannot be achieved through knowledge as held by Upanishads
 Extremism couldn’t win mass following
 Buddhism-
  Ashtmarga

The Four Noble Truths of Gautama Buddha

Gautama Buddha proceeded to teach his disciples the Four Noble Truths: First,
that life is dukkha, “suffering.” Second, that the cause of this suffering is tanha,
“desire” or “craving.” Third, that suffering will cease when the craving that causes
it is forsaken and overcome.
This state of liberation through the cessation of suffering leads to nirvana, which
means literally extinction or blowing out—the blowing-out of the not self. The
Fourth Noble Truth is that the way to this liberation is through living the Noble
Eightfold Path, or the Middle Way.

The Eightfold Path of Gautama Buddha

The first step on the Eightfold Path is to have right understanding, or right views.
The second is right aspiration, right thought, or right resolve. Third is right
speech. Fourth is right action, or right conduct. Fifth is right livelihood. Sixth is
right effort. Seventh is right mindfulness, and eighth is right concentration, or
right absorption.

These eight points of self-mastery are the endowment of your Holy Christ Self.
Know this Holy Christ Self as your Real Self, and know your Real Self as
possessing all of these attributes. Know that your Real Self has developed them
to the full level of Christ-mastery and adeptship and is waiting for you to receive
them.

As you put on these attributes in daily striving and attentiveness to the precepts
of the Law, you are putting on the robes of righteousness of your True Self. You
are putting on your deathless solar body, which Jesus referred to as the wedding
garment. You weave this wedding garment by the practice of these eight right
attitudes.

Eight Points of the Law

These eight points of the Law fulfill the seven rays of the seven
chakras and the eighth ray and chakra, which is the secret
chamber of the heart.

1 – Right Understanding

The first is right understanding, right viewpoint, right

perspective—being centered neither to the left nor the right in relative thinking
but being centered in God. This is a quality that is developed through the
heart chakra and the third ray, whose color is pink and may intensify to a deep
rose. The heart chakra has twelve petals.
We remember the prayer of Solomon: “Give me, O Lord, an understanding heart.”
Right understanding, or right views, is described as knowledge of the Four Noble
Truths; having views free from superstition or delusion; having penetrating insight
into reality, or emptiness. Gautama Buddha said to his disciples: “What, now,
Brothers, is Right Understanding?

“When … the disciple understands Evil and understands the Root of Evil; when he
understands Good and understands the Root of Good; this is Right
Understanding.

“What now … is Evil? Killing … is evil. Stealing is evil. Unlawful sexual intercourse
is evil. Lying is evil. Slandering is evil. Using harsh language is evil. Vain talk is
evil. Covetousness is evil. Cruelty is evil. Wrong views are evil.

“And what, Brothers, is the root of Evil? Greed is the root of Evil; Anger is the root
of Evil; Delusion is the root of Evil.

“And what, Brothers, is the root of Good? Freedom from Greed … freedom from
Anger … freedom from Delusion is the root of Good.”

When we think about the conditions of consciousness of greed and anger, we

can objectively see them and determine whether they are in us or not.
But when it comes to delusion, we are self-deluded by our own desires, by our
own pride and ego.

We are so much a part of the ego and its pride and its desires that we do not
know we are in a state of delusion until increment by increment we catch a higher
insight and we observe ourselves mounting an inner spiral staircase, if you will, to
a point of enlightenment that, if we are observant, we recognize we did not have
yesterday. And if we are wise, we will write down the experience and the insight
and anchor into it and take another step.

Freedom from self-delusion is a great necessity on the Path. We need to pursue it

with all intensity in our prayer and our thought and our daily consideration of the
steps we take and what we do.

2 – Right Aspiration

The second step of the Eightfold Path is right

aspiration, right thought, or right resolve. This point
corresponds to the six-petaled seat-of-the-soul chakra, which is
the abiding place of the soul. This is the chakra of the seventh ray, the violet ray,
which has many shades, from violet-pink to purple.
This is a right attitude that must be had by the soul if the soul is to return to the
Christ Self and to the I AM Presence. 
The soul’s aspiration must be centered in God—in having right thought, right
contemplation upon the law of God and the right resolve to accomplish her
mission in life.
This resolution is the use of desire constructively—setting one’s desire, setting
one’s sail and moving in that direction consistently, day after day after day.

3 – Right Speech
 The third step of the Eightfold Path is right speech,
which relates to the throat chakra. The action of right speech is
therefore the right qualification of this ray of power, which is the first ray, the ray
of the will of God. The throat chakra has sixteen petals; its color is blue.
With right speech we therefore affirm right desire.

Right speech includes abstaining from lying, slandering, harsh or abusive

language, vain talk or idle chatter. Right speech is speech that is kindly, open and
truthful.

Gautama said to his disciples,

“What, Brothers, is Right Speech? A man, Brothers, has overcome lying and he
abstains from telling falsehood. He speaks the truth, he is devoted to the truth, he
adheres to the truth, he is worthy of confidence, is not a deceiver of men…. Thus
he brings together those that are at variance; establishes those that are united;…
he delights in concord; it is concord that he spreads by his words.

“He has given up harsh language…. He speaks words that are free from rudeness,
soothing to the ear, loving, going to the heart, courteous, rejoicing many, elevating
many.

“He has overcome vain talk…. He speaks at the right time, speaks in accordance
with facts, speaks to the point. He speaks about the Dharma [the law and the
teaching] and the Discipline of the Order; his speech is of real value and agrees
with its object.

“He bears in mind the injunction which says: ‘In meeting one another, Brothers,
there are two things that ought to be adhered to: either conversation about the
Truth or holy silence.'

“This, Brothers, is Right Speech.”

4 – Right Action

The fourth step is right action, or right conduct. This is

the base-of-the-spine chakra. It is the white ray; the chakra has four
petals.  The base-of-the-spine chakra is a physical chakra.
Action and right conduct are the physical outpicturing of all that we contain in our
heart, in our mind, in our soul, in our desires, in our being.

It is the energy by which life is sustained and life is continued.

5 – Right Livelihood

The fifth step is right livelihood, and it pertains to the

solar-plexus chakra, which has ten petals. It is the sixth ray of purple and
gold, the ray of service and ministration.
Right livelihood is living honorably by a profession that does not harm any living
thing and not choosing an occupation that is not conducive to spiritual progress.
It is what we do in life, how we give of ourselves to one another, to society, to our
nations.

Right livelihood must be based on right desire, and the solar plexus is the chakra
of desire. Wrong desire breeds wrong livelihood.

6 – Right Effort

Right effort, the sixth step, is established as right

focus through the third-eye chakra, which has ninety-six petals. It is the
fifth ray, the emerald ray.
By the All-Seeing Eye of God we focus. And as we focus on what our effort will be
each day, the direction of our serving and our striving, we must have purity of
desire in the inner eye. We must not lust after another, be jealous of another, want
what someone else has.

Right effort is based upon a direct relationship with God. Right effort entails right
exertion in self-training and self-control. Right effort is following what are called
the “four right efforts.”

We must make an effort to “end existing evil.” We must make an effort to

“prevent new evil.”

We must make an effort to “cause new virtue.” We must make an effort to

“increase existing virtue.”

7 – Right Mindfulness

The seventh step is right mindfulness. It is the

attribute of the thousand-petaled lotus of the crown
chakra. This is the second-ray chakra, and its color is yellow.
Right mindfulness is always moving to establish oneself in the Mind of God that
was in Christ Jesus that was in Gautama Buddha and all those who have attained
that oneness.

It is having an active, watchful mind, an alert mind that tends to details and
masters them. Right mindfulness is the captain of one’s ship. The crown must be
opened, because when one has illumination and then full enlightenment, one can
direct the courses of all of the seven rays.

8 – Right Concentration
 The eighth step is right concentration, or right
absorption. This relates to the secret chamber of the heart, an
antechamber of the heart chakra. This eight-petaled chakra is the place
of the threefold flame.
The secret chamber of the heart is the place where you meet the Master, the
Guru, the Lord Gautama Buddha.

Right concentration is upon God and upon the Highest Self and upon the point of
Light. It is earnest contemplation on the deep mysteries of Life.

It is mental tranquility and the absence of distraction. Right absorption is the

absorption of the mind and of the soul in God and in the Teacher. Without right
concentration and absorption, we do not attain the full bonding of our souls to
the Christ.

In Buddhist teachings, this eighth step involves meditation and proper breathing,
as well as the techniques of Hinduism's raja yoga (known as “the royal road to
reintegration”).

It is a means of finding integration in all of the chakras and in the I AM Presence

through direct personal experience of God within by the science of the spoken
Word.

 Features common to Jainism and buddhism:

 Mental and physical effort to seek enlightenment
 Denied authority of vedas
 Opposed animal sacrifice
 Conflict with Brahmanical orthodoxy
 Identical attitudes to trade
 Liberal attitude towards lower caste
 Both seem to have accepted caste system

 Buddhism was moderate in its stress on ahimsa
 It showed greater awareness to needs of agriculture society

n the 6th century B.C. more than 60 religious sects grew in the Gangetic valley.
But all of these did not survive. At last only Jainism and Buddhism survived as
important religious reform movements.

CAUSES FOR THE GROWTH OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

There were some definite and concrete causes for the growth of Jainism and
Buddhism in India. These may be divided as follows :

1. Varna system : You all know that Vedic society was divided into four varnas.
The brahmanas claimed the highest status. There were little scope for the other
three varnas to uplift themselves. It led to social tensions. Moreover, the kshatriyas,
controlled wealth and army. But they were placed below the brahmanas. A section
of them led a protest movement against the priests by alternative religious thinking.
The founders of Jainism, Vardhaman Mahavira and Buddhism, Gautam Buddha
were kshatriyas who had no faith in Vedic rituals.

2. Economic causes : The underlying cause of the growth of Jainism and

Buddhism was economic. The Aryans who were originally pastoral now turned
agriculturists. Vedic rituals involved sacrificing animals. As long as the Aryans
remained pastoral they possessed many animals and could think of killing a few of
them. But after becoming agriculturists they gave importance to land holding rather
than keeping cattle. At the same time farming depended on the services of animals
like bullocks. Their domestic animals became very precious for the agriculturists.
Vedic ritual of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood on the way for the
expansion of agriculture. So, people sought for an alternative.

3. Growth of towns : You have already learnt about the growth of towns in the
Gangetic plains during the 6th century B.C. These were the centres of trade. With
the growth of trade, the importance of the vaishya cast consisting of craftsmen,
farmers etc. increased. But they were placed third in the rank of the Vedic society
system. Naturally, they sought an alternative socio-religious system that could
improve their social status. Secondly, trade could flourish under peace. At that time
both Mahavira and Gautam preached non-violence or a peaceful society. So,
Jainism and Buddhism were more favourable for the traders. Again, money lending
and borrowing is necessary for business or trade. But the brahmanical texts
discouraged money lending or borrowing. The traders did not like it.

4. Reaction of other groups : You know that after the spread of agriculture,
particularly in monarchies some people used to hold more land than others. Some
became rich and some remained poor. There was no equality. Some section of
people did not like it. They wanted to go back to the old type of asceticism. Both
Jainism and Buddhism advocated simple life. Those people who found it difficult to
adjust to the new changing material condition, embraced either Jainism or
Budddhism.