Johns 10e Irm ch10 PDF

CHAPTER 10
COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 10, students should be able to:

LO10.1 Define communication and explain why communication by the strict chain of
command is often ineffective.
LO10.2 Explain the factors that contribute to voice versus silence.
LO10.3 Explain the organizational grapevine and discuss its main features.
LO10.4 Review the role of both verbal and non-verbal communication at work.
LO10.5 Discuss gender differences in communication and identify how a failure to
recognize these differences can cause communication problems.
LO10.6 Discuss the challenges relating to cross-cultural communication and identify
useful strategies to deter miscommunication.
LO10.7 Define computer-mediated communication and highlight its strengths and
weaknesses.
LO10.8 Review personal strategies and organizational initiatives aimed at enhancing
communication.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES
What Is Communication?
Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a

receiver. This chapter is concerned with interpersonal communications – the exchange of
information between people. The sender encodes his or her thoughts into some form that
can be transmitted to the receiver. The receiver must perceive the message and accurately
decode it to achieve understanding. The receiver tells the sender that the message has
been received and understood through feedback.
There are a number of points in which errors can occur during the communication
process. Effective communication occurs when the right people receive the right
information in a timely manner. Violating any of these three conditions results in a
communication episode that is ineffective.
Basics of Organizational Communication
There are a number of basic issues about organizational communication.
Communication by Strict Chain of Command

The chain of command refers to lines of authority and formal reporting relationships in an
organization. It can handle three necessary forms of organizational communication.
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

10-2 Johns/Saks, Organizational Behaviour, Tenth Edition
Downward communication is information that flows from the top of the organization
toward the bottom. Upward communication is information that flows from the bottom of
the organization toward the top. Horizontal communication is information that flows
between departments or functional units, usually as a means of coordinating effort.
While a lot of organizational communication follows the formal lines of authority, the
reality of organizational communication is that the formal chain of command is an
incomplete and sometimes ineffective path of communication.
Deficiencies in the Chain of Command

Strictly adhering to the chain of command is often ineffective for a number of reasons.
Informal Communication. One problem with the chain of command is that it fails to
account for informal communication between members. Not all informal communication
benefits the organization. An informal grapevine might spread unsavoury, inaccurate
rumours across the organization.
Filtering. Filtering is the tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped

altogether at some point during transmission. Filtering can be useful to ensure that the
right information is available, but overzealous filtering will preclude the right people
from getting the right information. Upward filtering often occurs because employees are
afraid that their boss will use the information against them. Downward filtering is often
caused by time pressures or simple lack of attention to detail, but more sinister motives
may be a work. Some managers filter downward communication to maintain an edge on
their subordinates.
Slowness. Even when the chain of command relays information faithfully, it can be
painfully slow especially for horizontal communication between departments. It is not a
good mechanism for reacting quickly to customer problems.
Voice, Silence, and the Mum Effect
One aspect of the free flow of information is employee is voice which is the constructive
expression of disagreement or concern about work unit or organizational practices. Voice
refers to “speaking up” and can be contrasted with silence which means withholding
relevant information. Voice might be directed horizontally, to teammates, or vertically, to
the boss or to management in general. Voice can be considered a form of organizational
citizenship behaviour that enables organizations to learn and change. Hence, it is in their
interest to encourage voice. More satisfied employees who identify more strongly with
their work unit or organization are most likely to speak up, as are those who are
conscientious and extraverted. Direct supervisors and higher level managers play a
critical role in creating a climate in which constructive dissent can emerge and contribute
to an atmosphere of psychological safety in which there is a shared belief that it is safe to
take social risks. Self-censorship will result in a climate of silence.

Chapter 10 Communication 10-3
Another factor that can contribute to silence and works against voice is the mum effect
which is the tendency to avoid communicating unfavourable news to others. The mum
effect is especially likely when a sender is responsible for the bad news. The mum effect
does not only apply to subordinates. One study found that managers were more likely to
inform employees of their performance ratings when the ratings were good.
The Grapevine
A great deal of information travels quickly through organizations as a result of the

grapevine.
Characteristics of the Grapevine

The grapevine is an organization’s informal communication network. The grapevine cuts
across formal lines of communication. There are several distinguishing characteristics of
the grapevine. First, although the grapevine is generally thought of as involving word of
mouth, written notes, e-mail, and social media may also be involved. Second,
organizations may have several loosely coordinated grapevine systems. Third, the
grapevine may transmit information that is relevant to the performance of the
organization as well as personal gossip.
At least 75 percent of the non-controversial organization-related information carried by

the grapevine is correct. Personal information and emotionally charged information is
likely to be distorted.
Who Participates in the Grapevine, and Why?

Personality characteristics play a role in the grapevine. Extraverts are more likely to pass
on information than introverts and those who lack self-esteem might pass on information
that gives them a personal advantage. The nature of the information might also influence
who chooses to pass it on. The physical location and task elements of members are also
related to their opportunities to participate in the grapevine. Locations that receive a lot of
traffic or employees that must travel through the organization in the course of their jobs
will have more opportunities to serve as grapevine transmitters.
People are motivated to gossip via the grapevine because it can be a timely, inexpensive
source of information that isn’t available through other channels; the information can
provide an alternative source of power and influence available to all; much grapevine
material involves releasing pent-up emotions concerning bosses or customers that can’t
otherwise be comfortably expressed; and the exchange of delicate information builds a
bond of trust between senders and receivers. Also, some jobs are so boring that gossip
provides one of the few available sources of social and intellectual stimulation.
Pros and Cons of the Grapevine

From an organization’s point of view, the grapevine serves a number of useful functions.
First, it keeps employees informed about important organizational matters. Second, it
provides a test of employee reactions to proposed changes without making formal
commitments. Third, when it extends outside the organization it can serve as a potent
informal recruiting source.

A problem can occur with the grapevine when it becomes a pipeline for rumours. A
rumour is an unverified belief that is in general circulation. Because the information
cannot be verified as accurate, rumors are susceptible to severe distortion. Rumors spread
fastest and farthest when the information is ambiguous, when the content of the rumor is
important to those involved, and when the recipient is anxious.
The Verbal Language of Work
Jargon is the specialized language used by job holders or members of particular

occupations or organizations to communicate with each other. Jargon can be an efficient
means of communicating with peers, but it can also serve as a barrier to communicating
with others, especially to those outside of the organization or profession.
The Non-Verbal Language of Work
Non-verbal communication refers to the transmission of messages by some medium other

than speech or writing. Two basic forms of non-verbal communication are body language
and the manipulation of objects.
Body Language
Body language is non-verbal communication that occurs by means of a sender’s bodily
motions, facial expressions, or the sender’s physical location in relation to a receiver.
Two important messages a sender can communicate through body language are the extent
to which he/she likes or is interested in a receiver and his/her views concerning the
relative status of the sender and the receiver. Senders communicate liking and interest in
the receiver in various ways such as by positioning themselves physically close to the
receiver. Senders who feel themselves to be of higher status than a receiver act more
relaxed than one who feels of lower status. The greater the difference in relaxation
between two parties, the more they communicate a status differential to each other. One
area in which body language has an impact is on the outcome of employment interview
decisions. Positive body language might give the edge to applicants who are otherwise
equally well qualified.
Props, Artifacts, and Costumes

Non-verbal communication can also occur through the use of various objects such as
props, artifacts, and costumes.
Office Decor and Arrangement. The decor and arrangement of an office communicates
something about the personality and motives of the occupant. Students feel more
welcome and comfortable in professors’ offices when the office is (1) tidy, (2) decorated
with posters and plants, and (3) the desk was against the wall instead of between the
student and the professor. A neat office evidently signals that the professor was well
organized and had time to talk to them. Another study found that strangers could assess
how conscientious and how open to experience a person was simply by seeing his or her

office. Neatness was a typical cue for conscientiousness and distinctive decor for
openness
Does Clothing Communicate? Research has also shown that the clothes we wear are
indeed forms of non-verbal communication. The clothing organizational members wear
sends signals about their competence, seriousness, and promotability. Proper clothing can
enhance self-esteem and self-confidence.
Gender Differences in Communication
According to Deborah Tannen, there are gender differences in communication styles and
these differences influence the way that men and women are perceived and treated in the
workplace. Gender differences in communication revolve around what Tannen refers to
as the “One Up, One Down” position. Men tend to be more sensitive to power dynamics
and will use communication as a way to position themselves in a one up situation and
avoid a one-down position. Women are more concerned with rapport building, and they
communicate in ways that avoid putting others down. As a result, women often find
themselves in a one-down position, which can have a negative effect on the rewards they
receive and their careers.
There are a number of key differences in male and female communication styles and
rituals that often place women in a one-down position:
Getting credit. Men are more likely to blow their horn about something they have done.
Confidence and boasting. Men tend to be more boastful about themselves and their
capabilities and minimize their doubts so they are perceived as more confident.
Asking questions. Men are less likely than women to ask questions in situations that can
put woman in a one-down position and reflect negatively on them.
Apologies. Women and men differ in their use of apologies. Men avoid ritual apologies
because it is a sign of weakness that can place them in a one-down position. For women,
it is a way of expressing concern.
Feedback. Women buffer criticism by beginning with praise as a way to save face for the
person receiving the criticism and avoid putting them in a one-down position. Men are
more blunt and straightforward. These differences can lead to misunderstandings.
Compliments. Women are more likely to provide compliments than men. Men are more
likely to provide a critique.
Ritual opposition. Men often use ritual opposition or fighting as a form of communication
and the exchange of ideas. Women see this as a personal attack and something to be
avoided.

Managing up and down. Men spend much more time communicating with their
superiors and talking about their achievements. Women tend to downplay their
superiority leading others to believe that they are not capable of projecting their authority.
Indirectness. Women in positions of authority tend to be indirect when giving orders.

Such indirectness can lead to misunderstandings and be perceived as a lack of appropriate
demeanour and confidence.
The differences in communication styles between men and women almost always reflect
negatively on women and place them in a one-down position. Problems and
misunderstandings arise when those communicating do not understand the rituals and
styles of each other. Therefore, it is important to recognize that people have different
linguistic styles and adopt a flexible style so you can adjust your style when necessary.
Being able to use different communication styles allows people to adjust their style to any
given situation.
Cross-Cultural Communication
Communication across cultures poses many challenges and tends to magnify the
difficulties encountered even within a single culture. Many failures between members of
different cultures stem from problems in cross-cultural communication. There are a
number of important dimensions of cross-cultural communication.
Language Differences
Language differences pose the most obvious barrier to cross-cultural communication.
Communication is generally better between individuals or groups that share similar
cultural values. This is all the more so when they share a common language. However,
speaking the same language is no guarantee of perfect communication.
A recent study of over 800 foreign subsidiaries of multinational firms indicated that
language differences between headquarters and subsidiaries pose substantial challenges.
Lack of a common language itself, distinct from cultural differences, fostered
misunderstanding and conflict, resulting in the rise of parallel information networks and
less face-to-face and telephone interaction. Expatriate employees with skills in both
relevant languages helped ease communication problems. One “solution” to language
differences is the institution of English-only policies, however, such policies have
resulted in a host of problems.
Non-verbal Communication across Cultures
While there are some similarities across cultures in non-verbal communication, there are
also many differences. Here are some examples:
• Facial expressions. People in different nations generally are good at decoding basic,
simple emotions in facial expressions.

• Gestures. Gestures do not translate well across cultures. This is because they involve
symbolism that is not shared.
• Gaze. There are considerable cross-cultural differences in the extent to which it is

considered suitable to look others directly in the eye.
• Touch. In some cultures, people stand close to one another when meeting and touch
each other as an adjunct to conversation. In other cultures, people prefer to “keep their
distance.”
Etiquette and Politeness across Cultures

Cultures differ considerably in how etiquette and politeness are expressed. This often
involves saying things that one does not literally mean. The problem is that the exact
form that this takes varies across cultures and careful decoding is necessary to avoid
confusion and embarrassment. Literal decoding will almost always lead to trouble.
Learning these differences is important for managers who seek to deal with their
counterparts in other nations. For example, in social situations, the Japanese are
particularly interested in maintaining feelings of interdependence and harmony. To do
this, they use a large number of set phrases or “lubricant expressions” to express
sympathy and understanding, soften rejection, say no indirectly, or facilitate apology.
Social Conventions across Cultures

There are cross-cultural differences in social conventions and these can lead to
communication problems. For example, the directness of business dealings, greetings and
how people say hello, the “proper” degree of loudness of speech, punctuality, the pace of
life, and the practice of nepotism differ across cultures. All of these should be taken into
account when dealing with people of other cultures.
What is considered proper professional behaviour varies across cultures. In North

America, there is a social norm that professional people should not communicate too
much personal information in work settings. In other cultures, such as India, such non-
work references may be seen as entirely appropriate.
Cultural Context
Cultural context is the cultural information that surrounds a communication episode.
Cultures differ in the importance to which context influences the meaning to be put on
communications. Some cultures, including many East Asian, Latin American, African
and Arab cultures are high-context cultures meaning that the message in the
communication is strongly influenced by the context in which the message is sent. In
high-context cultures, literal interpretations are often incorrect. This is in contrast to low-
context cultures like North America, Australia, Northern Europe (except France), and
Scandinavia, where more meaning resides in the message than the context in which the
communication occurs. These differences have implications for organizational
communication, especially when we consider what might occur during cross-cultural
business negotiations. For example:

Ï People from high-context cultures want to know about you and the company that you
represent in great detail.
Ï Getting to the point quickly is not a style of communication that people in high-
context cultures favour.
Ï When communicating with people from a high-context culture, give careful
consideration to the age and rank of the communicator. Age and seniority tend to be
valued in high-context cultures, and the status of the communicator is an important
contextual factor that gives credibility to a message.
Ï Because they tend to devalue cultural context, people from low-context cultures tend
to favour very detailed business contracts. For them, the meaning is in the message
itself.
Computer-Mediated Communication
Does communicating electronically differ from face-to-face communication? A good way

to begin thinking about this issue is to consider information richness, the potential
information-carrying capacity of a communication medium. For example, a face-to-face
transmission of information is very high in richness because the sender is personally
present, audio and visual channels are used, body language and verbal language are
occurring, and feedback to the sender is immediate and ongoing. Communicating via
numeric computer output lacks richness because it is impersonal and uses only numeric
language. Feedback on such communication might also be very slow.
Two important dimensions of information richness are the degree to which information is
synchronous between senders and receivers, and the extent to which both parties can
receive non-verbal and paraverbal cues. Highly synchronous communication, such as
face-to-face speech, is two-way, in real time. On the low side of synchronization, memos,
letters, and even e-mails are essentially a series of one-way messages, although e-mail
has the clear potential for speedy response. Face-to-face interaction and video-
conferencing are high in non-verbal (e.g., body language) and paraverbal (e.g., tone of
voice) cues, while these are essentially absent in the text-based media. In general, highly
synchronous media that is high in non-verbal and paraverbal cues exemplify the most
information richness.
E-mail, chat systems, teleconferencing, and video-conferencing are commonly classified

as computer-mediated communication in that they rely on computer technology to
facilitate information exchange. All of these media permit discussion and decision
making without employees having to be in the same location, potentially saving time,
money, and travel hassles.
Most research has focused on “chat” type group decision support systems that rely on
text-based computer conferencing to generate ideas and make decisions. Such systems
have been shown to enhance the sheer number of ideas regarding some problem
generated under “brainstorming” conditions.

By almost any criterion other than generating ideas, computer-mediated groups perform
more poorly than face-to-face groups. Computer-mediated decision groups generally take
more time, make less effective decisions, and have less satisfied members than face-to
face groups. However, recent research suggests that time is an issue, and that computer-
mediated groups gradually develop increased trust and cooperation over repeated meeting
sessions.
As a form of computer-mediated communication, observers have noted that social media

pose both challenges and opportunities for organizations and their members. One
challenge posed by social media is that they can be addictive to the extent that employees
engage in “cyberloafing” while at work. Cyberloafers tended to be younger, extraverted,
better-educated males. Social media tend to blur the distinction between the work and
non-work domains, and senders may not be aware of just who receives their messages.
There is also growing recognition that social media can play a positive role in
organizational communication, aiding in problem solving and innovation. Many
organizations have established private enterprise social media platforms that are
restricted to organizational members. Their essential feature is the capacity to record,
store, and share ideas such that they can be accessed by all organizational members.
A good rule to follow is that less routine communication requires richer communication
media. Memos, reports, e-mails, and web portals are fine for recurrent non-controversial,
impersonal communication in which information is merely being disseminated. Important
decisions, intended changes, controversial messages, and emotional issues generally call
for richer media such as face-to-face or video.
Personal Approaches to Improving Communication
People are learning that developing their communication skills is just as important as
developing other skills that will give them an edge in the job market. There are a number
of personal approaches for improving your ability to communicate better with others.
Basic Principles of Effective Communication

There are a number of basic principles of effective communication.
Take the Time. Good communication takes time. Developing an awareness of context
factors and selecting the appropriate medium to ensure good communication takes time.
Not taking adequate time often leads to the selection of the wrong communication
medium.
Be Accepting of the Other Person. Try to be accepting of the other person as an

individual who has the right to have feelings and perceptions that may differ from your
own. Empathy will go much farther than arrogance.

Don’t Confuse the Person with the Problem. Focus on behaviours rather than attributing
motives to the person. Focus on what the person did not who the person is. Try to be
descriptive instead of evaluative.
Say What You Feel. Be sure that your words, thoughts, feelings, and actions exhibit
congruence. Congruence is the condition in which a person’s words, thoughts, feelings,
and actions all contain the same message. Congruence can be thought of as honesty or
authenticity.
Listen Actively. Effective communication requires good listening and good

communicators employ active listening to get the most out of an interaction. Active
listening is a technique for improving the accuracy of information reception by paying
close attention to the sender. It includes:
• Watch your body language

• Paraphrase what the speaker means
• Show empathy
• Ask questions
• Wait out pauses
Give Timely and Specific Feedback. When providing feedback to others about their
behaviour, do it soon and be explicit. Speed maximizes the reinforcement potential of the
message, and explicitness maximizes its usefulness to the recipient.
When in Rome...
In addition to the basic principles above, several others are particularly useful in a cross-
cultural communication situation.
Assume Differences Until You Know Otherwise. Projection and a foreign speaker’s good
command of English can tempt us to assume that culture is not an issue leading us to
ignore differences. Assume that differences exist until proven wrong.
Recognize Differences within Cultures. Avoid culture based stereotypes and be alert for
occupational and social class differences that can be more difficult to decipher in other
countries.
Watch Your Language (and Theirs). Speak clearly, slowly, and simply. Avoid cliches,
jargon, and slang. Don’t assume that those who can speak your language well are
smarter, more skilled or more honest than those who cannot.
Organizational Approaches to Improving Communication
There are a number of organizational techniques that can improve communication.
Provision of Explanations

Organizations sometimes have to enact controversial policies that have the potential to
spark much employee resistance (e.g., restructuring, layoffs). However, many
organizations simply announce such policies with little or no explanation. Two factors
are critical to the perceived fairness of controversial policies: the adequacy of the
explanation and the style with which it is delivered. Adequate explanations should be
specific and detailed, highlighting the reasons for the policy, how the decision was made,
and the benefits that will accrue from it. The delivery of the message should be truthful,
sincere, respectful, and sensitive. When appropriate, the communicator should express
sincere remorse for having to implement the policy and acknowledge any suffering that
the policy might cause. A rich communication medium, such as a personal appearance by
the CEO or other high organizational representative, is also called for.
360-Degree Feedback
360-degree feedback is a type of performance appraisal that uses the input of supervisors,
employees, peers, and clients or customers of the appraised individual. Because the 360
feedback approach focuses on behavioural competency rather than bottom-line
performance, it is used mainly for employee development rather than salary
determination. Research shows that 360-degree feedback leads to performance
improvements.
Employee Surveys and Survey Feedback

Surveys of the attitudes and opinions of current employees can provide a useful means of
upward communication. An employee survey is an anonymous questionnaire that enables
employees to state their candid opinions and attitudes about an organization and its
practices. Thus, they can reliably tap employee concerns and also provide information
that is useful for practical purposes. They are most useful when they are conducted
periodically. When survey results are fed back to employees, along with management
responses and any plans for changes, downward communication is enhanced.
Suggestion Systems
Suggestion systems are programs designed to enhance upward communication by
soliciting ideas for improved work operations from employees. Much better systems
reward employees for suggestions actually adopted and provide feedback on how
management evaluated each suggestion.
Telephone Hotlines, Intranets, and Webcasts

Telephone hotlines use a news format to present company information that is especially
valuable during times of crisis. They may also serve as query systems in which
employees can call in for answers to their questions. Corporate intranet portals represent
an important information source on various topics of interest to employees and can also
allow employees to communicate information to the organization, such as changes of
address or in benefits enrolment. Corporate webcasting constitutes a rich communication
medium that allows for the broadcasting of both audio and video that can reach
employees located anywhere in the world. Multipoint webcasting allows for a number of
presenters who can be located in multiple cities. Such communication mediums are
especially good for general information sessions, training, and new product introduction.

The synchronous, interactive nature of webcasts supports audience engagement either

through written questions, audio questions, or, where possible, video interaction.
Management Training
Supervisors can be trained to become more effective communicators by isolating specific
communication skills and giving them the opportunity to practice these skills. Effective
training programs often present videotaped models correctly handling a typical
communication problem. Managers then role-play the problem and are reinforced by the
trainers when they exhibit effective skills.
SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Why is computer-mediated communication attractive? What are its problems?

Computer-mediated communication is attractive as information can be shared by parties
in different locations, thus saving time, money and travel needs. Computer-mediated
communication also increases the capability of partners to generate ideas, as options can
be communicated simultaneously. Furthermore, the facelessness of such methods can
reduce inhibitions and stereotypes based on race, gender, or status. Finally, computer-
mediated communication usually provides a means of storing exchanges for future
consultation in the event of disagreement. Still, this type of communication is not without
problems. First, computer-mediated communication is always lower in information
richness than face-to-face communication, especially in the case of e-mail and chat.
Using these methods, body language, tone, and other non-verbal cues are not available.
The danger of misunderstanding becomes high when humour is attempted or metaphors
are used. Furthermore, while distance and anonymity can reduce inhibitions, this can also
lead to a deterioration of social conventions and politeness. In all, it is difficult to build
trust through computer-mediated communication and face-to-face contact is preferable
when sharing important news.
2. List six reasons why employees might respond with silence rather than voice to an
organizational problem. Then, for each reason, explain how the organization could
act to encourage voice.
Following are reasons why employees might respond with silence and how the
organization might encourage voice:
Fear of retaliation: Install an ombudsperson; put in an ethics hotline
Unsure I am correct, lack full knowledge: Create a culture in which failure and honest
mistakes are not punished
Assume someone else will speak up: Emphasize a culture of personal responsibility in
which people feel comfortable “standing out in a crowd.”
Status differences (e.g., nurse won’t contradict doctor): Stress a team approach to
decision making and problem solving that encourages all parties to contribute
3. Discuss the pros and cons of the existence of the grapevine in organizations. Suppose
an organization wanted to “kill” the grapevine. How easy do you think this would
be?
Pros: The grapevine can serve as a satisfying social diversion for workers and an

informal means for managers to try out ideas for change without making formal
commitments. In addition, the grapevine can carry non-controversial information
accurately and thus serve as a means of keeping employees informed.
Cons: The accuracy of the grapevine deteriorates rapidly when it carries controversial
information, and grapevines frequently become pipelines for inaccurate rumors.
Participation in the grapevine may distract employee effort and cause undue distress
when grapevine information is threatening but inaccurate. It is difficult to “kill” the
grapevine because of the human need for interaction and communication. However, good
formal systems of communication may defuse the grapevine’s tendency to carry critical
but inaccurate information.
4. Under what conditions might body language or clothing have a strong

communicative effect? When might the effect be weaker?
Body language and clothing have the strongest impact when other cues to the target are
weak, or nonexistent, or when a receiver expects that verbal cues or credentials are
suspect. Meeting a new acquaintance, interviewing a job applicant, and similar
circumstances meet these criteria. As a receiver has an opportunity to gain additional
knowledge about the qualities of a target, body language and especially clothing style
may have less impact.
5. Debate: As more women move into management positions in organizations, the

gender differences in communication between men and women will eventually
disappear and so will communication problems.
This statement assumes that gender differences between men and women will eventually
disappear just by virtue of the fact that there are more women in management positions.
This is probably not likely for a number of reasons. First, the gender differences in
communication have their origin childhood. Thus, men and women’s communication
styles and rituals are not likely to easily change, at least not without considerable time
and effort. Second, many people are not even aware of gender differences in
communication. As a result, they are not likely to change the way they communicate.
Third, gender differences in communication seem to persist and continue in the
workplace. One interesting take on this issue is that women who are hired or promoted
into management positions might be successful in part because they have learned some of
the typical styles and rituals of male communication. This is interesting because on the
one hand, it does suggest that the differences might diminish, but on the other hand, it
also means that the style and rituals of male communication are perpetuated at the
managerial level. At the same time, men are not learning the typical style and rituals of
female communication. Ultimately, one would expect that men and women will learn
something about each other’s style of communication and will adopt whatever is required
to be effective. However, this is probably not going to happen quickly and
communication problems that stem from gender differences in communication are likely
to continue.

ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Using Exhibit 10-1 as a guide, describe a communication episode that you have
observed in an organization. Who were the sender and receiver? Was the episode
effective? Why or why not?
A supervisor on the afternoon shift in a manufacturing plant detected low lubrication
pressure on one of the mill’s units and shut it down. He encoded in writing the following
message for the night supervisor: “Low pressure on unit 3.” He transmitted the message
by leaving the note on the night supervisor’s desk. The night supervisor read the note and
decoded “low pressure” to mean “low water pressure.” A mechanic was assigned to look
for a water leak. An hour later, he reported that water pressure was normal. Then, the
supervisor assumed that “low pressure” meant “low gas pressure.” Again, the mechanic
proceeded to look for a gas leak to no avail. Finally, unit 3 was started up and its low
lubrication pressure was discovered. Half the shift had been wasted on the problem. The
sender was the afternoon supervisor and the receiver was the night supervisor. The
episode was ineffective because the night supervisor received the wrong information.
“Low pressure” was inadequately encoded, this led to decoding errors, and the right
information was not received in a timely manner.
2. Debate: Since more and more global business is being conducted in English, North
Americans will not have cross-cultural communication problems in the future.
The statement assumes that language is the only source of communication problems
across cultures. As noted in the text, a common language can facilitate communication,
but it can also lull one party into thinking that it truly understands the other when, in fact,
cultural differences remain. Cultures will still differ in matters of non-verbal style, social
conventions, and accepted etiquette. Knowing the language does not guarantee that one
will be sensitive to these matters.
3. Discuss a case in which you heard one message communicated verbally and “saw”
another transmitted non-verbally. What was the content of each message? Which one
did you believe?
A manager proclaimed that he had an open door policy and that employees could see him
“anytime about anything.” When an employee came to the office to discuss a sales
problem, the manager stated he would be happy to talk about it. However, the manager
seldom looked directly at the employee; rather, he stared out the window or stole glances
at the papers on his desk during the discussion. In addition, he repeatedly drummed his
fingers on the arm of his chair. The verbal message was “I’m glad to talk to you.” The
non-verbal message was “You’re wasting my time” or “I’m not interested.” When verbal
and non-verbal messages are contradictory, we tend to place more faith in the non-verbal
message.

EXTRA DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the communication process?

2. What are some of the deficiencies in the chain of command?
3. What is voice and why should organizations encourage it?
4. Who is inclined to exercise voice and when?
5. What is the grapevine? Of what value is it to the organization? What are the pros and
cons?
6. Discuss the following statement: Non-verbal communication is more effective than
verbal communication.
7. What are the factors that contribute to communication problems between males and
females?
8. How can organizations improve communication?
9. How can individuals improve communication?
10. What are the dimensions of cross-cultural communication and how does it influence
the effectiveness of cross-cultural communication?
11. What is computer-mediated communication and how does it compare to other forms
of communication media?
12. How can an organization create a positive climate for voice and what impact does it
have on employees?
SAMPLE ANSWERS TO INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What role do perceptions play in gender differences in communication? Refer to the

perceptual system in Chapter 3 and use its components- the perceiver, the target
person, and the situation surround the communication - to explain how differences in
communication styles between men and women can result in misunderstandings and
inaccurate perceptions. What effect might these misunderstandings and inaccurate
perceptions have on gender stereotypes?
Perceptions play an important role in gender differences in communication. In terms of
the components of the perceptual system, one’s perception is based in part on the
perceiver’s experience as well as the ambiguity of the target. With this in mind, consider
what happens when males and females in the workplace first encounter each other. Based
on their experiences in communication styles and rituals, they are likely to perceive each
other differently. For example, consider the perception that a female will have when she
encounters a male who is boastful, not apologetic, highly critical, not very
complimentary, challenges others in public and is combative and argumentative, and is
very direct. While these are typical styles of male communication, a female is likely to
develop a negative perception of such a person, one that is probably consistent with a
male stereotype. Now consider the perception that a male might have of a female who is
indirect, downplays her achievements, asks many questions, and apologizes very often.
He is likely to perceive her as not very confident and unsure of herself which will result
in a negative perception. Furthermore, given the nature of gender stereotypes, this
perception is likely to confirm to the stereotype of women which tends not to correspond
with the stereotype of successful managers. Thus, differences in communication styles

between men and women are likely to result in misunderstandings and inaccurate
perceptions which might perpetuate gender stereotypes.
2. How does a manager’s leadership style affect manager-employee communication?

Refer to the theories of leadership described in Chapter 9 (e.g., ethical and authentic
leadership, leadership traits, behaviours, situational theories, participative
leadership, and LMX theory) and explain their implications for effective manager-
employee communication.
Manager-employee communication involves the one-to-one exchange of information
between a boss and an employee. It represents a key element of upward and downward
communication. Such exchanges enable managers to instruct employees in task
performance, clarify reward contingencies, and provide social-emotional support. It
should also permit the employee to ask questions about his or her work role and to make
suggestions that might further the goals of the organization. However, the nature of
manager-employee communication is likely to be affected by leadership style and
behaviour. For example, directive leaders are likely to use more downward
communication and to instruct employees in task performance and clarify reward
contingencies. This is what Path-Goal theory would predict a good directive leader
should do and is also consistent with transactional leadership. The communication of
supportive and participative leaders might be more effective because they are likely to
use both upward and downward communication. Upward communication is particularly
relevant for a participative leader, and communication that provides social-emotional
support is most relevant for a supportive or considerate leader. LMX leaders would also
be expected to use upward and downward communication and to provide social-
emotional support. Ethical leadership involves the demonstration of normatively
appropriate conduct (e.g., openness and honesty) through personal actions and
interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-
way communication, reinforcement, and decision making. Thus, ethical leaders would
use upward and downward communication and focus on task performance as it pertains
to ethical behaviour. Authentic leadership is a positive form of leadership that involves
being true to oneself. Authentic leaders know and act upon their true values, beliefs, and
strengths and they help others do the same. Their conduct and behaviour is guided by
their internal values. Authentic leaders would probably use both downward and upward
communication and provide social-emotional support. It is also likely that the traits and
personality of the leader will also influence the nature of manager-employee
communication. For example, leaders who are high on dominance might rely more on
downward than upward communication. Thus, the nature and effectiveness of manager-
employee communication is likely to be partly a function of the leader’s traits, style, and
behaviour.

SAMPLE ANSWER TO ON-THE-JOB CHALLENGE QUESTION: CAROL

BARTZ AND YAHOO!
Was it appropriate to fire Carol Bartz via a telephone call? Why or why not? Would a
profane communication style be more likely to damage the reputation of a male or female
CEO, and why? Do expectations play a role?
Such “telephone firing” is not unheard of in the business world, but this is surely a non-
routine event that would suggest the richer face-to-face communication medium.
Students might differ in their assessment of this, and you might steer the discussion to
their general views about the use of various media (texting, Facebook, etc.) to convey
information of varying sensitivity. Bartz’s profane and confrontational communication
style violates a gender stereotype that swearing is for men, and women are supposed to
express themselves in a more measured manner. Women routinely pay a price for
violating such gender stereotypes. Thus, gendered expectations are critical here.
TEACHING NOTES FOR COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA

DILEMMAS EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
The exercise can be conducted in several ways. Students can independently prepare their
reflections on the scenarios for class discussion. Alternatively, learning teams can discuss
one or more scenarios and report their reflections to the class. Finally, the instructor
might organize a debate around each scenario. When discussing the scenarios, be sure to
have students describe how they would feel if they were the employee in each scenario
and how they would feel if they were the manager.
The scenarios demonstrate some of the problems and conflicts that result from the
various forms of advanced communication technology and associated media today. Make
sure students identify these problems such as blurring the distinction between the work
and non-work domains; communication contradictions—Facebook postings could be
grounds for firing, but the medium can also facilitate work-related communication; and
much contemporary communication occurs in a context in which one is not sure just who
the receiver might be.
TEACHING NOTES FOR EMAIL MADNESS CASE INCIDENT
1. Communication problems can occur in any medium, but what particular problems
with email are apparent in this incident?
Email does not allow for body language and it does not accommodate synchronous
exchange. Face-to-face, Carol would have immediately exhibited a negative reaction,
Anastasia would have burst out laughing, and the whole incident would have been over
immediately. With email, additional cues that this was humour are missing, and the delay
factor only gives Carol time to ruminate and compose a “flaming” response. As noted
below, email is not the best medium for humour.

2. What are some informal “rules” about using email that might avoid the problems
illustrated in incidents of this nature?
a) Avoid email humour except with close friends; humour does not translate well
electronically, and people differ in their overall sense of humour and what they deem
funny; b) don’t be so hasty to respond to emails that you fail to reflect on the message the
sender intended; c) explain yourself fully in email; missing information is easily supplied
face-to-face but it can be critical in the misinterpretation of email; d) guard against the
tendency to “flame” and make extreme statements when using email; e) use a richer
communication medium for more important messages.
TEACHING NOTES FOR THE FACEBOOK CASE STUDY
This case is likely to resonate with students given that most of them will be using social
network sites and an increasing number of organizations are finding information on the
web about job applicants and employees. In addition to the issues that pertain to
communication, this case has implications for privacy and ethics. At some point it might
be interesting to ask students to take the perspective of the job applicant versus the
organization. Some students might see the use of information from social network sites
such as Facebook by organizations as an invasion of privacy. Organizations might just
see it as a background check of a job applicant that is part of the hiring process. While
this is likely to spark some interesting discussion, don’t lose sight of the fact that the
focus of the chapter is communication and in particular, effective communication.
1. Discuss how the web and new media such as Facebook have (a) aided, and (b)
complicated organizational communication. Be sure to consider the implications of
sending a message when you do not know who the receiver might be.
Effective communication occurs when the right people receive the right information in a
timely manner. Violating any of these three conditions results in a communication
episode that is ineffective. One of the real advantages of the web and new media such as
Facebook is the speed with which communications can occur. In fact, with the web
communications can reach unlimited numbers of receivers instantly. Thus, the timely
condition is greatly enhanced. However, the other two conditions can make
communications more complicated because the right people might not be receiving the
communication and/or they might not be receiving the right information. Thus, the web
and new media such as Facebook can result in more effective or ineffective
communication. Such communication is also more complicated because one
communicator might be sending a message to hundreds or thousands of people rather
than a simple one-on-one exchange between two individuals. As a result, each receiver
might perceive the message differently which might result in different understandings
(and misunderstanding) of the message which will vary in accuracy. Further, not all
senders will provide the sender with feedback. Such communication episodes can be
much more complicated as the unlimited number of receivers of a message might differ
in how they decode a message. This is especially likely to be a problem when the
message is ambiguous or emotional. Finally, if you do not know who the receiver will be
then you cannot be sure how the message will be perceived, decoded, and understood

which means that there is a greater chance for inaccuracy and misunderstanding not to
mention the greater likelihood that the right people do not receive the right information.
2. Suppose that Miranda had just heard a rumour about Rick’s activities as opposed
to seeing them on Facebook. Would her reaction have been the same? Incorporate the
concept of media richness in framing your answer.
A rumour is an unverified belief that is in general circulation. Although it is possible for a
rumour to be true, it is not likely to remain true as it runs through the grapevine. Further,
because people can’t verify the information as accurate, rumours are susceptible to severe
distortion as they are passed from person to person. Thus, if Miranda had heard a rumour
about Rick’s activities, she might have reacted differently perhaps with some doubt
regarding the accuracy or truthfulness of the events. Information richness refers to the
potential carrying capacity of a communication medium and involves the degree to which
information is synchronous between senders and receivers, and the extent to which both
parties can receive non-verbal and paraverbal cues. Highly synchronous communication
such as face-to-face speech is two-way in real time. Face-to-face interaction is also high
in non-verbal and paraverbal cues. Thus, the Facebook communication would rate very
low in media richness. A rumour would be much higher in richness to the extent that it is
communicated face-to-face in which case it would be high on nonverbal and paraverbal
cues and high on synchronization. Facebook is also an example of computer-mediated
communication because it uses computer technology for information exchange. Miranda
probably would have reacted differently if the information about Rick’s activities had
come from richer media. As it is, the Facebook information is low on richness and it is
one-way which means that it is completely open to interpretation and Miranda has
obviously interpreted the photos in a very negative way having described them as
“disturbing.”
3. Do the prominence of Rick on the web and relative absence of Deborah reflect gender
differences in communication?
Miranda’s search for information on the web about Rick and Deborah revealed plenty of
information about Rick but very little about Deborah. Further, the information about Rick
is both positive and work-related (e.g., involved in non-profit work, won a number of
community service awards) and more personal and less flattering (pictures with fraternity
brothers drinking and smoking). These differences can be due to gender differences in
communication as men are more likely to blow their horn about things they have done
(getting credit) and to be more boastful about themselves and their capabilities
(confidence and boasting). Thus, the greater prominence of Rick on the web and the
relative absence of Deborah might very well reflect gender differences in communication.
4. What should Miranda do?

Students are likely to have different opinions about this and it is likely to result in some
lively discussion. Some will probably see the photos in a negative way and suggest that
Miranda not hire Rick. Others will note that the lack of context means that one can’t
really properly interpret the photos. For example, perhaps it was an end of the school year
party and shows a rare celebration in which Rick attends a party with his frat buddies and
has a few drinks. Further, some may note that photos of a student having a few drinks at a

party does not indicate anything particularly bad about a person or that they will not be fit
for a job, especially when there is so much positive information about Rick’s
qualifications for the job. It might a good idea to list the various options regarding what
Miranda can or should do at this point which is essentially to hire Rick, hire Deborah, or
try to find out more about Rick. Ask students to indicate which of these courses of action
they recommend and why. You might also consider what other information Miranda
might try to obtain about Rick and from where. The issue at this point is what should
Miranda do with this information about Rick and the fact that some of this information is
completely open to interpretation and could result in misunderstanding. You might ask
students if they think that Miranda should meet with Rick to discuss the information that
she has obtained from the web and give him a chance to explain it to her. This of course
is another option for her and it would certainly improve the richness of this
communication. Ask students what they think of this and why she should or should meet
with Rick to discuss all of the web information including the photos.
5. Was it ethical for Miranda to avail herself of these indirect, web-based sources of
communication to find out about the job applicants?
Students are likely to differ on their answer to this question with some saying that it was
wrong of Miranda to search for this information while others will say that if the
information is out there and available then it is there for anybody to find it. Others might
take an even harder line and argue that Miranda has an obligation to do as much research
as possible about job applicants and to obtain the information needed to make a good
hiring decision. In answering this question, you might want to refer students to the
definition of ethics in Chapter 12 (page 456) where it states: Systematic thinking about
the moral consequences of decisions - moral consequences can be framed in terms of the
potential for harm to any stakeholders in the decision. Students might first see the
potential for harm to job applicants. However, if Miranda only found the information
about Rick’s non-profit work and community service awards then her reaction would
have been very different and Rick might have been hired. It might be interesting to ask
students who view Miranda’s actions as unethical if they would still find it unethical if in
fact she only obtained the positive information about his non-profit work and awards. Do
the photos on his Facebook page make it unethical? In other words, do students only see
her actions as unethical because of the nature of the information she obtained from the
Facebook photos? Others might see the potential for harm if she had not availed herself
to the information. If Rick is unfit for the job and Miranda did recommend him for the
job then there is the potential for harm to the organization and its clients. However, the
other issue here is that the information that Miranda obtained is available in the public
domain and she obtained it through appropriate means even though she does not feel
comfortable about it and it was not given to her by Rick. Nonetheless, Miranda did not
obtain information that was private or confidential nor did she obtain it through illegal or
inappropriate means. Thus, by simply availing herself to information about job applicants
that is in the public domain and available for anybody to see is itself not wrong. What
might be questionable is the use of this information to make a hiring decision especially
since such communication was not available for Deborah Jones and because Miranda has
interpreted the pictures in a manner that might be inaccurate thereby unfairly painting a
negative picture of Rick. It is important to point out that Miranda did also obtain positive

communications about Rick on the web. So the question of ethics comes into play with
regard to her interpretation and use of the information in a way that might be unfair to
Rick. Thus, the question can be reworded as, “Was it ethical for Miranda to use these
indirect, web-based sources of communication for making a hiring decision about job
applicants?” or “Was it ethical for Miranda to use these indirect, web-based sources of
communication to make a decision to not hire Rick Parsons?”
6. If Miranda hires Deborah, should she explain to Rick the issue that damaged his
chances? Why or why not?
Students are also likely to differ on this issue. Some will argue that Rick should be told
about this as it is only fair that he understand why he was not hired and that he should
have a chance to explain himself – this would certainly improve the communication with
respect to the web photos of him on Facebook. On the other hand, some might be
concerned that Rick will get upset upon hearing about this and argue that he has been
unfairly treated because the pictures do not speak to his ability to do the job. He might
also complain that Miranda has invaded his privacy by viewing photos on his Facebook
page, something that she is clearly uncomfortable and uneasy about. In terms of
improving the communication episode with regard to the web photos, a face-to-face
discussion would improve the information richness of this communication and would
make the communication more effective. Some might even argue that Miranda should
have done this before making a decision. That is, she should have told Rick that she has
searched the Web for information about the applicants and then inform him of all the
information found about him. She could then ask him about the photos and give him a
chance to explain himself. This would certainly improve the communication and Miranda
might have a better interpretation and understanding of the photos. At any rate, students
should be asked to explain why Miranda should or should not tell Rick about the issue
that damaged his chances and they should also consider the relevance of information
richness and effective communication.
7. If Miranda does tell Rick, how should she do so? In answering, consider the chapter
sections Basic Principles of Effective Communication and Provision of Explanations.
If Miranda does tell Rick, then she should follow all of the basic principles of effective
face-to-face communication:
Take the Time. Good communication takes time and Miranda should devote extra effort
to explain the issue to Rick and she should do so face-to-face rather than an impersonal
email.
Be Accepting of the Other Person. This means that Miranda should be accepting of Rick
as an individual who has the right to have feelings and perceptions that may differ from
Miranda’s. Miranda should give Rick a chance to express his feelings and perceptions.
Don’t Confuse the Person with the Problem. Miranda should focus on the
photos/behaviours at tissue rather than attributing motives to Rick. She should be
descriptive rather than evaluative.
Say What You Feel. Miranda should ensure that her words, thoughts, feelings, and
actions exhibit congruence so that they all contain the same message.
Listen Actively. Miranda should listen to what Rick has to say about the issue by
employing active listening techniques. In particular, Miranda should:

• Watch her body language

• Paraphrase what Rick means
• Show empathy
• Ask questions
• Wait out pauses
Give Timely and Specific Feedback. Miranda should provide Rick with feedback as soon
as possible and she should be explicit about the reasons why he is not being hired.
Finally, as indicated in the section on provision of explanations, Miranda should also

focus on the adequacy of her explanation and the style with which she delivers it. To
provide an adequate explanation about why Rick was not hired, she should be specific
and detailed with regard to the information she obtained from his Facebook page and her
conclusion that Rick would not fit in with the professional work environment at the
company and of the team in particular. In delivering the message, she should be truthful,
sincere, respectful, and sensitive. These two factors are critical to the perceived fairness
of the decision and Rick’s perception of fairness is clearly an issue in the decision to not
hire him.

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CHAPTER 10

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading Chapter 10, students should be able to:

CHAPTER OUTLINE AND TEACHING NOTES

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a

Basics of Organizational Communication

There are a number of basic issues about organizational communication.

Communication by Strict Chain of Command

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Deficiencies in the Chain of Command

Filtering. Filtering is the tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped

Voice, Silence, and the Mum Effect

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

A great deal of information travels quickly through organizations as a result of the

Characteristics of the Grapevine

At least 75 percent of the non-controversial organization-related information carried by

Who Participates in the Grapevine, and Why?

Pros and Cons of the Grapevine

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

The Verbal Language of Work

Jargon is the specialized language used by job holders or members of particular

The Non-Verbal Language of Work

Non-verbal communication refers to the transmission of messages by some medium other

Props, Artifacts, and Costumes

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Gender Differences in Communication

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Indirectness. Women in positions of authority tend to be indirect when giving orders.

Non-verbal Communication across Cultures

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

• Gaze. There are considerable cross-cultural differences in the extent to which it is

Etiquette and Politeness across Cultures

Social Conventions across Cultures

What is considered proper professional behaviour varies across cultures. In North

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Does communicating electronically differ from face-to-face communication? A good way

E-mail, chat systems, teleconferencing, and video-conferencing are commonly classified

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

As a form of computer-mediated communication, observers have noted that social media

Personal Approaches to Improving Communication

Basic Principles of Effective Communication

Be Accepting of the Other Person. Try to be accepting of the other person as an

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Listen Actively. Effective communication requires good listening and good

• Watch your body language

Organizational Approaches to Improving Communication

There are a number of organizational techniques that can improve communication.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

Employee Surveys and Survey Feedback

Telephone Hotlines, Intranets, and Webcasts

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

The synchronous, interactive nature of webcasts supports audience engagement either

SAMPLE ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why is computer-mediated communication attractive? What are its problems?

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.

4. Under what conditions might body language or clothing have a strong

5. Debate: As more women move into management positions in organizations, the

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ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

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EXTRA DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the communication process?

SAMPLE ANSWERS TO INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS