PREFACE

This module is designed to teach and guide the students the Control Systems
Engineering in designing controller/compensator using root locus and bode plot
techniques through worked examples. Students are introduced with brief theory in
each chapter to maximize the learning process. This book is yet to be improved and
recommendations from readers are highly welcomed to make this book better.

This module has four chapters which consists of root locus techniques, design via
root locus, bode plot techniques and design via bode plot. All these chapters
basically dealt with control system engineering and suitable for first degree
engineering students embarking on control system subjects.

Hope this module helps.

Azrita Alias
Syed Najib Syed Salim
Sahazati Md Rozali
Saleha Mohamad Salleh
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

CHAPTER 1

ROOT LOCUS TECHNIQUES

CHAPTER OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this chapter, student should be able to:

1. Define the root locus

2. Describe the important of root locus that can be used to analyze the system
3. Sketch the root locus by applying the basic rules
4. Draw the root locus on the graph paper using all the rules
5. Use the root locus to find the poles and the gain of a closed-loopsystem

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Root Locus techniques are used to analyze and design the effect of loop gain upon the
system’s transient response and stability. The definition of the Root Locus is the
representation of the paths (loci) of the closed-loop poles as the parameter K is varied. The
discussion will be limited to positive gain only, K >= 0.

1.2 THE BASIC RULES FOR SKETCHING THE ROOT LOCUS

The general block diagram for a negative feedback system is shown in Figure 1.1.

R(s) C(s)
+-
- KG(s)

H(s)

Figure 1.1: A negative feedback system

The closed-loop transfer function,T(s) for the negative feedback system shown in Figure 1.1
is:
KG ( s)
T ( s)  (1.1)
1  KG(s)H(s)

From this equation, poles exist when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator
becomes zero, or
1  KG(s) H (s)  0 (1.2)
KG(s) H (s)  1  1(2k  1)180 (1.3)
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Where, k =0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

There are FIVE basic rules must be applied in sketching the root locus for a negative
feedback system

Rule 1
Number of branches – The number of branches of the root locus equals the number of closed-
loop poles.

Rule 2
Symmetry – the root locus is symmetrical with respect to the real axis.

Rule 3
Real-axis segments – For K >= 0, branches on the real axis lie to the left of an odd number of
open-loop poles and zeros. For K <= 0, branches on the real axis lie to the right of an odd
number of open-loop poles and zeros.

Rule 4
Starting and ending points – the root locus begins at the finite and infinite poles of G(s)H(s)
and ends at the finite and infinite zeros of G(s)H(s).

Rule 5
Behavior at infinity – the root locus approaches straight lines as asymptotes as the root locus
approaches infinity.
The equation of the asymptotes is given by the real-axis intercept (a) and angle in radians
(a) as follow:

a 
 finite poles   finite zeros (1.4)
#finite poles# finite zeros

(2k  1)
a 
#finite poles# finite zeros
(1.5)

Where, k =0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

We can conclude that the number of branches that go to infinity equals the difference
between the number of finite poles and the number of finite zeros.

1.3 ADDITIONAL RULES TO DRAW THE ROOT LOCUS

The additional rules are used to draw the root locus on the graph paper. To refine the root
locus, the accurately important points on the root locus along with their associated gain can
be determined. The points are:-
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

1. Real-axis breakaway and real-axis break-in (if any)

2. The jw axis crossings (if any)

Then, the angles of departure and arrival from complex poles and zeros can be calculated,
respectively (if any).

Rule 6

Breakaway – the point where the locus leaves the real axis
Break-in – the point where the locus returns to the real axis

Methods
There are three methods used to calculate these points:-

1. Maximize & minimize the gain, K, using differential calculus.

2. Transition method & eliminates the step of differentiation. This method stated:
m n
1 1
i   z i   p
 (1.6)
i i

Where zi and pi are the negative of the zero and pole values, respectively, of G(s)H(s).
3. Use computer software (ex. Matlab)

Rule 7

To find the jw-axis crossing, we can use the Routh-Hurwitz criterion as follows:

1. Forcing a row zeros in the Routh table

2. Going back one row to the even polynomial equation, and
3. Solving for the roots yields the frequency at the imaginary axis crossing

Rule 8

The root locus can be refined by finding angles of departure from the complex poles and the
arrival angle from the complex zeros.

How to calculate the angles of departure

1. Assume a point, ε, on the root locus close to a complex pole.
2. The sum of angles drawn from all finite poles and zeros to this point is an odd
multiple of 180º.
3. Then, the angle of departure from this complex pole can be calculated.

Equation (1.7) is used to calculate the angle of departure (  departure )

 departure  180   z   p (1.7)

How to calculate the angles of arrival

1. Assume a point, ε, on the root locus close to a complex zero.
2. The sum of angles drawn from all finite poles and zeros to this point is an odd
multiple of 180º.
3. Then, the angle of arrival from this complex pole can be calculated.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Equation (1.8) is used to calculate the angle of departure (  arrival )

 arrival 180   z   p (1.8)

1.4 PLOTTING AND CALIBRATING THE ROOT LOCUS

The accurately locate points on the root locus as well as their associated gain, K can be
determined because all points on the root locus satisfy the relationship of equation (1.3).
The gain, K, at any point on the root locus is given by equation (1.9)

1  Pole lengths
K  (1.9)
G( s) H ( s)  Zero lengths

1.5 GAIN ADJUSTMENT: TRANSIENT RESPONSE

The root locus can be used to design required transient response. It must be emphasized that
the formulae describing percent overshoot, settling time and peak time were derived only for
a system with two closed-loop poles and no closed-loop zeros. The transients response of
other systems (system with zeros or higher-order system) can be analyzed as pure second-
order system by approximation methods. The conditions justifying a second-order
approximation are restated as:

1. Higher-order poles are much farther into left half plane of the s-plane that the
dominant second-order pair of poles. The response that results from a higher-order
pole does not appreciably change the transient response expected from the dominant
second-order poles.
2. Closed-loop zeros near the closed loop second order pole are nearly canceled by the
close proximity of higher-order closed-loop poles.
3. Closed-loop zeros not canceled by the close proximity of higher-order closed-loop
poles are far removed from the closed-loop second-order pole pair.

1.6 ROOT LOCUS FOR POSITIVE-FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

Figure 1.3 shows a block diagram of a positive feedback system. The positive-feedback
system also can be thought of as a negative-feedback system with a negative value of H(s).

R(s) C(s)
+
+ KG(s)

H(s)

Figure 1.3: A positive feedback system

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

The transfer function for the positive feedback system shown in Figure 1.3 is given as:
KG ( s)
T ( s)  (1.10)
1  KG(s)H(s)

From this equation, poles exist when the characteristic polynomial in the denominator
becomes zero, or
1  KG(s) H (s)  0 (1.11)
KG(s) H (s)  1  1k 360 (1.12)

Where, k =0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

The sketching for a root locus of positive feedback is stated as:

1. Number of branches – there is no change (same as negative feedback).

2. Symmetry – no change
3. Real-axis segment – On the real axis, the root locus for positive feedback system exists
to the left of an odd number of real-axis, finite open-loop poles or finite open loop zeros.
4. Starting and ending point – no change
5. Behavior at infinity – the equation of the asymptotes for positive-feedback systems is
given by the real-axis intercept,a , and angle,a , as follow:

a 
 finite poles   finite zeros (1.13)
#finite poles# finite zeros

k 2
a  (1.14)
#finite poles# finite zeros

Where, k =0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

PROBLEM AND SOLUTIONS

1. A negative unity feedback system in Figure Q1-1 has a forward transfer function as
below:
K
KG ( s) 
s( s  10)

Find the location of closed-loop when K=0, 5, 15, 25 and 40 and draw these poles on
the same s-plane. Give the conclusion.

R(s) C(s)
+
- KG(s)
1-

H(s)

Figure Q1-1

Solution:

I. Write the equation of characteristic polynomial in the numerator to find the zeros
location.

KG ( s )  0
K
0
s ( s  10)
K 0

We conclude that there is no zero on the system (K=0).

II. Write the equation of characteristic polynomial in the denominator to find the poles
location.

1  KG ( s )  0
K
1 0
s ( s  10)
K
 1
s ( s  10)

For K = 0,
0
 1
s ( s  10)
s ( s  10)  0
s  0,10

The closed-loop poles are located at 0 (pole 1) and -10 (pole 2).
For K = 5,
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

5
 1
s ( s  10)
s ( s  10)  5
s 2  10 s  5  0
s  0.53,9.47

The closed-loop poles are located at -0.53 (pole 1) and -9.47 (pole 2).

For K = 15,

15
 1
s ( s  10)
s ( s  10)  15
s 2  10 s  15  0
s  1.84,8.16

The closed-loop poles are located at -1.84 (pole 1) and -8.16 (pole 2).

For K = 25,

25
 1
s ( s  10)
s ( s  10)  25
s 2  10 s  25  0
s  5,5

Both closed-loop poles (pole 1 and pole 2) are located at -5.

For K = 40,

40
 1
s( s  10)
s( s  10)  40
s 2  10s  40  0
s  5  j 3.87,5  j 3.87

The closed-loop poles are located at -5+j3.87 (pole 1) and -5-j3.87 (pole 2).

III. Draw the poles/zeros on s-plane

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Plotting the poles (for K=0, 5, 15, 25 and 40)

jw
on the same s-plane

K=40
X

K=0 K=15 K=25 K=15 K=0

 XX X X
X X XX
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 K=5
K=5

X
K=40

IV. Conclusion

We can see that the location of poles changed when the value of K is changed.

2. Figure Q1-2 shows a negative unity feedback system has a forward transfer function,
K ( s  1)
KG( s)  . Find the location of closed-loop poles and zeros when K=0, 2,
s( s  2)( s  4)
5 and 10 and draw these poles and zeros on the same s-plane. Give the conclusion.

Gain/Parameter Plant
R(s) + C(s)
_

Figure Q1-2

Solution:
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

I. Write the equation of characteristic polynomial in the numerator to find the zeros
location
KG ( s )  0
K ( s  1)
0
s ( s  2)( s  4)
K ( s  1)  0
0
s 1  0
K

We can conclude that the values of K didn’t influent the location of zeros OR zeros
location didn’t change if K is changed.

Therefore the location of zero is at -1 for K=0, K=5 and K=10.

II. Write the equation of characteristic polynomial in the denominator to find the poles
location.

1  KG ( s ) H ( s )  0
K ( s  1)
1 0
s ( s  2)( s  4)
K ( s  1)
 1
s ( s  2)( s  4)

For K = 0,
0( s  1)
 1
s ( s  2)( s  4)
s ( s  2)( s  4)  0
s  0,2,4

The closed-loop poles are located at 0, -2 and -4.

For K = 5,
5( s  1)
 1
s ( s  2)( s  4)
5( s  1)  [ s ( s  2)( s  4)]
(5s  5)  ( s 3  6s 2  8s )  0
s 3  6s 2  13s  5  0
s  0.4840,2.7580  j1.6503,2.7580  j1.6503

The closed-loop poles are located at -2.7580 + j1.6503, -2.7580 - j1.650

and -0.4840.

For K = 10,
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

10( s  1)
 1
s ( s  2)( s  4)
10( s  1)  [ s ( s  2)( s  4)]
(10s  10)  ( s 3  6s 2  8s )  0
s 3  6s 2  18s  10  0
s  0.6997,2.6501  j 2.6959,2.6501  j 2.6959

The closed-loop poles are located at

-2.6501 + j2.6959, -2.6501 - j2.6959 and -0.6997

III. Draw the poles/zeros on s-plane

Plotting the poles (for K=0, 5 and 15) on the same s-plane jw

X K=15

X K=5

K=0 K=0 K=15 K=0

 X X 0 X X X
-4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5
K=5

X K=5

X K=15

IV. Conclusion

We can see that the location of poles change and the location of zero didn’t
change when the value of K is changed. The path of the poles when gain K is
increase called Root Locus.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

3. For each transfer function, state the number of branches root locus?

1 1
(a) G(s)  (c ) G ( s ) 
s(s  2) s( s  2s  1)
2

1 ( s  2)
(b) G(s)  (d ) G ( s) 
s(s  3)(s  5) s( s  5)(s 4  1)

Solution:

(a) The number of poles equals to the number of branches. There are two poles in the
transfer function, so the number of branches of root locus is two.

One pole
One pole

(b) The number of poles equals to the number of branches. There are three poles in the
transfer function, so the number of branches of root locus is three.

One pole
One pole
One pole

(c) The number of poles equals to the number of branches. There are three poles in the
transfer function, so the number of branches of root locus is three.

Two poles
One pole

(d) The number of poles equals to the number of branches. There are six poles in the
transfer function, so the number of branches of root locus is six.

Four poles
One pole
One pole
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

4. For each of the root locus shown below, are they symmetry?

x
x x x
x

(a) (b)

x x x x

(c) (d)
Figure Q 1-4

Solution:

(a) Symmetry about real axis(σ)

(b) Not symmetry about real axis(σ)
(c) Not symmetry about real axis(σ)
(d) Symmetry about real axis(σ)

5. For each of the loci path shown in Figure Q1-5, identify the correct answers when K
increases?

x x x x x

(a) (b)
Figure Q1-5
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Solution:

(a) Correct – loci started at poles and ended up (when K→∞ ) at finite/infinite zeros.
(b) Not correct – loci did not start at pole and end (when K→∞ ) at zero.

x x

The loci path started at zero and ended up at pole

6. Draw the real axis segment for each the shown in Figure Q1-6.

x x x x x

(a) (b)

x x x x x x

(c) (d)
Figure Q1-6
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Solution:

x x x x x

(a) (b)

x x x x x x

(c) (d)

( s  2)
7. If the system has a transfer function, G( s)  , how many asymptotes on
s( s  5)( s 2  1)
the root locus?

Solution:

According to Rule 5, the number of asymptotes equal to the diference between number
of poles and zeros. The transfer function has 4 poles and 1 zero, therefore there will be
3 asymptotes lines on the root locus, means that three of the poles approached to
infinity zeros.

1
8. The unity feedback system with transfer function, G( s)  , draw the
s( s  1)(s  5)
asymptotes of the root locus.

Solution:

The asymptotes intersect real axis,  a

a 
 finite poles   finite zeros
# finite poles  # finite zeros


0  (1)  (5)  0   6  2
30 3

The asymptotes radiate out with angles (k is 0,1 and 2 because there is three asymptote
lines on the root locus)
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

(2k  1)
a 
# finite poles  # finite zeros

For k=0,

(2(0)  1)  180

a     60
30 3 3

For k=1,

(2(1)  1) 3
a    180
30 3

For k=2

(2(2)  1) 5 5  180

a     300
30 3 3

Draw the asymptote lines,

An asymptote line with 60

An asymptote line with 180

x x x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1

An asymptote line with 300

9. Sketch the root locus and its asymptotes for the system shown in Figure Q1-9.

Transfer Function
Gain Output, C(s)
Input, R(s) +
_

Figure Q1-9
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Solution:

The closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Figure Q1-9 is:

K ( s  3)
T(s) 
s( s  1)(s  2)(s  6)  K ( s  3)

 Find closed loop poles and zeros location for K= 0.

Poles: 0, -1, -2 and -6
Zeros: -3

 Draw the location of poles and zeros on s-plane

jω

j2

j1

X O X X X
 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

-j1

-j2

Legend
X = pole
O = zero

 Sketch the RL by applying the basic rules

Notes:
 The rules are not necessary in order to do the sketches
 Not all the rules are applicable to all loci

(1) Draw real axis segment

- The root locus exists on the real axis segment.

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

jω

j2

j1
real axis segment 3 real axis segment 2 real axis segment 1

X O X X X
 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
-1
-j1

-j2

Legend
X = pole
O = zero
= real axis segment

(2) Calculates a and the angles (a) and draw the asymptotes

- The asymptotes intersect real axis, a

a 
 finite poles   finite zeros
# finite poles  # finite zeros


0  (1)  (2)  (6)  0   9  3
4 1 3

- The angles of asymptotes, a

p = 3 (p = # of poles – # of zeros)
Therefore a = 60, 180 and 300, so there will be 3 asymptotes lines.
Draw the real axis segment
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

asymptote line 1 with  a = 60°

jω

j2

asymptote line 2 with  a = 180° j1

X O X X X
 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

-j1
 a = -3

-j2

Legend
X = pole
O = zero
= real axis segment
= asymptotes line asymptote line 3 with  a = 300°

(3) Draw or sketch the root locus

Notes:
You need to consider all the Basic Rules when you sketch the RL.
(i) The RL must symmetry about real axis.
(ii) There are four poles and one finite zero for this transfer function. That means we
will have 4 branches of RL.
(iii) The loci must start at pole and end at zero.
(iv) The loci must exist on real axis segments.
(v) When the loci approaches infinity they will be straight lines as asymptotes.

 The first branch of loci started at pole 1 and ended at finite zero 1;
 The second branch of loci started at pole 2 and ended at infinity zero 2. (When
the loci approaches infinity, the loci will follow asymptotes line 1);
 The third branch of loci started at pole 3 and ended at infinity zero 3. (When
the loci approaches infinity, the loci will follow asymptotes line 2);
 The fourth branch of loci started at pole 4 and ended at infinity zero 4. (When
the loci approaches infinity, the loci will follow asymptotes line 3).
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

jω
zero 2 at ∞

j2

j1
zero 4 at ∞ pole 4 zero 1 pole 1 pole 3 pole 2
X 1O X X X
 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

-j1

-j2
Legend
X = pole zero 3 at ∞
O = zero
= real axis segment
= asymptotes line
= root locus

10. Find the breakaway and break-in points for the root locus in Figure Q1-10.
jw

X X 
-2 -1 2 3

Figure Q1-10.

Solution:

i) Method: Maximize & minimize the gain, K, using differential calculus

The breakaway point exists between -1 and -2 while the break-in point exists between 2
and 3.

 Write a denominator equation of closed loop system, T(s).

( s  1)(s  2)  K ( s  2)(s  3)  0
s 2  3s  2  K ( s 2  5s  6)  0

 Rearrange the equation and replace s→

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

s 2  3s  2
K 2
s  5s  6
 2  3  2
K  2 How?
s    5  6
u
K ( ) 
 Differentiate the equation and make it equal to zero. v
du dv
v( )  u( )
( 2  3  2) dK ( ) d d
K 
u 
d v 2
s  ( 2  5  6) v

dK ( ) ( 2  5  6)(2  3)  ( 2  3  2)(2  5)
 0
d ( 2  5  6) 2

(2 3  10 2  12  3 2  15  18)  (2 3  6 2  4  5 2  15  10)  0( 2  5  6)

 8 2  8  28  0
The answer can be determined by using:
8 2  8  28  0 2
1) Use the formula: as + bs + c = 0
  2.4365,1.4365 -b± √b2-4ac
2a

2) Scientific calculator
How?
Depend on the type of calculator.
Basically using: Mode EQN. Please
refer the manual of calculator.

3) Matlab (software)
% write this command in
%MATLAB
roots([8 -8 -28]);

 Therefore, the breakaway and break-in points -1.4365 and 2.4365.

ii) Method: Transition method & eliminates the step of differentiation

m n
1 1
i   z i   p

i i

1 1 1 1
  
  2   3  1   2
  3    2   2   1

(  3)(  2) (  1)(  2)
(2  5)( 2  3  2)  (2  3)( 2  5  6)
2 3  5 2  6 2  15  4  10  2 3  3 2  10 2  15  12  18
8 2  8  28  0
  2.4365,1.4365
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

11. Given the unity feedback system that have a transfer function,
K
G( s)  . The root locus shown in Figure Q1-11. Calculate the jw
s( s  3)(s 2  2s  2)
crossing of the system.

jw-axis crossing points

Figure Q1-11

Solution:

s( s  3)(s 2  2s  2)  K  0
s 4  5s 3  8s 2  6 s  K  0

Routh-Hurwitz criterion
s4 1 8 K
s3 5 6
s2 1 8 1 K
5 6 5 0
 
5 5
5(8)  1(6) K
 6.8
5
s1 5 6 0
6 .8 K

6.8
40.8  5K
6 .8
s0 K

Only the s1 row can yield a row of zeros. Thus,

40.8  5K
0
6.8
K = 8.16
By using the s2 row with K = 8.16,
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

6.8s 2  8.16  0
s   j1.1
The root locus crosses the j -axis at j1.1 at a gain 8.16.

12. Find the angle of departure (θP3) for the root locus shown in Figure Q1-12.

Root Locus

θP3

Figure Q1-12

Solution:
Root Locus

 P    z  180
 1   2   P 3   3  180
θ2= -90
 P 3  180   1   2   3
1
θ1 θ3= -90  180  ( tan 1  )  (90)  (90)
1
θP3  180  45
 225
 135

Notes:
We define,  = +ve (anti clockwise)

 = –ve (clockwise)

13. Find the angle of departure (θP3) from the complex poles and angle of arrival to the
complex zeros for the root locus shown in Figure Q1-13.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Figure Q1-13

Solution:

x 
departure
1 = -180

x 2
3 = -90

Departure angle (  departure ) from s = –4 +j1

 departure  180   z   p
 180  (1   2 )   3
2
 180  (180)  ( tan 1 )  (90)  45
2
Notes:
We define,  = +ve (anti clockwise)

 = –ve (clockwise)
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

x
3 = 0 arrival

x
2 1= -90

Arrival angle (  arrival ) to s = –2 +j1

 arrival  180   z   p
 180   1  ( 2   3 )
2
 180  90  (tan 1  90)  0  135
2

14. By referring to question Q9, refine the sketching that has been obtained. Draw and label
the root locus on the graph paper.

Solution:

 Rule 6: Breakaway point

From the sketching, we know that break away point between 0 and –1.

K ( s  3)
T(s) 
s( s  1)( s  2)( s  6)  K ( s  3)
K ( s  3)
 4
s  9s  20s 2  (12  K ) s  3K
3

Write a denominator equation of closed loop system, T(s).

s 4  9s 3  20s 2  (12  K ) s  3K  0
 s 4  9s 3  20s 2  12s
K
s3

Rearrange the equation and replace s→

  4  9 3  20 2  12
K 
s   3
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Differentiate the equation and make it equals to zero.

dK (  3)(4 3  27 2  40  12)  ( 4  9 3  20 2  12)(1)

 0
d (  3) 2
(4 4  12 3  27 3  81 2  40 2  120  12  36)  ( 4  9 3  20 2  12)  0
 3 4  30 3  101 2  120  36  0
   3.9617+ j0.8889(not possible),  3.9617 j 0.8889(not possible),
 1.6299(not possible),  0.4466(break away point)

 Rule 7: jw-axis crossing

K(s  3)
T(s) 
s  9s  20s 2  (12  K)s  3K
4 3

s4 1 20 3K
s3 9 12+K 0
s2 1 20 1 3K 0
9 (12  K ) 9 0
 
9 9
168  K 27 K
   3K
9 9
s1 9 12  K 0 0
(168  K ) / 9 3K

(168  K ) / 9


 ((2016  168K  12K  K 2 ) / 9)  27 K   9
168  K


(224  156 K  K
9
2

9

)  27 K  9
168  K
s0 3K 0 0

Only the s1 row can yield a row of zeros. Thus,

 2
(224  156  K )  27 K  9
9 9 0

168  K
2016  156 K  K 2  243K  0
K 2  87 K  2016  0
K  - 106.0160, 19.0160

Value of K must be +ve value, therefore K=19.016 is chosen.

By using the s2 row with K=19.016,
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

168  19.016 2
s  3(19.016)  0
9
148.984 2
s  57.048
9
9
s 2  57.048 
148.984
s   j1.8564
The root locus crosses the j -axis at j1.8564 at a gain, K= 19.016.

 Rule 8: Angle of departure and angle of arrival

- No angle of departure because there have no complex poles
- No angle of arrival because there have no complex zeros

 Draw and label the root locus

jw crossing = j1.8564

Breakaway = –0.4466

15. A control system has the open loop transfer function given by:
K
G( s) 
( s  2)( s  6s  10)
2

a) Determine the open loop poles and zeros for the system.
b) Calculate the angle of asymptotes,  a and the intersection of the asymptotes with
the real axis,  a .
c) Find the angle of departure.
d) Determine j-axis crossing point and estimate the maximum value of gain K before
the system becomes unstable.
e) Draw and label the root locus on the graph paper. (Use scale 1: 1 for real axis, 
and imaginary axis, j)
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Solution:

a) Open loop poles = –2, –3+j1, –3–j1

Open loop zeros = none

b) The angle of asymptotes,  a and the intersection of the asymptotes and the real axis,
a .
 (2k  1)(180) 
a   
 30  a 
 p zj i

 60 for k  0
0 30
(2  3  j1  3  j1) 8
 180 0 for k  1     2.67
3 3
 300 0 for k  2
c) Departure angle (1) from s = –3 +j1
1
1  180   z   p  180  (90)  ( tan 1 )  315  45
32

jw

X j1

X
–3 –2 
X –j1

d) jw-axis crossing
K
T(s) 
s  8s  22s  20  K
3 2

s3 1 22
s2 8 20+K
s1 1 22 K
8 20  K

8
(22  8)  (1  (20  K ))

8
156  K

8
s0 K 0

Only the s1 row can yield a row of zeros. Thus,

156  K
0
8
K  156
By using the s2 row with K=156,
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

8s 2  156  0
156
s2  
8
s  19.5
2

s   j4.4159

The root locus crosses the j -axis at j4.4159 at a gain, K=156 (the maximum
value of gain K before the system becomes unstable)

e) Draw the root locus

jw crossing = j4.4159

Departure angle = -45

jw crossing = - j4.4159

16. Given the unity feedback system with a forward path transfer function,
K
G( s)  . Do the followings:
( s  1)(s  2)(s  6)

(a) Draw the root locus on the graph paper.

(b) Find the range or value of gain, K for
i. overdamped
ii. critically damped
iii. undamped
iv. underdamped
(c) Comment on the peak time, settling time, percent overshoot and system stability
for underdamped response of the system as the gain K is varied.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

(d) Find the location of dominant poles when the system is operating with 25%
overshoot. Then, determine the validity of second-order approximation.
(e) The step response of the closed loop system for the system above is shown in
Figure Q1-16. What is the value of gain, K required achieving this response.

Figure Q1-16

Solution:

(a) Draw the root locus

i. Determine the open loop poles and zeros for the system.
Poles= -1, -2, -6
Zeros= nil
ii. Calculate the angle of asymptotes,  a and the intersection of the asymptotes and the
real axis,  a .
 (2k  1)(180) 
a   
 30  a 
 p z
j i

 60 for k  0
0 30
(1  2  6)
 180 0 for k  1   3
3
 300 0 for k  2
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

iii. Sketch the root locus Asymptote line (60)

Asymptote line (180) Pole 3 Pole 2 Pole 1

X X X
–6 –3 –2 –1

Asymptote line (300)

Legend
Asymptote line
Root Locus

 From the sketch we know that the root locus has a break away point between
pole 1 and pole 2 (between –1 and –2).
 There is no angle of departure/arrival (because no complex pole/zero).
 The first branch of loci started at pole 1 and ended at infinity zero 1. (When the
loci approaches infinity, the loci will follow asymptotes line 60).
 The second branch of loci started at pole 2 and ended at infinity zero 2. (When
the loci approaches infinity, the loci will follow asymptotes line 300)
 The third branch of loci started at pole 3 and ended at infinity zero 3. (When the
loci approaches infinity, the loci will follow as asymptotes line 180)

iv. Calculate the location of any real axis breakaway or break in points.

KGH  1
1
K( )  1
s  9 s  20s  12
3 2

K  ( s 3  9 s 2  20s  12)
s 
dK
 (3 2  18  20)  0
d
 18  324  4(3)(20)

2(3)

  1.4725(breakaway point) @   4.5275 (not possible not on loci )

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

v. Determine j-axis crossing point and estimate the maximum value of gain K before
the system becomes unstable.

K
T ( s) 
s  9s  20s  (12  K )
3 2

S3 1 20
S2 9 (12+K)
1
S 1 20 0
9 (12  K )

9
168  K

9
S0 (12+K) 0

From row of zero (row s1):

168  K
0
9
K  168

Even polynomial:
9s 2  12  K  0
9s 2  (12  168)
9s 2  180
s   j 4.472 (jw - crossing point)

vi. Draw and label the root locus on the graph paper. (Use scale 1: 1 for both -axis
and j-axis).
(Note: The scale that used for  -axis and j-axis in graph paper MUST be same)

Asymptote line (60)

- j 4.472 (j crossing point)

Asymptote line (180) Pole 3 Pole 2 Pole 1
X X X
–6 –3 –2 –1

-1.4725 (break-away) - -j 4.472 (j crossing point)

Asymptote line (300)

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

(b) Find the range or value of gain, K for

i. Overdamped - poles exist on the -axis, so after pole 1 and pole2 reach at the
break-away point, they will be a complex conjugate poles and at the time the
system is underdamped

-1.4725
(Break-away point)

x x x
-10 -2 -1

 Pole Length
K (at the breakaway point) 
Zero Length
 10  (1.4725)   2  (1.14725)   1.14725  (1)

1
4.5275  0.5275  0.4725
  1.128
1

Therefore for overdamped: 0  K  1.128

ii. Critically damped - when the conjugate poles on the same coordinate -axis
which is the break-away point
Therefore critically damped: K  1.128
iii. Undamped - when the conjugate poles on the jw-axis which is the jw-axis
crossing point
Therefore undamped: K  168
iv. Underdamped - between critically damped and undamped
Therefore underamped: 1.128  K  168

(c) Comment : Tp decreases, Ts and %OS increase and system is stable for K<168 and
not stable for K>168

(d) Find the location of dominant poles when the system is operating with 25%
overshoot. Then, determine the validity of second-order approximation.
%OS  25%
 In(0.25)
  0.404 ;   cos 1 (0.404)  66.17
  In (0.25)
2 2

From graph (root locus) that had been drawn, sd  1.0  j 2.37 for K = 33.73
K  2.37 2  0 2  2.37 2  12  2.37 2  52  33.73

System is valid for second-order approximation because the third-pole system is 5

times away from real part of dominant poles.

(e) Refer to Figure Q1-16,

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

%OS  22.8%
 In(0.228)
  0.426
 2  In 2 (0.228)
  cos 1 (0.426)  64.8
From graph (root locus) that had been drawn, s d  1.05  j 2.3 for K = 31.23
K  2.32  0.05 2  2.32  0.95 2  2.32  4.95 2  31.23

17. Given the unity feedback system shown in Figure Q1-17, where,
K
G( s)  . Make an accurate plot of the root locus for the system and
s( s  3)(s 2  2s  2)
do the following:

(a) Find the asymptotes

(b) Find the real-axis breakaway
(c) Find angles of departure from the complex poles
(d) Find the j -axis crossing and the gain, K, at the crossing
(e) Find the gain, K, and natural frequency, n, for a damping ratio of 0.5

R(s) + C(s)
G(s)
_

Figure Q1-17

Solution:

(a) The asymptotes:

Poles= 0, -3, -1 + j1 and -1 - j1
Zeros= nil

0  (3)  (1  j1)  (1  j1)

A 
(4  0)
 -1.25

(2k  1)
A  , k  0,  1,  2, ....
40
 45,135,225,315
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

(b) Breakaway point

s ( s  3)( s 2  2s  2)  K  0
s 4  5s 3  8s 2  6 s  K  0
K  ( s 4  5 s 3  8s 2  6 s )
K ( )  ( 4  5 3  8 2  6 )
dK ( )
 (4 3  15 2  16  6)  0
d
  2.3;   0.725  j0.365

Therefore, the root locus breaks away at point -2.3

(c) Angles of departure,  D for pole at -1 + j1

jw
 D  180  (1   2   3 )
1 1
X j1  180  [(180  tan1 )  ( tan1 )  90]
1 2
X X  180  [135  26.6  90]
–3 –2 –1 
–j1
 71.6
X

Or, it can be calculated as,

jw
 D  180  (1   2   3 )
1 2
 180  [  (tan1 )  (90  tan1 )  90]
X j1 1 1
 180  [45  90  63.4  90]
X X
–3 –2 –1   288.4  71.6
X –j1

Angles of departure,  D for pole at -1 - j1

jw

 D  180  (1   2   3 )
X j1
1 1
 180  [(90  tan1 )  (tan1 )  90]
X X 1 2
–1 
–3 –2  180  [135  26.6  90]
X –j1
 431.6  71.6

Notes: Root locus is symmetry about real axis, so we just need to calculate either one
of complex poles/zeros. The magnitude is same but the difference is only the sign +ve
or –ve.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

(d) j -axis crossing and the gain, K, at the crossing

s( s  3)(s 2  2s  2)  K  0
s 4  5s 3  8s 2  6 s  K  0

Routh-Hurwitz criterion

s4 1 8 K
s3 5 6
s2 5(8)  1(6) 5K
 6.8
5
s1 204 0
 5K
5
6.8
s0 K
Only the s1 row can yield a row of zeros. Thus,
204  5K
5 0
6.8
K < 8.16
By using the s2 row with K = 8.16,
6.8s 2  8.16  0
s   j1.1
The root locus crosses the j -axis at j1.1 at a gain 8.16.
The system is stable if all terms in the 1st column are +ve,
204  5K
5 0
6.8
K < 8.16
The system is stable for 0 < K < 8.16
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Draw the root locus:

Departure angle = -71.6

jw crossing = j1.1

Breakaway point = -2.3

jw crossing = - j1.1

Departure angle = 71.6

Legend

Asymptote line
a = -1.25

(e) The gain, K and natural frequency n, for a damping ratio of 0.5.
  cos 1 0.5  45

Refer to the root locus below, the locus crosses the  = 0.5 line at s = -0.4  j0.7

Line (=0.5)

The point (-0.4+ j0.7)

of locus crosses the
=45 line (=0.5)

The gain, K
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

1  pole lengths
K 
G ( s)  zero lengths
 s s  3 s  1  j1 s  1  j1 s  0.4  j 0.7
 2.9

The natural frequency, n

s  0.4  j 0.7
 - n  j n 1   2
 n  0.8 rad/s

18. The unity feedback system has a forward path transfer function of
K
G( s)  .
s( s  2)( s  4)( s  6)
(a) Find the closed-loop transfer function
(b) Simulate the root locus using MATLAB
(c) If the system has an overshoot percentage of 15%, calculate the parameters of the
transient response and steady-state error for ramp input.
(d) Show by using Matlab the location of poles when K = 10, 50 and 1000. Give your
comment.

Solution:
(a) Closed-loop transfer function, T(s)
K K
T ( s)   4
s( s  2)(s  4)(s  6)  K s  12s  44s 2  48s  K
3

(b) Root Locus using MATLAB

Command in Matlab

num=1; %numerator
den=poly([0 -2 -4 -6]); % denominator s(s+2)(s+4)(s+6)
G=tf(num,den) %display open loop transfer function
T=feedback(G, 1) %display closed loop transfer function
rlocus(G) %simulate the root locus of G

Run this command, the root locus is generated as below:

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Or we can use rltool to simulate the root locus.

How to simulate the ROOT LOCUS using RLTOOL?

1. Type the numerator and denominator of the system (G(s)) on the command MATLAB
window. ( Assume gain K = 1 )
2. Type command to display the transfer function of the system.
(Ex: G = tf (num,den))
3. Type RLTOOL in the command window ( you can type in num lock or caps lock)

num=1; %numerator
den=poly([0 -2 -4 -6]); % denominator s(s+2)(s+4)(s+6)
G=tf(num,den) %display open loop transfer function
rltool %the command to use rltool

4. Click Close button for window of “Getting started with the SISO Design Tool”.
5. Select “File” then click “Import”. Window of “Import System Data” will appear.
6. Select G (the transfer function you had defined earlier) and click button “” for G.
Then click ok.
7. The root locus of the system will be drawn. We can move the cursor to view the
location of poles and the gain.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

How to simulate the step response using the root locus that have been drawn by
RLTOOL?

1. Select “Analysis” then click “Response to Step Command”.

2. Right click on the graph. Click the “Systems” and then click the “Closed Loop: r to u
(green)”. The closed loop step response of the system will be drawn.
3. If you want to see the open loop step response of the system, right click on the graph
and then click “Open Loop L (yellow)”.
4. To display the rise time, settling time, peak time and final value, right click on the
graph and click “Characteristics”
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

Closed-loop step response Open loop and closed-loop step response

(c) Calculate the parameters of the transient response and steady-state error for ramp
input (the %OS = 15%).

%OS  15%
 In(0.15)
  0.517
 2  In 2 (0.15)
  cos 1 (0.517)  58.9
From graph, s d  0.573  j 0.943 for K = 37

K (gain)

Line of =0.517 (%OS=15%)

Location of poles

The transient response

Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

4 4
Ts    6.98 s
 n 0.573
 
Tp    3.33 s
d 0.943
The steady-state error
1 1 1
ess     1.297
K v lim sG( s) 37
s 0 (2  4  6)

(d) Show by using Matlab the location of poles when K = 10, 50 and 1000. Give your
comment.

K = 10 K = 50 K = 1000
Pole (0) -0.271 -0.482 + j1.16 1.29 + j3.66
Pole (-2) -1.4 -0.482 - j1.16 1.29 + j3.66
Pole (-4) -4.6 -0.552 + j1.16 -7.29 +j3.66
Pole (-6) -5.73 -0.552 - j1.16 -7.29 -j3.66

Comment: System is stable for K=10 and K=5. For K=1000, system is not stable
(have poles at right half plane of s-plane).
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

EXERCISE 1

1. A unity feedback system has an open-loop transfer function given by:

K ( s 2  4s  5)
G(s)  2
( s  8s  17)
Calculate the departure angle from the complex poles and the arrival angle to the complex
zeros.

2. Given the unity feedback system of figure 1, where

K ( s  1)
G( s) 
s( s  3)(s  2)(s  4)

Make an accurate plot of the root locus for the system.

(a) Find the value of gain, K that will make the system marginally stable and find the
natural frequency, wn?
(b) Find the value of gain for which the closed-loop transfer function will have a pole
on the real- axis at –0.5.

3. Given the unity feedback system shown in Figure 1, where

K (s  z)
G( s) 
s 2 ( s  20)

do the following:
(a) If z = 6, find K so that the damped frequency of oscillation of the transient response
is 10 rad/s
(b) For the system of part (a), what static constant (finite) can be specified? What is its
value?
(c) If z = 0, and the system specifications are %OS = 4.32% and TS = 0.4s, sketch the
root locus and find the value of K.

4. Given the unity feedback system of Figure 1, where

K ( s  1)
G(s) 
s( s  3)(s  2)

Make an accurate plot of the root locus for the system. Given the breakaway point is -
2.46.
(a) Find the value of gain that will make the system marginally stable
(b) Find the value of gain for which the closed loop transfer function will have a pole
on the real axis at -0.5.
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques

SUMMARY

1. The root locus is the locus/path of the poles of a transfer function as the closed loop gain
of a system is varied.
2. The root locus is a powerful tool for analyzing single input and single output of dynamic
systems. Furthermore this technique is useful for design the controllers/compesators.
3. For the continuous systems, it is stable if all of the poles are in the left-hand side of the s-
plane.
4. The root locus can be used to design for thedamping ratio and natural frequency of a
feedback system.
5. Lines of constant damping ratio can be drawn radially from the origin and lines of
constant natural frequency can be drawn as arcs whose center points coincide with the
origin.
6. By selecting a point along the root locus that coincides with a desired damping ratio and
natural frequency a gain, K, can be calculated and implemented in the controller (i.e. PI,
PD and PID).
7. The description of the damping ratio and natural frequency presume that the overall
feedback system are approximated by a second order system (the system has a dominant
pair of pole).

Please refer the following website for the whole chapter

http://utembooks.utem.edu.my/en/product?page=shop.product_details&flypage=flypage.tpl&
product_id=97&category_id=3&keyword=control+system+engineering
Chapter 1: Root Locus Techniques