type number of the compensated system by 1, and this causes the compensated system to be less

stable or even makes the system unstable.Therefore, the values of must be chosen care-

fully to ensure a proper transient response. By properly designing the PI controller, it is possible

to make the transient response to a step input exhibit relatively small or no overshoot.The speed

of response, however, becomes much slower. This is because the PI controller, being a low-pass

filter, attenuates the high-frequency components of the signal.

The PD controller is a simplified version of the lead compensator. The PD controller has the

transfer function where

The value of Kp is usually determined to satisfy the steady-state requirement. The corner

frequency is chosen such that the phase lead occurs in the neighborhood of the gain

crossover frequency. Although the phase margin can be increased, the magnitude of the com-

pensator continues to increase for the frequency region (Thus, the PD controller is a

high-pass filter.) Such a continued increase of the magnitude is undesirable, since it amplifies

high-frequency noises that may be present in the system. Lead compensation can provide a

sufficient phase lead, while the increase of the magnitude for the high-frequency region is

very much smaller than that for PD control. Therefore, lead compensation is preferred over

PD control.

Because the transfer function of the PD controller involves one zero, but no pole, it is not

possible to electrically realize it by passive RLC elements only. Realization of the PD controller

using op amps, resistors, and capacitors is possible, but because the PD controller is a high-pass

filter, as mentioned earlier, the differentiation process involved may cause serious noise problems

in some cases.There is, however, no problem if the PD controller is realized by use of the hydraulic

or pneumatic elements.

The PD control, as in the case of the lead compensator, improves the transient-response

characteristics, improves system stability, and increases the system bandwidth, which implies fast

rise time.
The PID controller is a combination of the PI and PD controllers. It is a lag–lead compensator.

Note that the PI control action and PD control action occur in different frequency regions. The

PI control action occurs at the low-frequency region and PD control action occurs at the high-

frequency region. The PID control may be used when the system requires improvements in both

transient and steady-state performances.

A–8–2. Show that the transfer function U(s)/E(s) of the PID controller shown in Figure 8–44 is

Assume that the gain K is very large compared with unity, or K 1.

U(s)

E(s) = K0

T1 + T2

T1

c1+

AT1 + T2Bs +

T1T2s

T1 + T2

1Td 6 v.

1Td

Gc(s) = KpA1 + TdsB

Gc(s),

Kp and Ti
616 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

Ei(s) E(s) Eo(s)

Z1 Z2

C1 C2

R1

R2

R4

R3

R5

Figure 8–45

Modified PID

controller.

Solution

A–8–3. Consider the electronic circuit involving two operational amplifiers shown in Figure 8–45. This
is

a modified PID controller in that the transfer function involves an integrator and a first-order
lag term. Obtain the transfer function of this PID controller.

Solution. Since

and

we have

Also,

Eo(s)

E(s) = - R5

R4

E(s)

Ei

(s) = - Z2

Z1

= - AR2C2s + 1BAR1C1s + 1B

C2sAR1 + R3 + R1R3C1sB

Z2 = R2 +

C2s

Z1 = 1

R1

+ C1s

+ R3 = R1 + R3 + R1R3C1s

1 + R1C1s

= K0
T1 + T2

T1

c1+

AT1 + T2Bs +

T1T2s

T1 + T2

= K0 a 1 +

T1s + T2s +

T2

T1

= K0 a 1 +

T1s

b A1 + T2sB

= K0A1 + T1sBA1 + T2sB

T1s

Ka1

K0

T1s

1 + T1s

1 + T2s
b

U(s)

E(s) = K

1+Ka1

K0

T1s

1 + T1s

1 + T2s

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Example Problems and Solutions 617

R(s) 1 C(s)

Tds

+–

Figure 8–46

Approximate

differentiator.

PID controller Plant G(s)

R(s) C(s)
D(s)

K(as + 1) (bs + 1)

s2 + 3.6s + 9 + – +

Figure 8–47

PID-controlled

system.

Consequently,

Notice that R1C1 and R2C2 determine the locations of the zeros of the controller, while R1, R3, and

C1 affect the location of the pole on the negative real axis. R5/R4 adjusts the gain of the controller.

A–8–4. In practice, it is impossible to realize the true differentiator. Hence, we always have to
approxi-

mate the true differentiator by something like

One way to realize such an approximate differentiator is to utilize an integrator in the feedback path.

Show that the closed-loop transfer function of the system shown in Figure 8–46 is given by the pre-

ceding expression. (In the commercially available differentiator, the value of g may be set as 0.1.)

Solution. The closed-loop transfer function of the system shown in Figure 8–46 is

Note that such a differentiator with first-order delay reduces the bandwidth of the closed-loop
control system and reduces the detrimental effect of noise signals.

A–8–5. Consider the system shown in Figure 8–47. This is a PID control of a second-order plant G(s).
As-

sume that disturbances D(s) enter the system as shown in the diagram. It is assumed that the ref-

erence input R(s) is normally held constant, and the response characteristics to disturbances are

a very important consideration in this system.

C(s)

R(s) =

1+

gTds

= Tds

1 + gTds

Tds

1 + gTds

Tds

= R5R2

R4R3

as+

R1C1

bas+

R2C2

b
sas+

R1 + R3

R1R3C1

Eo(s)

Ei

(s) = Eo(s)

E(s)

E(s)

Ei

(s) = R5

R4AR1 + R3BC2

AR1C1s + 1BAR2C2s + 1B

s a R1R3

R1 + R3

C1s + 1 b

618 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

Design a control system such that the response to any step disturbance will be damped out

quickly (in 2 to 3 sec in terms of the 2% settling time). Choose the configuration of the closed-loop

poles such that there is a pair of dominant closed-loop poles. Then obtain the response to the

unit-step disturbance input. Also, obtain the response to the unit-step reference input.

Solution. The PID controller has the transfer function

For the disturbance input in the absence of the reference input, the closed-loop transfer function

becomes

(8–14)
The specification requires that the response to the unit-step disturbance be such that the settling

time be 2 to 3 sec and the system have a reasonable damping. We may interpret the specification

as and vn=4 radsec for the dominant closed-loop poles.We may choose the third pole

at s=–10 so that the effect of this real pole on the response is small. Then the desired charac-

teristic equation can be written as

(s+10)As2

+2*0.5*4s+42 B=(s+10)As2

+4s+16B=s3

+14s2

+56s+160

The characteristic equation for the system given by Equation (8–14) is

s3

+(3.6+Kab)s2

+(9+Ka+Kb)s+K=0

Hence, we require

3.6+Kab=14

9+Ka+Kb=56

K=160

which yields

ab=0.065, a+b=0.29375
The PID controller now becomes

With this PID controller, the response to the disturbance is given by

=s

(s + 10)As2 + 4s + 16B

D(s)

Cd(s) = s

s3 + 14s2 + 56s + 160 D(s)

= 10.4As2 + 4.5192s + 15.385B

= 160A0.065s2 + 0.29375s + 1B

Gc(s) = KCabs2 + (a + b)s + 1D

z = 0.5

=s

s3 + (3.6 + Kab)s2 + (9 + Ka + Kb)s + K

Cd(s)

D(s) = s

sAs2 + 3.6s + 9B + K(as + 1)(bs + 1)

Gc(s) = K(as + 1)(bs + 1)

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Example Problems and Solutions 619

Clearly, for a unit-step disturbance input, the steady-state output is zero, since

The response to a unit-step disturbance input can be obtained easily with MATLAB. MATLAB

Program 8–9 produces a response curve as shown in Figure 8–48(a). From the response curve, we

see that the settling time is approximately 2.7 sec.The response damps out quickly.Therefore, the

system designed here is acceptable.

limtS q cd(t) = limsS0

sCd(s) = limsS0

s2

(s + 10)As2 + 4s + 16B

s=0

MATLAB Program 8–9

% ***** Response to unit-step disturbance input *****

numd = [1 0];

dend = [1 14 56 160];

t = 0:0.01:5;

[c1,x1,t] = step(numd,dend,t);

plot(t,c1)

grid

title('Response to Unit-Step Disturbance Input')

xlabel('t Sec')

ylabel('Output to Disturbance Input')

% ***** Response to unit-step reference input *****

numr = [10.4 47 160];

denr = [1 14 56 160];
[c2,x2,t] = step(numr,denr,t);

plot(t,c2)

grid

title('Response to Unit-Step Reference Input')

xlabel('t Sec')

ylabel('Output to Reference Input')

For the reference input r(t), the closed-loop transfer function is

The response to a unit-step reference input can also be obtained by use of MATLAB Program 8–9.

The resulting response curve is shown in Figure 8–48(b).The response curve shows that the max-

imum overshoot is 7.3% and the settling time is 1.2 sec.The system has quite acceptable response

characteristics.

= 10.4s2 + 47s + 160

s3 + 14s2 + 56s + 160

Cr(s)

R(s) = 10.4As2 + 4.5192s + 15.385B

s3 + 14s2 + 56s + 160

620 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

A–8–6. Consider the system shown in Figure 8–49. It is desired to design a PID controller such that

the dominant closed-loop poles are located at For the PID controller,

choose a=1 and then determine the values of K and b. Sketch the root-locus diagram for the

designed system.

Solution. Since

Gc(s)G(s) = K (s + 1)(s + b)
s

s2 + 1

s = -1 ; j13 .

Gc(s)

Output to Disturbance Input

14

–4

12

10

–2

10–3 Response to Unit-Step Disturbance Input

t Sec

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

(a)
Output to Reference Input

1.2

0.6

0.8

1.0

0.4

0.2

Response to Unit-Step Reference Input

t Sec

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

(b)

Figure 8–48

(a) Response to

unit-step disturbance

input; (b) response to

unit-step reference

input.

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Example Problems and Solutions 621

Real Axis

–5 0 –4 –3 –2 –1 1

Imag Axis

–2

–3

–1

Root-Locus Plot of Gc(s)G(s)

Figure 8–50

Root-locus plot of

the compensated

system.

R(s) C(s)

PID controller Plant

Gc(s) G(s)

(s + a ) (s + b)

sK

s2 + 1 + –
Figure 8–49

PID-controlled

system.

the sum of the angles at one of the desired closed-loop poles, from the zero at

s=–1 and poles at s=0, s=j, and s=–j is

90°-143.794°-120°-110.104°=–283.898°

Hence the zero at s=–b must contribute 103.898°. This requires that the zero be located at

b=0.5714

The gain constant K can be determined from the magnitude condition.

or

K=2.3333

Then the compensator can be written as follows:

The open-loop transfer function becomes

From this equation a root-locus plot for the compensated system can be drawn. Figure 8–50 is a

root-locus plot.

Gc(s)G(s) = 2.3333(s + 1)(s + 0.5714)

s2 + 1

Gc(s) = 2.3333 (s + 1)(s + 0.5714)

s

2K (s + 1)(s + 0.5714)

s2 + 1

s= -1+j13

=1

s = -1 + j13 ,

622 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

The closed-loop transfer function is given by

The closed-loop poles are located at and s=–0.3333. A unit-step response curve

is shown in Figure 8–51. The closed-loop pole at s=–0.3333 and a zero at s=–0.5714 produce

a long tail of small amplitude.

A–8–7. Consider the system shown in Figure 8–52. Design a compensator such that the static velocity

error constant is 4 sec−1

, phase margin is 50°, and gain margin is 10 dB or more. Plot unit-step and

unit-ramp response curves of the compensated system with MATLAB.Also, draw a Nyquist plot

of the compensated system with MATLAB. Using the Nyquist stability criterion, verify that the

designed system is stable.

Solution. Since the plant does not have an integrator, it is necessary to have an integrator in the

compensator. Let us choose the compensator to be

where is to be determined later. Since the static velocity error constant is specified as

4 sec−1

, we have
Kv = limsS0

sGc(s)s + 0.1

s2 + 1 = limsS0

sK

s Gˆ

c(s)s + 0.1

s2 + 1 = 0.1K = 4

Gˆ

c(s)

Gc(s) = K

s Gˆ

c(s), limsS0

Gˆ

c(s) = 1

s = -1 ; j13

C(s)

R(s) = 2.3333(s + 1)(s + 0.5714)

s3 + s + 2.3333(s + 1)(s + 0.5714)

Time (sec)

0 8 2 4 6 10 12

Amplitude

0.4

0.8

1.2

0.6
1

0.2

Unit-Step Response of Compensated System

Figure 8–51

Unit-step response of

the compensated

system.

Gc(s) s + 0.1

s2 + 1 +

Figure 8–52

Control system.

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Example Problems and Solutions 623

Thus, K = 40. Hence

Next, we plot a Bode diagram of

MATLAB Program 8–10 produces a Bode diagram of G(s) as shown in Figure 8–53.

G(s) = 40(s + 0.1)

s(s2 + 1)

Gc(s) = 40

s Gˆ
c(s)

We need the phase margin of 50° and gain margin of 10 dB or more. Let us choose to be

Then Gc(s) will contribute up to 90° phase lead in the high-frequency region. By simple MATLAB

trials, we find that a = 0.1526 gives the phase margin of 50° and gain margin of dB. +q

Gˆ

c(s) = as + 1 (a 7 0)

Gˆ

c(s)

MATLAB Program 8–10

% ***** Bode Diagram *****

num = [40 4];

den = [1 0.000000001 1 0];

bode(num,den)

title('Bode Diagram of G(s) = 40(s+0.1)/[s(s^2+1)]')

Figure 8–53

Bode diagram of

G(s)=

40(s+0.1)/[s(s2

+1)]. Frequency (rad/sec)

Bode Diagram of G(s) = 40(s + 0.1)/[s(s2 + 1)]

−200

−50

−100
−150

−100

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

300

200

100

10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101

624 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

MATLAB Program 8–11

% ***** Bode Diagram *****

num = conv([40 4],[0.1526 1]);

den = [1 0.000000001 1 0];

sys = tf(num,den);

w = logspace(-2,2,100);

bode(sys,w)

[Gm,pm,wcp,wcg] = margin(sys);

GmdB = 20*log10(Gm);

[GmdB,pm,wcp,wcg]

ans =

Inf 50.0026 NaN 8.0114

title('Bode Diagram of G(s) = 40(s+0.1)(0.1526s+1)/[s(s^2+1)]')

Figure 8–54

Bode diagram of

G(s)=40(s+0.1)

(0.1526s+1)/
[s(s2

+1)]. Frequency (rad/sec)

Bode Diagram of G(s) = 40(s + 0.1)(0.1526s + 1)/[s(s2 + 1)]

−200

50

−50

−100

−150

100

−50

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

100

50

10−2 10−1 100 101 102

The designed compensator has the following transfer function:

Gc(s) = 40

s Gˆ

c(s) = 40(0.1526s + 1)

See MATLAB Program 8–11 and the resulting Bode diagram shown in Figure 8–54. From this

Bode diagram we see that the static velocity error constant is 4 sec−1

, phase margin is 50° and gain

margin is dB. Therefore, the designed system satisfies all the requirements. +q

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Example Problems and Solutions 625

The open-loop transfer function of the designed system is

Open-loop transfer function

We shall next check the unit-step response and the unit-ramp response of the designed system.

The closed-loop transfer function is

The closed-loop poles are located at

s=3.0032+j5.6573

s=3.0032-j5.6573

s=0.0975

MATLAB Program 8–12 will produce the unit-step response curve of the designed system.The re-

sulting unit-step response curve is shown in Figure 8–55. Notice that the closed-loop pole at

s = −0.0975 and the plant zero at s = −0.1 produce a long tail of small amplitude.

C(s)

R(s) = 6.104s2 + 40.6104s + 4

s3 + 6.104s2 + 41.6104s + 4

= 6.104s2 + 40.6104s + 4

s(s2 + 1)

= 40(0.1526s + 1)

s + 0.1
s2 + 1

MATLAB Program 8–12

% ***** Unit-Step Response *****

num = [6.104 40.6104 4];

den = [1 6.104 41.6104 4];

t = 0:0.01:10;

step(num,den,t)

grid

Figure 8–55

Unit-step response of

C(s)/R(s)=(6.104s2

40.6104s+4)/(s3

6.104s2

+41.6104s+4). Time (sec)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 8 10

Amplitude

1.4

0.8

1.2

0.4

0.2
1

0.6

Step Response

MATLAB Program 8–13 produces the unit-ramp response curve of the designed system. The

resulting response curve is shown in Figure 8–56.

626 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

MATLAB Program 8–13

% ***** Unit-Ramp Response *****

num = [0 0 6.104 40.6104 4];

den = [1 6.104 41.6104 4 0];

t = 0:0.01:20;

c = step(num,den,t);

plot(t,c,'-.',t,t,'-')

title('Unit-Ramp Response')

xlabel('t(sec)')

ylabel('Input Ramp Function and Output')

text(3,11.5,'Input Ramp Function')

text(13.8,11.2,'Output')

Figure 8–56

Unit-ramp response

of C(s)/R(s)=

(6.104s2

+40.6104s+

4)/(s3

+6.104s2

+
41.6104s+4).

Output Input Ramp Function

t (sec)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Input Ramp Function and Output

20

12

18

16

10

14

Unit-Ramp Response

Nyquist Plot. Earlier we found that the three closed-loop poles of the designed system are

all in the left-half s plane. Hence the designed system is stable. The purpose of plotting Nyquist

diagram here is not to test the stability of the system, but to enhance our understanding of Nyquist

stability analysis. For a complicated system, Nyquist plot will look complicated enough that it is
not easy to count the number of encirclements of the −1+j0 point.

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Example Problems and Solutions 627

Because the designed system involves three open-loop poles on the jw axis, the Nyquist dia-

gram will look quite complicated as we will see in what follows:

Define the open-loop transfer function of the designed system as G(s). Then

Let us choose a modified Nyquist path in the s plane as shown in Figure 8–57(a). The modified

path encloses three open-loop poles (s=0, s=j1, s=j1). Now define s1=s+ . Then,

the Nyquist path in the s1 plane becomes as shown in Figure 8–57(b). In the s1 plane, the open-

loop transfer function has three poles in the right-half s1 plane.

Let us choose Since we have

Open-loop transfer function in the s1 plane

A MATLAB program to obtain the Nyquist plot is shown in MATLAB Program 8–14. The re-

sulting Nyquist plot is shown in Figure 8–58.

= 6.104s1

2 + 40.48832s1 + 3.5945064

s1

3 - 0.03s1

2 + 1.0003s1 - 0.010001

= 6.104(s1

2 - 0.02s1 + 0.0001) + 40.6104(s1 - 0.01) + 4

(s1 - 0.01)(s1

2 - 0.02s1 + 1.0001)

G(s) = G(s1 - 0.01)

s = s1 - s0 s , 0 = 0.01.

s0

G(s) = Gc(s)s + 0.1

s2 + 1 = 6.104s2 + 40.6104s + 4

s(s2 + 1)

Figure 8–57

(a) Modified

Nyquist path in

the s plane;

(b) Nyquist path in

the s1 plane.

s plane s1 plane jv

(a) (b)

0s

s0

jv

0s
MATLAB Program 8–14

% ***** Nyquist Plot *****

num = [6.104 40.48832 3.5945064];

den = [1 -0.03 1.0003 -0.010001];

nyquist(num,den)

v = [-1500 1500 -2500 2500]; axis(v)

628 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

Figure 8–58

Nyquist plot.

−1500 −1000 −500 0 500 1000 1500

Real Axis

Nyquest Diagram

Imaginary Axis

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

−500

−1000

−1500

−2000

−2500

Figure 8–59

Redrawn Nyquist
plot.

Im

Re v = 0+

v = 0−

v = −`

v = +`

Using the Nyquist plot obtained here, it is not easy to determine the encirclements of the −1+j0

point by the Nyquist locus. Therefore, we need to redraw this Nyquist plot qualitatively to show

the details near the −1+j0 point. Such a redrawn Nyquist diagram is shown in Figure 8–59.

From this diagram we find that the −1+j0 point is encircled counterclockwise three times.

Hence, N −3. Since the open-loop transfer function has three poles in the right-half s1 plane,

we have P 3.Then, we have Z N+P 0.This means that there are no closed-loop poles in

the right-half s1 plane. The system is therefore stable.

A–8–8. Show that the I-PD-controlled system shown in Figure 8–60(a) is equivalent to the PID-
controlled

system with input filter shown in Figure 8–60(b).

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Example Problems and Solutions 629

Solution. The closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) of the I-PD-controlled system is

The closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) of the PID-controlled system with input filter

shown in Figure 8–60(b) is

The closed-loop transfer functions of both systems are the same.Thus,the two systems are
equivalent.
A–8–9. The basic idea of the I-PD control is to avoid large control signals (which will cause a
saturation

phenomenon) within the system. By bringing the proportional and derivative control actions to

the feedback path, it is possible to choose larger values for than those possible by the

PID control scheme.

Compare, qualitatively, the responses of the PID-controlled system and I-PD-controlled system

to the disturbance input and to the reference input.

Solution. Consider first the response of the I-PD-controlled system to the disturbance input.

Since, in the I-PD control of a plant, it is possible to select larger values for than those

of the PID-controlled case, the I-PD-controlled system will attenuate the effect of disturbance

faster than the PID-controlled case.

Next, consider the response of the I-PD-controlled system to a reference input. Since the

I-PD-controlled system is equivalent to the PID-controlled system with input filter (refer to Prob-

lem A–8–8), the PID-controlled system will have faster responses than the corresponding I-PD-con-

trolled system, provided a saturation phenomenon does not occur in the PID-controlled system.

Kp and Td

Kp and Td

Kp

Tis

Gp(s)

1 + Kp a 1 +

Tis + Tds b Gp(s)

C(s)
R(s) = 1

1 + Tis + TiTds2

Kp a 1 +

Tis + Tds b Gp(s)

1 + Kp a 1 +

Tis + Tds b Gp(s)

C(s)

R(s) =

Kp

Tis Gp(s)

1 + Kp a 1 +

Tis + Tds b Gp(s)

(b)

Gp(s)

R(s) C(s)

Kp(1 + + Tds) 1

Tis

1 + Tis + TiTds2 + –

(a)

Kp
Tis Gp(s)

R(s) C(s)

Kp(1 + Tds)

+–+–

Figure 8–60

(a) I-PD-controlled

system;

(b) PID-controlled

system with input

filter.

630 Chapter 8 / PID Controllers and Modified PID Controllers

A–8–10. In some cases it is desirable to provide an input filter as shown in Figure 8–61(a). Notice that
the

input filter is outside the loop. Therefore, it does not affect the stability of the closed-

loop portion of the system.An advantage of having the input filter is that the zeros of the closed-loop

transfer function can be modified (canceled or replaced by other zeros) so that the closed-

loop response is acceptable.

Show that the configuration in Figure 8–61(a) can be modified to that shown in Figure 8–61(b),

where The compensation structure shown in Figure 8–61(b) is some-

times called command compensation.

Solution. For the system of Figure 8–61(a), we have

(8–15)

For the system of Figure 8–61(b), we have

Thus

or

(8–16)

By substituting into Equation (8–16), we obtain

= Gf(s)

Gc(s)Gp(s)

1 + Gc(s)Gp(s)

C(s)

R(s) = CGf(s)Gc(s) - Gc(s) + Gc(s)DGp(s)

1 + Gc(s)Gp(s)

Gd(s) = CGf(s) - 1DGc(s)

C(s)

R(s) = CGd(s) + Gc(s)DGp(s)

1 + Gc(s)Gp(s)

C(s) = Gp(s)EGd(s)R(s) + Gc(s)CR(s) - C(s)D F

C(s) = Gp(s)U(s)

E(s) = R(s) - C(s)

U(s) = Gd(s)R(s) + Gc(s)E(s)

C(s)
R(s) = Gf(s)

Gc(s)Gp(s)

1 + Gc(s)Gp(s)

G CGf(s) - 1DGc(s). d(s) =

Gf(s)

(a)

(b)

Gc(s)

R(s) C(s)

G Gp(s) f(s)

Gc(s)

R(s) E(s) C(s)

Gd(s)

Gp(s)

U(s)

+–

+–+

+ Figure 8–61

(a) Block diagram of

control system with

input filter;

(b) modified block

diagram.

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which is the same as Equation (8–15). Hence, we have shown that the systems shown in Figures

8–61(a) and (b) are equivalent.

It is noted that the system shown in Figure 8–61(b) has a feedforward controller In

such a case, does not affect the stability of the closed-loop portion of the system.

A–8–11. A closed-loop system has the characteristic that the closed-loop transfer function is nearly
equal

to the inverse of the feedback transfer function whenever the open-loop gain is much greater

than unity.

The open-loop characteristic may be modified by adding an internal feedback loop with a

characteristic equal to the inverse of the desired open-loop characteristic. Suppose that a

unity-feedback system has the open-loop transfer function

Determine the transfer function H(s) of the element in the internal feedback loop so that the inner

loop becomes ineffective at both low and high frequencies.

Solution. Figure 8–62(a) shows the original system. Figure 8–62(b) shows the addition