The books in this section deal with the lives and messages of prophets who lived at different times in

Israel’s history. The books are not arranged in chronological order. First are three major prophets:
Isaiah, Jeremiah (Lamentations is traditionally associated with him), and Ezekiel. After the three
major prophets is the book of Daniel and the twelve minor prophets: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah,
Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habukkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. In Jewish Bibles most of
these books are included among “the Latter Prophets,” since there were prophets who lived before
these figures. The stories of these early prophets are found in the books of Samuel and Kings.

Jer 1-25 recounts Jeremiah's prophetic words and actions.  Jeremiah prophesied in and
around Jerusalem before the city fell in 587 BC.  While he is still a young man, God calls
Jeremiah to prophesy. Jeremiah condemns those who trust the Temple to deliver them from
judgment against their sins (7:1-15). Jeremiah compares God's dealings with his people to a
potter molding the clay.  After smashing a jar to portend destruction, he is arrested (18:1--
20:6). Poignant laments appear in this section (e.g., 20:7-12).

Jer 26-45 contain memoirs of Jeremiah's life.  The scribe Baruch reads Jeremiah's
prophecies in the Temple, but the king burns the scroll. Later Jeremiah wears a yoke on his
neck to show people they should submit to Babylon. Eventually he is arrested. When the
Babylonians capture Jerusalem, Jeremiah remains in Judah for a time before being taken to
Egypt.

Jer 46-51 concludes with oracles against foreign nations and another account of the fall of
Jerusalem.

Jer 1:4-10 - Call of Jeremiah

Jer 7:1-15 - Temple sermon
Jer 20:7-12 - Personal lament
Jer 31:31-34 - New covenant

Isa 1-39 contains oracles by Isaiah and narratives about his life.   Isaiah lived in and
around Jerusalem during the late seventh century BC, when the Assyrians were conquering
the northern part of the country.  The first part of the book summarizes the prophet's message
(Isa 1-5). He condemns Israel's injustice and misguided trust in ritual, and calls the people to
repent. He compares the sins of Judah to fine vineyard producing only wild grapes. Isaiah is
called by God through a vision of the heavenly throne room. He tells King Ahaz not to fear
pressure from Israel and Syria for they will fall to the Assyrians (Isa 6-8). Isaiah promises that
God will raise up a righteous king and judge the nations that oppose Israel (Isa 9-35). God
delivers Jerusalem from the Assyrians and heals King Hezekiah of an illness, although
Hezekiah's naive trust in the Babylonians portended the future fall of Jerusalem.

Isaiah 40-66 offers encouragement to those living at the end of the exile. Those who have
gone into exile can take comfort (40:1) for their time of servitude will end when the Persian
king Cyrus conquers the nations (45:1). God is Lord over all.
Isa 2 - Swords into plowshares
Isa 6 - Call of Isaiah
Isa 7 - Immanuel
Isa 11 - Shoot from Jesse's stem
Isa 40 - Comfort, comfort my people
Isa 53 - Suffering servant

Book including visions of God's throne chariot, and valley of dry

bones.

Ezek 1-32 contains warnings of judgment.  Ezekiel is a priest who is

among those taken into exile in 597 BC, a decade before the
Babylonians destroy Jerusalem. His prophecies are given from
Babylonia. The first part of the book contains oracles and actions of
Ezekiel from his call in 593 BC until the fall of Jerusalem in 587.
Ezekiel begins to prophesy after a vision in which he saw God's throne
chariot and was given a scroll to eat (Ezek 1-3). He has visions of
idolatrous worship in the Temple and of God's glory departing from Prophesy to the bones
Jerusalem (Ezek 8-11). He calls people to turn from sin. When his wife and say, "You shall
dies he bears it silently, as the people will have to bear the loss of live"
(Ezek 37:4-5)
Jerusalem.

Ezek 33-45 contains promises of restoration.  After the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BC, the
prophet promises that God will shepherd his people (Ezek 34) and restore them, like dry
bones coming back to life (Ezek 37). A vision of a restored city and sanctuary concludes the
book.

Ezek 2:1-10 - Call of Ezekiel

Ezek 18:1-4 - Individual responsibility
Ezek 37:1-27 - Valley of the dry bones

When Nebuchadnezzar deported the first group of Jerusalem leaders in 597 B.C., Ezekiel the
priest was carried into exile in Babylon.  Ezekiel saw the glory of God depart from the
Jerusalem Temple because of the people's worship of other gods. When Ezekiel's wife died,
he bore his grief silently to show the exiles how to bear the loss of Jerusalem. Later he saw a
vision of dry bones coming back to life as a sign that God would give new life to the people.
The last visions in his book describe an ideal Temple and the return of God's glory to Israel.
These visions are recounted in the book of Ezekiel.

Ezek 2:1-10 - Commanded to prophesy

Ezek 24:15-27 - Wife dies

Dan 1-6 includes stories about Daniel and his companions.  When the
king of Babylon decrees that everyone is to worship an idol, Daniel's
three companions refuse. They are thrown into a fiery furnace, but are

God delivered Daniel

from the lion's den
not harmed.  Another king holds a feast using vessels taken from the Jerusalem Temple, but a
hand writes on the wall words of warning which Daniel interprets.  Daniel himself is thrown
into the lions' den when he refuses to pray to the king, but God preserves him.

Dan 7-12 consists of visions of the coming reign of God.  Daniel sees a vision of four
beasts, which represent four empires. But one who is ancient of days appears for judgment,
and one who is like a son of man comes on the clouds to receive dominion over all (Dan
7). Succeeding visions repeat the theme of the fall of human kingdoms and the arrival of the
kingdom of God at the end of time.

Dan 3:13-30 - Fiery furnace

Dan 6:1-28 - Lions' den
Dan 7:9-14 - Coming son of man

Short collection of poems lamenting the fall of Jerusalem.

Lamentations is a collection of 5 poems that mourn the fall of

Jerusalem in 587 BC.  The poems lament the desolation of the
city, express anger at the horrors of the siege, and question
whether God has forgotten his people.  In the middle of the book,
however, the poet confesses that God's steadfast love never
ceases (3:22-24).  Most of the poems have 22 lines, one for each
letter of the Hebrew alphabet.  The first line begins with "a," the
second line with "b," etc.  Chapter 3 has 66 lines, three for each
letter of the alphabet.

Lam 1:1-3 - Sorrow

Lam 3:22-24 - Hope

Lamentations mourns the

destruction of Jerusalem

Former Prophets

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, 1st & 2nd Samuel, 1st & 2nd Kings. They
contain historical narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine
appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised
Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel
and Kings as single books, they cover: (1) Joshua’s conquest of the land of Canaan (in the
Book of Joshua), (2) the struggle of the people to possess the land (in the Book of Judges), (3)
the people's request to God to give them a king so that they can occupy the land in the face of
their enemies (in the books of 1st & 2nd Samuel) (4) the possession of the land under the
divinely-appointed kings of the House of David, ending in conquest and foreign exile (1st and
2nd Kings)
Joshua

The Book of Joshua (Yehoshua ‫ )יהושע‬contains a history of the Israelites from the death of
Moses to that of Joshua. After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as
Moses' successor, receives from God the command to cross the Jordan. In execution of this
order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of
the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge
given to Moses to help their brethren.

The book essentially consists of three parts:

1. The history of the conquest of the land (1-12).

2. The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of
refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to
their homes.
3. The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24).

Judges

The Book of Judges (Shoftim ‫ )שופטים‬consists of three distinct parts:

1. The Introduction (1:1-3:10 and 3:12) giving a summary of the book of Joshua
2. The Main Text (3:11-16:31), discussing the five Great Judges, Abimelech, and
providing glosses for a few minor Judges
3. The Appendices (17:1-21:25), giving two stories set in the time of the Judges, but not
discussing the Judges themselves.

Samuel

The Books of Samuel (Shmu'el ‫ )שמואל‬consists of five parts:

 The period of God's rejection of Eli, Samuel's birth, and subsequent judgment (1
Samuel 1:1-7:17)
 The period of the life of Saul prior to meeting David (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35)
 The period of Saul's interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1-2 Samuel 1:27)
 The period of David's reign and the rebellions he suffers (2 Samuel 2:1-20:22)
 An appendix of material concerning David in no particular order, and out of sequence
with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 22:1-24:25)

A conclusion of sorts appears at 1 Kings 1-2, concerning Solomon enacting a final revenge on
those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style.
While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in
Chronicles, it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2-12:29) containing an account of the
matter of Bathsheba is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20.

Kings

The Books of Kings (Melakhim ‫ )מלכים‬contains accounts of the kings of the ancient Kingdom
of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah, and the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the
accession of Solomon until the subjugation of the kingdom by Nebuchadnezzar and the
Babylonians.

Latter Prophets

The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the Major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah and
Ezekiel) and the Twelve Minor Prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum,
Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi) collected into a single book.

Isaiah

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The 66 chapters of Isaiah (Yeshayahu [‫ )]ישעיהו‬consist primarily of prophecies of the

judgments awaiting nations that are persecuting Judah. These nations include Babylon,
Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Syria, Israel (the northern kingdom), Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and
Phoenicia. The prophecies concerning them can be summarized as saying that God is the God
of the whole earth, and that nations which think of themselves as secure in their own power
might well be conquered by other nations, at God's command.

Chapter 6 describes Isaiah's call to be a prophet of God. Chapters 35-39 provide historical
material about King Hezekiah and his triumph of faith in God. Chapters 24-34, while too
complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with prophecies of a Messiah, a
person anointed or given power by God, and of the Messiah's kingdom, where justice and
righteousness will reign. This section is seen by Jews as describing an actual king, a
descendant of their great king, David, who will make Judah a great kingdom and Jerusalem a
truly holy city.

The prophecy continues with what some[citation needed] have called "The Book of Comfort" which
begins in chapter 40 and completes the writing. In the first eight chapters of this book of
comfort, Isaiah prophesies the deliverance of the Jews from the hands of the Babylonians and
restoration of Israel as a unified nation in the land promised to them by God. Isaiah reaffirms
that the Jews are indeed the chosen people of God in chapter 44 and that Hashem is the only
God for the Jews (and only the God of the Jews) as he will show his power over the gods of
Babylon in due time in chapter 46. In chapter 45:1 the Persian ruler Cyrus is named as the
messiah who will overthrow the Babylonians and allow the return of Israel to their original
land. The remaining chapters of the book contain prophecies of the future glory of Zion under
the rule of a righteous servant (52 & 54). Chapter 53 contains a very poetic prophecy about
this servant which is generally considered by Christians to refer to the crucifixion of Jesus,
though Jews generally interpret it as a reference to God's people. Although there is still the
mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 & 66), the book ends with a
message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his righteous subjects living in
the Lord's kingdom on earth.

Jeremiah

The Book of Jeremiah (Yirmiyahu [‫ )]ירמיהו‬can be divided into twenty-three subsections, and
its contents organized into five sub-sections or 'books'.

1. The introduction, ch. 1.

2. Scorn for the sins of Israel, consisting of seven sections, (1.) ch. 2; (2.) ch. 3-6; (3.) ch.
7-10; (4.) ch. 11-13; (5.) ch. 14-17:18; (6.) ch. 17:19-ch. 20; (7.) ch. 21-24.
3. A general review of all nations, foreseeing their destruction, in two sections, (1.) ch.
46-49; (2.) ch. 25; with an historical appendix of three sections, (1.) ch. 26; (2.) ch. 27;
(3.) ch. 28, 29.
4. Two sections picturing the hopes of better times, (1.) ch. 30, 31; (2.) ch. 32,33; to
which is added an historical appendix in three sections, (1.) ch. 34:1-7; (2.) ch. 34:8-
22; (3.) ch. 35.
5. The conclusion, in two sections, (1.) ch. 36; (2.) ch. 45.

In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is supposed to have added three sections, viz., ch. 37-39;
40-43; and 44. The principal Messianic prophecies are found in 23:1-8; 31:31-40; and 33:14-
26.

Jeremiah's prophecies are noted for the frequent repetitions found in them of the same words,
phrases, and imagery. They cover the period of about 30 years. They are not in chronological
order. Modern scholars do not believe they have reliable theories as to when, where, and how
the text was edited into its present form.

Ezekiel

The Book of Ezekiel (Yehezq'el [‫ )]יחזקאל‬contains three distinct sections.

1. Judgment on Israel - Ezekiel makes a series of denunciations against his fellow

Judeans ( 3:22-24), warning them of the certain destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition
 to the words of the false prophets (4:1-3). The symbolic acts, by which the extremities
to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in Chapters 4 and 5, show his
intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See, for example, Exodus 22:30;
Deuteronomy 14:21; Leviticus 5:2; 7:18,24; 17:15; 19:7; 22:8)
2. Prophecies against various neighboring nations: against the Ammonites ( Ezek. 25:1-
7), the Moabites ( 25:8-11), the Edomites ( 25:12-14), the Philistines ( 25:15-17), Tyre
and Sidon ( 26-28), and against Egypt (29-32).
3. Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II: the
triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth ( Ezek. 33-39 ); Messianic
times, and the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God ( 40-48).

Twelve Minor Prophets

The Twelve Minor Prophets are:

1. Hosea or Hoshea [‫]הושע‬

2. Joel or Yo'el [‫]יואל‬
3. Amos [‫]עמוס‬
4. Obadiah or Ovadyah [‫]עובדיה‬
5. Jonah or Yonah [‫]יונה‬
6. Micah or Mikhah [‫]מיכה‬
7. Nahum or Nachum [‫]נחום‬
8. Habakkuk or Habaquq [‫]חבקוק‬
9. Zephaniah or Tsefania [‫]צפניה‬
10. Haggai or Haggai [‫]חגי‬
11. Zechariah Zekharia [‫]זכריה‬
12. Malachi or Malakhi [‫]מלאכי‬

Liturgical use
Main article: Haftarah

The Haftarah is a text selected from the books of Nevi'im that is read publicly in the
synagogue after the reading of the Torah on each Shabbat, as well as on Jewish festivals and
fast days.

Cantillation

There is a special cantillation melody for the haftarah, distinct from that of the Torah portion.
In some earlier authorities there are references to a tune for the "prophets" generally, distinct
from that for the haftarah: this may have been a simplified melody for learning purposes.[2]

Certain cantillation marks and combinations appear in Nevi'im but not within any of the
Haftarah selections, and most communities therefore do not have a musical tradition for those
marks. J.L. Neeman suggested that "those who recite Nevi'im privately with the cantillation
melody may read the words accented by those rare notes by using a "metaphor" based on the
melody of those notes in the five books of the Torah, while adhering to the musical scale of
the melody for Nevi'im." Neeman includes a reconstruction of the musical scale for the lost
melodies of the rare cantillation notes.[3] In the Ashkenazi tradition, the resemblance between
the Torah and Haftarah melodies is obvious and it is easy to transpose motifs between the two
as suggested by Neeman. In the Sephardi traditions the haftarah melody is considerably more
florid than the Torah melody, and usually in a different musical mode, and there are only
isolated points of contact between the two.

Extraliturgical public reading

Main article: Seder ha-Mishmarah

In some Near and Middle Eastern Jewish traditions, the whole of Nevi'im (as well as the rest
of the Tanakh and the Mishnah) is read each year on a weekly rota, usually on Shabbat
afternoons. These reading sessions often take place in the synagogue courtyard but are not
considered to be synagogue services.

Who is a Jew?
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"Who is a Jew?" (Hebrew: ‫ מיהו יהודי‬pronounced [ˈmihu jehuˈdi]) is a basic question about

Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification. The question is based in ideas
about Jewish personhood which have cultural, religious, genealogical, and personal
dimensions. The question was of importance during the rule of the Nazi party in Germany,
which persecuted the Jews and defined them for the government's purposes by the Nuremberg
Laws.

The definition of who is a Jew varies according to whether it is being considered by Jews
based on normative religious statutes or self-identification, or by non-Jews for other reasons.
Because Jewish identity can include characteristics of an ethnicity, a religion,[1] and
citizenship, the definition of who is a Jew has varied, depending on whether a religious,
sociological, or ethnic aspect was being considered.[2] The issue has given rise to legal
controversy, especially in Israel, but also outside of Israel. There have been court cases in
Israel since 1962 that have addressed the question.[3][4] Also, a United Kingdom court
considered whether the question was a racial issue, in the case R(E) v Governing Body of JFS
(2009).[5][6][7][8][9][10]

According to the simplest definition used by Jews for self-identification, a person is a Jew by
birth, or becomes one through religious conversion. However, there are differences of opinion
among the various branches of Judaism in the application of this definition, including:

 The effect of mixed parents: i.e. whether a person of mixed Jewish and non-Jewish parents
should be considered Jewish.
 Conversion: i.e. what processes of conversion should be considered valid.
 Historical loss of Jewish identity: i.e. whether a person's or group's actions (such as
conversion to a different religion) or circumstances in his or her community's life (such as
being unaware of Jewish parents) should affect his or her status as Jewish or non-Jewish.
 Diaspora identity: identity of Jews among themselves, and by non-Jews throughout the
Jewish diaspora.
 Claim to Israeli citizenship: the examination of the previous issues in the context of the Basic
Laws of Israel.
Contents
 1 Tannaitic Judaism
 2 Contemporary Judaism
o 2.1 Jewish by birth
o 2.2 Converts to Judaism
o 2.3 Jews who have practiced another faith
o 2.4 Ethnic and cultural perspectives
 3 Religious definitions
o 3.1 Halakhic perspective
o 3.2 Karaite Judaism
o 3.3 Reform Judaism
 3.3.1 Controversies
 4 Legal structure in Israel
o 4.1 Judaism test
o 4.2 Law of Return
o 4.3 Israeli laws governing marriage and divorce
o 4.4 Israeli definition of nationality
 5 Other definitions
o 5.1 Sociology and anthropology
o 5.2 The Inquisition
o 5.3 Secular philosophy
o 5.4 "Half-Jewish"
o 5.5 Antisemitic definitions
 5.5.1 Nazism
 6 Israelite identity loss claims
o 6.1 Cochin Jews (Indian Jews)
o 6.2 Bene Israel
o 6.3 Beta Israel
o 6.4 Bnei Menashe
o 6.5 The Kaifeng Jews
o 6.6 The Lemba
o 6.7 New Mexico's Crypto-Jews
o 6.8 Other claims
 7 See also
 8 Notes and references
 9 External links

Tannaitic Judaism
According to the Mishnah, the first written source for halakha, the status of the offspring of
mixed marriages was determined matrilineally.

According to historian Shaye J. D. Cohen, in the Bible, the status of the offspring of mixed
marriages was determined patrilineally. He brings two likely explanations for the change in
Mishnaic times: first, the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages
as it had applied to other mixtures (kilayim). Thus, a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the
union of a horse and a donkey, and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally.
Second, the Tannaim may have been influenced by Roman law, which dictated that when a
parent could not contract a legal marriage, offspring would follow the mother.[11]

Contemporary Judaism
All Jewish religious movements agree that a person may be a Jew either by birth or through
conversion. According to halakha, a Jew by birth must be born to a Jewish mother. Halakha
states that the acceptance of the principles and practices of Judaism does not make a person a
Jew. But, those born Jewish do not lose that status because they cease to be observant Jews,
even if they adopt the practices of another religion.

Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism often accept a child as Jewish even if only the father is
Jewish. As the various denominations of Judaism differ on their conversion processes,
conversions performed by more liberal denominations are not accepted by those that are less
so.

Jewish by birth

According to halakha, to determine a person's Jewish status (Hebrew: yuhasin) one needs to
consider the status of both parents. If both parents are Jewish, their child will also be
considered Jewish, and the child takes the status of the father (e.g., as a kohen). If either
parent is subject to a genealogical disability (e.g., is a mamzer) then the child is also subject to
that disability. If one of the parents is not Jewish, the rule is that the child takes the status of
the mother (Kiddushin 66b, Shulchan Aruch, EH 4:19).[12] The ruling is derived from various
sources including Deuteronomy 7:1–5, Leviticus 24:10, Ezra 10:2–3.[12] Accordingly, if the
mother is Jewish, so is her child, and if she is not Jewish, neither is her child considered
Jewish. The child can be considered Jewish only by a process of conversion to Judaism. The
child is also freed from any disabilities and special status to which the father may have been
subject (e.g., being a mamzer or kohen) under Jewish law.[13]

All branches of Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism today maintain that the halakhic
rules (i.e. matrilineal descent) are valid and binding. Reform and Liberal Judaism do not
accept the halakhic rules as binding, and accept a child of one Jewish parent, whether father
or mother, as Jewish if the parents raise the child as a Jew and the child fosters a Jewish
identity, noting that "in the Bible the line always followed the father, including the cases of
Joseph and Moses, who married into non-Israelite priestly families."[14]

Reform rabbis in North America have set standards by which a person with one Jewish parent
is considered a Jew if there have been "appropriate and timely public and formal acts of
identification with the Jewish faith and people," such as a Jewish naming ceremony, brit
milah, or a bar or bat mitzvah ceremony. Because the Reform Movement uses a guidelines
approach and its standards are not considered binding, they are understood and applied in
different ways by different Reform rabbis and individual Reform Jews. The principle, in
general, is understood to require a Jewish upbringing. The Reform movement's standard states
that "for those beyond childhood claiming Jewish identity, other public acts or declarations
may be added or substituted after consultation with their rabbi".[15] Advocates of patrilineal
descent point to Genesis 48:15–20 and Deuteronomy 10:15.[16]
This policy is commonly known as patrilineal descent, though "bilineal" would be more
accurate.

Some historical Jewish communities have disputed the Orthodox matrilineal tradition. Karaite
Judaism, for example, traces Jewishness by patrilineal descent, basing this practice "on the
fact that, in the Bible, tribes are given male names and that biblical characters are always
referenced by their fathers' names."[17]

The divergence of views has become an issue because Orthodox and Conservative
communities do not recognize a person as Jewish if only the father is Jewish, whereas Reform
or Liberal community will accept that person as a born Jew. For the person to be accepted as
Jewish by an Orthodox or Conservative community (for example, on an occasion of their
bar/bat mitzvah or marriage), they may require a formal conversion (in accordance with
halakhic standards). Orthodox Judaism has a predominant position in Israel. Although
Orthodox and Conservative Judaism do not recognize Jewishness through patrilineal descent,
"it should also be noted, however, that in the case of a child born to a Jewish father but to a
non-Jewish mother, most Orthodox rabbis will relax the stringent demands normally made of
would-be converts",[18] and the Rabbinical Assembly of the Conservative movement "agreed
that 'sincere Jews by choice' should be warmly welcomed into the community".[19]

Converts to Judaism

Main article: Conversion to Judaism

All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, with most subgroups
accepting converts by the process accepted within the group. Not all conversions are
recognised in different movements.

In Rabbinic Judaism, the laws of conversion are based on the classical sources of Jewish law,
especially discussions in the Talmud, and the law as codified in the Shulkhan Arukh.[20] This
corpus of traditional Jewish law (halakha) is regarded as authoritative by the Orthodox[21] and
Conservative movements.[22] The traditional halakhic requirements for conversion are
instruction in the commandments, circumcision (if male), and immersion in an acceptable
body of water before valid witnesses, and acceptance of the commandments before a
rabbinical court. If a male is already circumcised, a drop of blood is drawn from the penis.[23]

Orthodox authorities require that conversions be performed in accord with traditional Jewish
law and recognise only those conversions in which a convert accepts and undertakes to
observe Jewish law as interpreted by Orthodox rabbis. Because rabbis in the other movements
do not require that converts make this commitment, Orthodox authorities do not generally
accept as valid conversions performed outside the Orthodox community.[24]

Conservative authorities likewise require that conversions be conducted according to

traditional Jewish law. Conducting a conversion absent the traditional requirements of
immersion in a ritual bath and circumcision for males is a violation of a Standard of the
Rabbinical Assembly and grounds for expulsion.[25] Conservative authorities generally
recognize any conversion done in accord with the requirements of Jewish law, even if done
outside the Conservative movement. Accordingly, Conservative rabbis may accept the
validity of some Progressive conversions.[26][27]
The Union for Reform Judaism states that "people considering conversion are expected to
study Jewish theology, rituals, history, culture and customs, and to begin incorporating Jewish
practices into their lives. The length and format of the course of study will vary from rabbi to
rabbi and community to community, though most now require a course in basic Judaism and
individual study with a rabbi, as well as attendance at services and participation in home
practice and synagogue life."[28] Its Central Conference of American Rabbis recommends that
three rabbis be present for the conversion ceremony.[29] The Rabbinical Court of the Israel
Movement for Progressive Judaism requires an average of a year of study to become
conversant in Jewish life and tradition. Following this, converts are required to immerse in a
ritual bath, be circumcised if male, and accept the commandments before the rabbinical court.
[30]

Although an infant conversion might be accepted in some circumstances (such as in the case
of adopted children or children whose parents convert), children who convert would typically
be asked if they want to remain Jewish after reaching religious adulthood – which is 12 years
of age for a girl and 13 for a boy, as required by Jewish law.[31][32]

Karaite Judaism does not accept Rabbinic Judaism. It as different requirements for
conversion, and refrained from accepting any converts until recently.[17] Traditionally non-
proselytizing, on August 1, 2007, the Karaites reportedly converted their first new members in
500 years. At a ceremony in their Northern California synagogue, ten adults and four minors
swore fealty to Judaism after completing a year of study. This conversion comes 15 years
after the Karaite Council of Sages reversed its centuries-old ban on accepting converts.[33]

Syrian Jewish communities do not normally carry out conversions, particularly where the
conversion is suspected of being for the sake of marriage. Nor do they accept such converts
from other communities, or the children of mixed marriages or marriages involving such
converts.

The issue has iven rise to legal controversy, especially in Israel, but also in other countries.
Since 1962, there have been court cases in Israel that have had to address the issue of Jewish
identity.[3][4] Also, in 2009 a United Kingdom court held that the exclusion of a child from an
orthodox school, when the mother was a convert under conservative criteria, was racial
discrimination for the purpose of Race Relations Act 1976, in the case R(E) v Governing
Body of JFS.[5][6][7][9][10][34]

Jews who have practiced another faith

In general, Orthodox Judaism considers individuals born of Jewish mothers to be Jewish, even
if they convert to another religion.[35] Reform Judaism views Jews who convert to another
faith as non-Jews. For example "...anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a
Jew..." [Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68].[36][37][38]

Historically, a Jew who has been declared to be a heretic (Hebrew: Minim ‫ )מינים‬or Christian
(Hebrew notzrim ‫ )נוצרים‬may have had a cherem (similar to excommunication) placed on him
or her; but the practice of communal and religious exclusion does not affect their status of
Jewish birth.[39]
Judaism also views as Jewish those who involuntarily convert from Judaism to another
religion (Hebrew: anusim (‫)אנוסים‬, meaning "forced ones"); and their matrilineal descendants
are likewise considered to be Jewish.

Judaism has a category for those who are Jewish but who do not practice or who do not accept
the tenets of Judaism, whether or not they have converted to another religion. The traditional
view regarding these individuals, known as Meshumadim (Hebrew: ‫)משומדים‬, is that they are
Jewish; however, there is much debate in the rabbinic literature regarding their status vis-a-vis
the application of Jewish law and their participation in Jewish ritual,[39] but not to their status
as Jews.

A Jew who leaves Judaism is free to return to the faith at any time. In general, no formal
ceremony or declaration is required to return to Jewish practices. All movements of Judaism
welcome the return to Judaism of those who have left, or been raised in another faith. When
returning to Judaism, these individuals would be expected to abandon their previous practices
and adopt Jewish customs.

The same rules in principle apply to the matrilineal descendants of such persons, though some
rabbinical authorities may require stricter proof of Jewish descent than others. Whether such
persons are required to undergo a full formal conversion depends on the community and their
individual circumstances. For example, a male who has had a brit milah, who has a general
understanding of Judaism, but who has been raised in a secular home might not be required to
undergo ritual conversion. However, a male who has not had a brit milah, a male or female
who has converted to or been brought up in another religion, or an individual raised in a
completely secular home without any Jewish education, in most communities, may be
required to undergo a full ritual conversion. For full participation in the community (for
example, to marry with the participation of a rabbi), they may be required to display sincerity,
such as a declaration of commitment to Judaism.[40]

Another example of the issues involved is the case of converts to Judaism who cease to
practice Judaism (whether or not they still regard themselves as Jewish), do not accept or
follow halakha, or now adhere to another religion. Technically, such a person remains Jewish,
like all Jews, provided that the original conversion is valid. However, in some recent cases,
Haredi rabbinical authorities, as well as the current Religious Zionist Israeli Chief Rabbinate,
have taken the view that a given convert's lapse from Orthodox Jewish observance is evidence
that he or she cannot, even at the time of the conversion, have had the full intention to observe
the commandments, and that the conversion must therefore have been invalid.

A valid Jewish court of sufficient stature has the ability to revoke a person's or a group's status
as Jews. This was done for the lost Ten Tribes of Israel[41] and the Samaritans.[42]

Ethnic and cultural perspectives

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Main article: Secular Jewish culture

Ethnic Jew is a term generally used to describe a person of Jewish parentage and background
who does not necessarily actively practice Judaism, but still identifies with Judaism or other
Jews culturally or fraternally, or both. The term "ethnic Jew" does not specifically exclude
practicing Jews, but they are usually simply referred to as "Jews" without the qualifying
adjective "ethnic". See Ethnic group.

The term can refer to people of diverse beliefs and backgrounds because genealogy largely
defines who is "Jewish". "Ethnic Jew" is sometimes used to distinguish non-practicing from
practicing (religious) Jews. Other terms include "non-observant Jew", "non-religious Jew",
"non-practicing Jew", and "secular Jew".

The term sometimes can refer exclusively to Jews who, for whatever reasons, do not practice
the religion of Judaism, or who are so casual in their connection to that religion as to be
effectively not Jews in the religious sense of adherent to Judaism. Typically, ethnic Jews are
cognizant of their Jewish background, and may feel strong cultural (even if not religious) ties
to Jewish traditions and to the Jewish people or nation. Like people of any other ethnicity,
non-religious ethnic Jews often assimilate into a surrounding non-Jewish culture, but,
especially in areas where there is a strong local Jewish culture, they may remain largely part
of that culture instead.

"Ethnic Jews" include atheists, agnostics, non-denominational deists, Jews with only casual
connections to Jewish denominations or converts to other religions, such as Christianity,
Buddhism, or Islam. Religious Jews of all denominations sometimes engage in outreach to
non-religious ethnic Jews, and ask them to rediscover Judaism. In the case of some Hasidic
denominations (e.g. Chabad-Lubavitch) this outreach extends to active proselytizing.[43][44][45]
[46]

Israeli immigration laws will accept an application for Israeli citizenship if there is proven
documentation that any grandparent—not just the maternal grandmother—was Jewish. This
does not mean that person is an "ethnic Jew", but Israeli immigration will accept that person
because he or she has an ethnically Jewish connection, and because this same degree of
connection was sufficient to be persecuted as a Jew by the Nazis. See Jewish ethnic divisions.

The traditional European definition of Jewishness (although it was not uniform across
Europe) differs markedly from the definition used by the American progressive movement. In
the former USSR, "Jew" was a nationality or ethnicity by law.

The European definition is traditional in many respects, and reflects not only how the
Europeans saw Jews, but also how Jews saw themselves. It has been argued[by whom?] that the
Israeli law draws on external definitions of Jewishness (such as the Nazi and Soviet
definitions), rather than traditional halakhic criteria.

Religious definitions
Halakhic perspective

According to the traditional Rabbinic view, which is maintained by all branches of Orthodox
Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism[47] today, only halakha can define who is
or is not a Jew when a question of Jewish identity, lineage, or parentage arises about any
person seeking to define themselves or claim that they are Jewish.

As a result, mere belief in the principles of Judaism does not make one a Jew. Similarly, non-
adherence by a Jew to the 613 Mitzvot, or even formal conversion to another faith, does not
make one lose one's Jewish status. Thus the immediate descendants of all female Jews (even
apostates) are still considered to be Jews, as are those of all their female descendants. Even
those descendants who are not aware they are Jews, or practice a faith other than Judaism, are
defined by this perspective as Jews, as long as they come from an unbroken female line of
descent. As a corollary, the children of a Jewish father and a non-Jewish mother are not
considered to be Jews by halakha unless they formally convert according to halakha, even if
raised fully observant in the mitzvot.[48]

Those not born to a Jewish mother may become accepted as Jews by the Orthodox and
Conservative communities through a formal process of conversion to Judaism in order to
become "righteous converts" (Geirei tzedek—Hebrew: ‫)גירי צדק‬. In addition, halakha requires
that the new convert commit himself to observance of its tenets; this is called Kabbalat Ol
Mitzvot (Hebrew: ‫)קבלת עול מצוות‬, "Acceptance of the Yoke of the Commandments". Kabbalat
mitzvot (Hebrew: ‫ )קבלת מצוות‬is used by Reform Judaism in accordance with reform responsa
and halakhah.[49][clarification needed]

Both Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism accept a similar set of rules regarding
Jewish status based on classical rabbinic Judaism, including both matrilineal descent and
requirements that conversions be performed by Orthodox rabbis and that converts promise to
strictly observe elements of traditional Judaism such as Shabbat and Niddah. However, their
application of these rules have been different, and the difference has been increasing in recent
years. Modern Orthodox authorities have been more inclined to rule in favor of Jewish status
and to accept non-Orthodox Jews' word in doubtful cases involving people claiming to be
Jews, while Haredi authorities have in recent years tended to presume non-Jewish status and
require more stringent rules and standards of evidence in order for Jewish status to be proven,
and have tended to distrust the evidence of Jews who are not personally Orthodox. Haredi
rabbis have tended to look at a convert's current personal observance and to regard
deficiencies or lack of Orthodoxy in current observance as evidence that the convert never
intended to validly convert. In addition, the contemporary situation is further complicated by
the fact that some Haredi rabbis no longer regard some Modern Orthodox rabbis as reliably
Orthodox.[50][51][52]

Karaite Judaism

Unlike the denominations of Rabbinical Judaism, Karaite Judaism maintains that it is the
responsibility of each Jew to study the Tanakh for themselves. The Talmud / Oral Law are not
canonized, neither are rabbinical opinions considered authoritative, but every interpretation is
held up to the same scrutiny, regardless of its source. Karaite Judaism relies on the Tanakh to
indicate that Jewishness is passed through the paternal line, not the maternal line, as is
maintained by Orthodox Judaism (though a minority hold that both parents need to be
Jewish). Karaite Jews are eligible for Aliyah under the Law of Return. The eligibility of non-
Jewish converts to Karaite Judaism to make Aliyah under the Law of Return has not yet been
addressed in Israeli courts.

Reform Judaism
Modern Progressive Jewish denominations have a conversion process based on their
principles. In the US, an official Reform resolution in 1893 abolished circumcision as a
requirement for converts,[53] and Reform does not require converts to have tevilah, ritual
immersion. A "prospective convert declares, orally and in writing, in the presence of a rabbi
and no less than two lay leaders of the congregation and community, acceptance of the Jewish
faith and the intention to live in accordance with its mitzvot".[54]

Controversies

The controversy in determining "who is a Jew" concerns four basic issues:

One issue arises because North American Reform and UK Liberal movements have changed
some of the halakhic requirements for a Jewish identity in two ways:

A. Children born of just one Jewish parent – regardless of whether the father or mother is
Jewish – can claim a Jewish identity. A child of only one Jewish parent who does not claim
this identity has, in the eyes of the Reform movement, forfeited his/her Jewish identity. By
contrast, the halakhic view is that any child born to a Jewish mother is Jewish, whether or
not he/she is raised Jewish, or even whether the mother considers herself Jewish. As an
example, the children of Madeleine Albright (who was raised Catholic and was unaware of
her Jewish ancestry) would all be Jews according to halakha, since their mother's traceable
female ancestors were all Jewish and all three of her children were female. However, this is
not the belief of progressive Judaism.

B. The requirement of brit milah has been relaxed, as has the requirement of ritual
immersion. (While the Conservative movement permits conversion without circumcision in
some cases, most Orthodox Jews do not,[55] except in cases specifically exempted by the
Talmud, such as one who has had three brothers die as a result of circumcision; Jewish
children who are hemophiliacs are exempt from circumcision.[55])

Secondly, Orthodox Judaism asserts that non-Orthodox rabbis are not qualified to form a beit
din.[52] This has led to non-Orthodox conversions generally being unaccepted in Orthodox
communities. Since Orthodox Judaism maintains the traditional standards for conversion – in
which the commitment to observe halakha is required – non-Orthodox conversions are
generally not accepted in Orthodox communities because the non-Orthodox movements
perform conversions in which the new convert does not undertake to observe halakha as
understood by Orthodox Judaism.

A third controversy concerns persons (whether born Jews or converts to Judaism) who have
converted to another religion. The traditional view is such persons remain Jewish.[56][57]
Reform Judaism regards such people as apostates,[58][59] and states regarding "Messianic Jews":
"'Messianic Jews' claim that they are Jews, but we must asked [sic] ourselves whether we
identify them as Jews. We can not do so as they consider Jesus of Nazareth as the Messiah
who has fulfilled the Messianic promises. In this way, they have clearly placed themselves
within Christianity. They may be somewhat different from other Christians as they follow
various Jewish rites and ceremonials, but that does not make them Jews."[60] Regardless, such
people do not count as Jewish for the purposes of the Israeli citizenship laws.
A fourth controversy stems from the manner in which the Chief Rabbinate of Israel has been
handling marriage and conversion decisions in recent years. Conversions and marriages
within Israel are legally controlled by the Orthodox Israeli Chief Rabbinate; therefore, a
person not proven to be a Jew to the Rabbinate's satisfaction is not legally permitted to marry
a Jew in Israel today. Although the Rabbinate has always refused to accept non-Orthodox
conversions, until recent years it was more willing to accept the Jewish parentage of
applicants based on personal testimony, and the validity of conversions based on the
testimony of Orthodox Rabbis. However, in recent years the rabbinate, whose rabbis
historically had a more Modern Orthodox orientation, has increasingly been filled by the more
stringent Haredi camp. It has increasingly been inclined to presume that applicants are not
Jewish until proven otherwise, and require more stringent standards of proof than in the past.
It has implemented a policy of refusing to accept the testimony of non-Orthodox Jews in
matters of Jewish status, on grounds that such testimony is not reliable. It also has been
increasingly skeptical of the reliability of Orthodox rabbis ordained by institutions not subject
to its accreditation, particularly in matters of conversion. Accordingly, non-Orthodox Jews
born to Jewish parents, and some Jews converted by Orthodox rabbis, have been increasingly
unable to prove their Jewishness to the Rabbinate's satisfaction, because they are unable to
find an Orthodox rabbi who is both acceptable to the Rabbinate, and familiar with and willing
to vouch for the Jewishness of their maternal lineage or the validity of their conversion.[50][51]
[52]

There have been several attempts to convene representatives of the three major movements to
formulate a practical solution to this issue. To date, these have failed, though all parties
concede the importance of the issue is greater than any sense of rivalry among them.

Legal structure in Israel

Israel has no single document called a constitution (the Basic Laws of Israel function as an
uncodified constitution),[61] however the definition of "who is a Jew" has become an important
issue in Israeli politics due to the involvement of religious parties in the Knesset.

Judaism test

As of 2010, anyone who immigrated to Israel after 1990 and wishes to marry or divorce via
the Jewish tradition within the state limits must go through a "Judaism test"[62] at a Rabbinical
court. In this test, a person would need to prove their claim to be Jewish to an investigator
beyond a reasonable doubt. They would need to present original documentation of their
matriline up to their great-grandmother (4 generations)[63] (or, in the case of Ethiopian Jews, 7
generations back.[64]) In addition, they should provide government documents with
nationality/religion shown as Jewish (e.g., birth/death certificates, marriage documents, etc.).

In the case of people whose original documents have been lost or never existed, it may take a
lot of work to prove their being Jewish.[65] The courts rulings are not final, and any clerk has
the power to question them[66] even 20 years later, changing one's citizenship status to "on
hold", and putting them in jeopardy of deportation.[67]

The two biggest communities suffering from this problem are:

 Immigrants from the former Soviet Union (FSU) – a study conducted between 2003 and 2005
showed that 83% of people from the FSU who started the Judaism test process successfully
 finished it. An estimated 10% left the process before completion. In a later study, in 2011, a
90% success rate was achieved in the FSU immigrant community. [68][69] Many Jews in the
former Soviet Union took steps to hide their Jewishness. Besides post-Soviet copies of
documents are suspected by the tribunal after widespread falsification, and the archived
originals are difficult to access for genealogists. [70]
 Immigrants from the United States, where government documents generally do not show
religion or Jewish ethnicity[71][72][73][74] –

Law of Return

See also: Law of Return

Following the birth of the modern State of Israel in 1948, the Law of Return was enacted to
give any Jew the right to immigrate to Israel and become a citizen.[75] However, due to an
inability on the lawmakers to agree, the Law did not define who was a Jew, relying instead on
the issue to resolve itself over time. As a result, the Law relied in form on the traditional
halakhic definition. But, the absence of a definition of who is a Jew, for the purpose of the
Law, has resulted in the divergent views of the various streams of Judaism competing for
recognition.

Besides the generally accepted halakhic definition of who is a Jew, the Law extended the
categories of person who are entitled to immigration and citizenship to the children and
grandchildren of Jews, regardless of their present religious affiliation, and their spouses.[76]
Also, converts to Judaism whose conversion was performed outside of the State of Israel,
regardless of who performed it, were entitled to immigration under the Law. Once again,
issues arose as to whether a conversion performed outside of Israel was valid. The variation of
the definition in the Law and the definition used by various branches of Judaism has resulted
in practical difficulties for many people.

It has been estimated that in the past twenty years about 300,000 avowed non-Jews and even
practicing Christians have entered Israel from the former Soviet Union on the basis of being a
child or grandchild of a Jew or by being married to a Jew.[77]

However, there was an exception in the case of a person who had formally converted to
another religion derived from the Rufeisen Case in 1962.[3] Such a person, no matter what
their halakhic position, was not entitled to immigration under the Law. This created a
divergence between political Zionist interpretation of Jewishness and that of halakha. In the
1970 Shalit case the Israeli Supreme Court ruled in favour of a family which sought to
register children born in Israel from a Scottish mother as Jewish by nationality,[3] but the 1972
amendment to the Population Registry Law prevented their third child being registered as
Jewish.[78]

Current Israeli definitions specifically exclude Jews who have openly and knowingly
converted to a faith other than Judaism, including Messianic Judaism. This definition is not
the same as that in traditional Jewish law; in some respects it is deliberately wider, so as to
include those non-Jewish relatives of Jews who may have been perceived to be Jewish, and
thus faced antisemitism.

The Law of Return does not, of itself, define the Jewish status of a person; it only deals with
those who have a right of immigration to Israel.
In the early 1950s, the Israeli Chief Rabbinate originally objected to the immigration of
Karaite Jews to Israel, and unsuccessfully tried to obstruct it. In 2007 Rabbi David Chayim
Chelouche, the chief rabbi of Netayana, was quoted in the Jerusalem Post as saying: "A
Karaite is a Jew. We accept them as Jews and every one of them who wishes to come back [to
mainstream Judaism] we accept back. There was once a question about whether Karaites
needed to undergo a token circumcision in order to switch to rabbinic Judaism, but the
rabbinate agrees that today that is not necessary."[79]

Israeli laws governing marriage and divorce

See also: Marriage in Israel

In relation to marriage, divorce, and burial, which are under the jurisdiction of the Israeli
Interior Ministry, the halakhic definition of who is a Jew is applied. When there is any doubt,
the Israeli Chief Rabbinate generally determines the issue.

In terms of social relations, most secular Jews view their Jewish identity as a matter of
culture, heritage, nationality, or ethnicity.[80] Ancestral aspects can be explained by the many
Jews who view themselves as atheist and are defined by matrilineal descent[35][81] or a Cohen
(Kohen) or Levi, which is connected by ancestry.[82] The question of “who is a Jew” is a
question that is under debate.[83] Issues related to ancestral or ethnic Jews are dealt with by the
Israeli Chief Rabbinate.[84][85][86][87]

Orthodox halachic rules apply to converts who want to marry in Israel. Under these rules, a
conversion to Judaism must strictly follow halachic standards to be recognised as valid. The
rabbinate even scrutinizes Orthodox conversions, with some who have converted by orthodox
authorities outside of Israel not being permitted to marry in Israel.[87][88]

If one's ancestral line of Jewishness is in doubt, then a proper conversion would be required in
order to be allowed to marry in the Orthodox community, or in Israel, where such rules
govern all marriages.

Israeli definition of nationality

The Jewish status of a person in Israel is considered a matter of "nationality".

In the registering of "nationality" on Israeli Teudat Zehut ("identity card"), which is

administered by the Ministry of the Interior, a person had to meet the halakhic definition to be
registered as a "Jew". However, in a number of cases the Supreme Court of Israel has ordered
the Interior Ministry to register as Reform and Conservative converts as Jews. The right of
people who convert in the Diaspora under Reform or Conservative auspices to make aliyah, or
immigrate to Israel and claim citizenship as Jews, is detailed in Israeli law.[89]

Until recently, Israeli identity cards had an indication of nationality, and the field was left
empty for those who immigrated not solely on the basis of being Jewish (i.e. as a child,
grandchild or spouse of a Jew only) to indicate that the person may not be a Jew. Also, many
Israeli citizens who are not recognised by the Rabbinate as Jewish (or have not provided
sufficient proof of this) have been issued with Israeli identity cards that do not include their
Hebrew calendar birth date.
Other definitions
There have been other attempts to determine Jewish identity beside the traditional Jewish
approaches. These range from genetic population studies (see Y-chromosomal Aaron) to
controversial evolutionary perspectives including those espoused by Kevin B. MacDonald and
Yuri Slezkine.

Sociology and anthropology

As with any other ethnic identity, Jewish identity is, to some degree, a matter of either
claiming that identity or being perceived by others (both inside and outside the ethnic group)
as belonging to that group, or both. Returning again to the example of Madeleine Albright –
during her Catholic childhood, her being in some sense Jewish was presumably irrelevant. It
was only after she was nominated to be Secretary of State that she, and the public, discovered
her Jewish ancestry.

Ido Abram states that there are five aspects to contemporary Jewish identity:

1. Religion, culture, and tradition.

2. The tie with Israel and Zionism.
3. Dealings with antisemitism, including issues of persecution and survival.
4. Personal history and life-experience.
5. Relationship with non-Jewish culture and people. [90][91]

The relative importance of these factors may vary enormously from place to place. For
example, a typical Dutch Jew might describe his or her Jewish identity simply as "I was born
Jewish," while a Jew in Romania, where levels of antisemitism are higher, might say, "I
consider any form of denying as a proof of cowardice."[92]

The Inquisition

During the time of the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions, conversion to Roman
Catholicism did not result in total termination of the person's Jewish status. Legally, the
converts were no longer regarded as Jews, and thus allowed to stay in the Iberian Peninsula.
During the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal, however, many Jews were forced to convert, but
thereafter were regarded by many people, though not in a legal form, as New Christians,
distinguishing them as separate from the Old Christians of non-Jewish lineage. Since legal,
political, religious and social pressure pushed many people to untrue conversions (public
behaviour as Christians while retaining Jewish practices privately, a kind of crypto-Judaism,
also see Marrano and Anusim), they were still treated with suspicion, a stigma sometimes
carried for several generations by their identifiable descendants. The pureza de sangre
("Cleanliness of blood") required public officials or candidate members to many organizations
to prove that they did not have Jewish or Muslim ancestry.

Secular philosophy

Jean-Paul Sartre, who was not Jewish, suggested in Anti-Semite and Jew (1948) that Jewish
identity "is neither national nor international, neither religious nor ethnic, nor political: it is a
quasi-historical community." While Jews as individuals may be in danger from the antisemite
who sees only "Jews" and not "people", Sartre argues that the Jewish experience of
antisemitism preserves—even creates—the sense of Jewish community. In his most extreme
statement of this view he wrote, "It is the anti-Semite who creates the Jew." Conversely, that
sense of specific Jewish community may be threatened by the democrat who sees only "the
person" and not "the Jew".

Hannah Arendt repeatedly asserted a principle of claiming Jewish identity in the face of
antisemitism. "If one is attacked as a Jew, one must defend oneself as a Jew. Not as a German,
not as a world-citizen, not as an upholder of the Rights of Man, or whatever"; "A man
attacked as a Jew cannot defend himself as an Englishman or a Frenchman. The world can
only conclude from this that he is simply not defending himself at all."

Wade Clark Roof (1976), a sociologist at the University of California at Santa Barbara,
proposed that social sectors in modern life, in which traditional symbols and rituals are
meaningful, provide an alternative approach for explaining the social basis of religion in a
secular order, in doing so, he turned to the local community as a sphere in modern society that
still persists "as a complex system of friendship and kinship networks, formal and informal
associations, as well as symbolic attachments, very much rooted in family life and ongoing
socialization processes".[93]

"Half-Jewish"

In the United States, because of intermarriage, the population of "half-Jews" is beginning to

rival that of Jews with two Jewish parents. Self-identified "half-Jews" consider the term a
familial category, which reflects multiple heritages and possible Jewish cultural or spiritual
practices.[94][95][96] Other similar terms that have been used include: "part-Jewish" and "partial-
Jews". The term "Gershom", "Gershomi" or "Beta Gershom" has also been used as an
alternative to "half-Jewish" and "part-Jewish" in connection with descendants of
intermarriage, Gershom being the son of Moses and his Midianite wife Zipporah.[97] The term
typically has no religious meaning, as terms like Jewish Christian do, but rather describes
ethnic Jewry.

Antisemitic definitions

The question "who is a Jew?" is also sometimes of importance to non-Jews. It has had
exceptional significance historically when considered by anti-Jewish groups for the purpose
of targeting Jews for persecution or discrimination. The definition can impact on whether a
person may have a certain job, live in certain locations, receive a free education, live or
continue to live in the country, be imprisoned, or executed.

Nazism

The Nazi regime instituted laws discriminating against Jews, declared a race by the Nazis, and
thus needed a working definition of who is a Jew as to its law-defined race system. These
definitions almost completely categorised persons through the religions followed by each
individual's ancestors, according to membership registries. Thus personal faith or individual
observance, as well as the religious definitions of Judaism as given by the Halacha, were
mostly ignored.
In Germany itself, the Ahnenpass and Nuremberg Laws classified people as being of the
Jewish race if they descended from three or four grandparents enrolled in Jewish
congregations. A person with one or two grandparents enrolled in a Jewish congregation
could be classified as Mischling,[98] a crossbreed, of "mixed blood", if she or he was no
member of a Jewish congregation at the time the Nuremberg Laws were enacted. Only people
with at least two of their grandparents of "German blood" could be German Reich's citizens,
other Germans dropped into the new second class group of citizens, the so-called state
citizens.[99] If a person, with grandparents of the same religious combination, was enrolled as a
member of a Jewish congregation in 1935 or would join later, she or he switched from the
discriminatory class of Mischlinge into that of Geltungsjude, "Jew by legal validity", despite
of not fulfilling the no less law-defined discriminating criterion of descending from three or
four Jewish grandparents. Whereas every Mischling could anytime drop into the class of
Geltungsjude by joining a Jewish congregation, the Nuremberg Laws provided for the
unchanged classification of any Geltungsjude, regardless if she or he tried to evade harm by
seceding from the Jewish congregation after 1935, considering such secessions as being of no
effect as to the discrimination. Let alone people with three or four Jewish grandparents who
themselves could never alter their law-defined racist categorisation as Jews. Any Mischling
with two Jewish grandparents, colloquially called a half-Jew, marrying after 1935 anybody
classified as Jew would drop into the discriminatory class of Geltungsjude. Mischlinge with
one Jewish grandparent were usually forbidden to marry anybody with any Jewish
grandparent.

One could not become a non-Jew in the eyes of the Nazi government by seceding from one's
Jewish congregation, becoming non-practicing, marrying outside the religion, or converting to
Christianity. In 1935 the Nuremberg Laws forbade new marriages of people classified as Jews
with people of other classifications (see Anti-miscegenation laws#Nazi Germany). Earlier
contracted marriages between spouses of different classifications (so-called mixed marriages;
Mischehe) provided the Jewish-classified spouse with an uncertain protection from some
discriminations and atrocities.

There were very few Karaites in Europe during the Nazi era; most lived in the region of
Turkey, Greece, and the Crimea. Karaites were not considered Jewish for the purpose of the
Holocaust extermination policy;[100] according to SS Obergruppenführer Gottlob Berger,
writing on November 24, 1944, discrimination against the Karaites had been prohibited due to
their proximity to the Crimean Tatars, to whom Berger views the Karaites as being related.
Nazis still retained hostility towards the Karaites, on grounds of their religion; and there were
a number of small scale massacres of Karaites.

In German-occupied France an ordinance defined a Jew as an individual who belonged to the

Jewish religion or who had more than two Jewish grandparents.[101]

The Vichy régime in southern France defined a Jew as an individual with three Jewish
grandparents or two grandparents if his/her spouse was Jewish. Richard Weisberg points out
that this was a potentially broader classification than the one used in Occupied France, for
example, a Mischling could not be classified a Jew under the Nazi dictate, by her/his spouse's
classification if the marriage was contracted before the imposition of anti-Semitic marriage
laws there, but would be deemed one under the Vichy act if he/she had married a Jew,
regardless when.[101]

Israelite identity loss claims

See also: Israelite and Ten Lost Tribes

Besides Jews themselves, there are various groups that have claimed descent from the biblical
Israelites. The question nowadays arises in relation to Israel's Law of Return, with various
groups seeking to migrate there. Some of the claims have been accepted, some are under
consideration, while others have been rejected by Israel's rabbinate.

Cochin Jews (Indian Jews)

See also: Cochin Jews

Some sources say that the earliest Jews of Cochin, India were those who settled in the
Malabar Coast during the times of King Solomon of Israel, and after the Kingdom of Israel
split into two. There is historical documentation of the Jews being in Cochin after the fall of
the Second Temple, from around the first century CE. Later additions were a smaller
immigration of Sephardic Jews from Europe in the sixteenth century after the expulsion from
Spain, and Baghdadi Jews, Arabic-speaking Jews who arrived in the late eighteenth century,
at the beginning of the British colonial era.[102] Following the independence of India and the
establishment of Israel, most Cochin Jews emigrated to Israel in the mid-1950s. Some have
gone on to North America or Britain.

Bene Israel

See also: Bene Israel

The Bene Israel in India claim to be descended from Jews who escaped persecution in Galilee
in the 2nd century BCE. The Bene Israel resemble the non-Jewish Maratha people in
appearance and customs, which indicates some intermarriage between Jews and Indians. The
Bene Israel, however, maintained the practices of Jewish dietary laws, male circumcision and
observation of the Sabbath as a day of rest. From the late eighteenth century, other Jewish
communities instructed them in normative Judaism.

Initially the Orthodox rabbinate in Israel said that the Bene Israel would have to undergo
conversion in order to marry other Jews, as matrilineal descent could not be proven. In 1964
the Israeli Rabbinate declared that the Bene Israel are "full Jews in every respect".

The Bene Israel claim a lineage to the Kohanim, the Israelite priestly class, which claims
descent from Aaron, the brother of Moses. In 2002, DNA testing revealed that the Bene Israel
shared some of the genetic markers of the Kohanim. These are not exclusive to the Kohanim,
but appear among them at a higher frequency. These are also shared with some non-Jewish
Semitic peoples.[103][104]

Many of the Bene Israel emigrated from India to Israel, where around 6,000 Jews of this
group reside. About 5,000 remain in India. They maintain 65 synagogues in Israel.[105]

Beta Israel

The Beta Israel or Falasha is a group formerly living in Ethiopia who have a tradition of
descent from the lost tribe of Dan. They have a long history of practicing such Jewish
traditions as kashrut, Sabbath and Passover, and had Jewish texts. In 1975, their claim of
Jewishness was accepted by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel and the Israeli government. The
government assisted them in emigrating en masse to Israel during the 1980s and 1990s as
Jews under the Law of Return, when Ethiopia was undergoing civil war. Some who claim to
be Beta Israel still live in Ethiopia.

Bnei Menashe

The Bnei Menashe is a group in India claiming to be descendants of the half-tribe of

Menashe. Members who have studied Hebrew and who observe the Sabbath and other Jewish
laws in 2005 received the support of the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel to arrange formal
conversion to Judaism. Some have converted and emigrated to Israel under the Law of
Return.

The Kaifeng Jews

For more details on this topic, see History of the Jews in China.

The Kaifeng Jews, a Mandarin-speaking group from Henan Province, China, experienced first
contact with Europeans in 1605 via the religious scholar Matteo Ricci. Modern researchers
believe these Jews were descended from Persian merchants who settled in China during the
early Song Dynasty. They prospered during the Ming Dynasty as Confucian civil servants,
soldiers, and merchants, but they quickly assimilated and lost much of their Jewish heritage.
By the beginning of the 19th century, the last rabbi with knowledge of Hebrew died, leaving
no successor. The community had become for all intents and purposes religiously extinct by
the late Qing Dynasty due to anti-foreign persecutions brought on by the Taiping Rebellion
and Boxer Rebellion. There are a small number of Chinese people today who consider
themselves to be descendants of these Jews.[106]

Despite their isolation from the rest of the Jewish diaspora, the Jews of Kaifeng preserved
Jewish traditions and customs for many centuries. In the 17th century, assimilation began to
erode these traditions. The rate of intermarriage between Jews and other ethnic groups, such
as the Han Chinese, and the Hui and Manchu minorities in China, increased. The destruction
of the synagogue in the 1860s led to the community's demise.[107] However, J.L. Liebermann,
the first Western Jew to visit Kaifeng in 1867, noted that "they still had a burial ground of
their own". S.M. Perlmann, the Shanghai businessman and scholar, wrote in 1912 that "they
bury their dead in coffins, but of a different shape than those of the Chinese are made, and do
not attire the dead in secular clothes as the Chinese do, but in linen".[108] To date, there is only
one scholar, Zhou Xu, who doubts the Kaifeng community's Jewishness and claims them to
have been a western construct.[109]

Today, 600-1,000 residents of Kaifeng trace their lineage back to this community.[107] After
contact with Jewish tourists, the Jews of Kaifeng have reconnected to mainstream Jewry.
With the help of Jewish organizations, some members of the community have emigrated to
Israel.[107] In 2009, Chinese Jews from Kaifeng arrived in Israel as immigrants.[110][111][112]

The Lemba

The Lemba, a Bantu-speaking group of people from southern Africa, primarily Zimbabwe and
South Africa, consider themselves of Jewish descent, although most practice Christianity or
Islam. They emphasize eating only meats slaughtered by special ritual. They have
endogamous marriage practices. If a man wants to marry a non-Lemba woman, she must
adopt all the Lemba practices and traditions, including keeping meat and dairy foods separate.
No male non-Lemba are accepted into the group, even by conversion.

The Lemba follow a patrilineal tradition. Y-DNA testing has shown a high percentage of
Semitic ancestry, perhaps Jewish, among some of the males. Y-DNA testing has shown
markers indicative of Semitic ancestry, including markers associated with Kohanim. These
are present at a high rate among men in their Buba clan, traditionally known as the one to
have led the men to south Africa from Yemen after they left Israel. The women are
exclusively of African origin, which is consistent with the tribe's origin story of Jewish men
coming to Africa. See also Jews and Judaism in Africa.

New Mexico's Crypto-Jews

A small Hispano group of Sephardic Jews in northern New Mexico may be one of the oldest
groups of practicing Jews in North America, dating back to the early Spanish settlers of
Jewish descent who had been forcibly converted to Catholicism as Conversos or New
Christians, or both after 1492. Some families of Conversos began to settle in Mexico City in
the 1530s and 1540s. Some converted back to Judaism; others maintained some Jewish
practices in secret. After the Spanish Inquisition came to the New World in 1571, the
conversos were threatened with death if it was found they were practicing Judaism.

In 1598 the first expedition was made to New Mexico, and included conversos.[113] After that,
other conversos fled to the northwestern frontier of the Spanish Empire,[114] now the American
Southwest, to evade the scrutiny and threat of discovery in the more monitored settlements.
Outwardly Catholic, these forced converts maintained Jewish practices and customs for
generations in secret, hence their name, "Crypto-Jews". They have been the subject of recent
academic study.[115] Some of New Mexico's Crypto-Jews have begun to return to normative
Judaism in recent years, through study and ritual conversion.[116] Others feel enlarged by
learning this part of their history, but continue as practicing Catholics.

A genetic study of men in the early 2000s showed that many Hispanos of the American
Southwest are descended from Anusim (Sephardic Jews who were forcibly converted to
Roman Catholicism). Only Catholic Spanish were allowed to go to the New World with the
exploration and colonial expeditions. Families first kept their secrets for protection and then
out of habit. Michael Hammer, a research professor at the University of Arizona and an expert
on Jewish genetics, said that fewer than 1% of non-Semites possessed the male-specific
"Cohanim marker" or Cohen Modal Haplotype, which is prevalent among Jews claiming
descent from hereditary priests. Nearly half, 30 of 78 Latinos tested in New Mexico (38.5%),
were found to have Y-DNA with the Cohanim marker.[114] Wider DNA testing of Hispanic
populations has revealed between 10% and 15% of men living in New Mexico, south Texas
and northern Mexico have a Y chromosome associated with the Middle East. Their history
makes it most likely that they are Jewish rather than Arabic Muslim.

In 2008, a gene that is typically found only in Ashkenazy Jewish women, and is linked to a
virulent form of breast cancer, was discovered in a cluster of Hispanic Catholic women in
southern Colorado, many of whom trace their family's roots to northern New Mexico. It was
conclusively shown to be related to Jewish ancestry, given the history of the people in the
area, and many families reported knowledge of a high incidence of cancer. After testing and
notification of families, researchers worked with the extended families on genetic counseling
and to develop health strategies for monitoring, early detection and treatment, as they were
faced with the higher risk associated with the gene.[113]

Other evidence of Jewish ancestry is language. According to a Jewish genealogy blog, so-
called "Mountain Spanish", a Spanish dialect spoken by many of the old families of northern
New Mexico and southern Colorado—and chiefly only among themselves—appears to be a
form of Ladino or Judezmo. This was a hybrid language that developed among Sephardic
Jews in Iberia, from Old Spanish, Portuguese and Hebrew, with sprinklings of Arabic, Greek
and other languages, depending on the geographic region of the speakers or their ancestors.[117]

Other claims

Other claims of lost tribe status or other Jewish origin, have not yet been accepted by
normative Jews.

 A tribe of Siberian Asian origin based in Central Russia connects their claims of Jewish rather
than pantheistic practices with the Khazars. The latter, an invading tribe from either
Mongolia or Kazakhstan that conquered and ruled Russia in the 9th century, is said to have
adopted Judaism instead of Christianity or Islam, by their leaders' preference.

 A tribe in western Burma near the Indian and Bangladeshi borders has sought genetic
research to vindicate its tradition that their ancestors were Syrian and Iranian Jews. Judaism
has not become a major theological force in Southeast Asia. Introduced religions such as
Hinduism and Islam, which converted several tribal groups, have existed in Indochina
(Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam) for hundreds or thousands of years.

See also
 Anusim
 Crypto-Jews
 Interfaith marriage in Judaism
 Jewish identity
 Jewish peoplehood

Notes and references

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115. ^ Hordes, Stanley M. (2005). To The End of The Earth: A History of the Crypto-Jews of
New Mexico, Columbia University Press. pp. 376. ISBN 978-0-231-12937-4.
116. ^ Romero, Simon (October 29, 2005). "Hispanics Uncovering Roots as Inquisition's
'Hidden' Jews". The New York Times.
117. ^ "Turkey: A Ladino newspaper". Tracing the Tribe: The Jewish Genealogy Blog.
October 9, 2009. "In northern New Mexico, the descendants of Converso settlers who arrived
as early as the late 16th century, still speak "Mountain Spanish." In reality, it is 16th century
 Ladino, and scholars who have visited them have been amazed at how well the language has
been transmitted down through the generations."

 Kertzer, Morris (1996). What is a Jew?. New York: Touchstone. ISBN 0-684-84298-X.

 Siedman, Lauren. What Makes Someone a Jew?. Woodstock, VT: Jewish Lights Publishing.
ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-1-58023-321-X|978-1-58023-321-X [[Category:Articles with
invalid ISBNs]]]] Check |isbn= value (help).

External links
 Humanistic Judaism view on Who is a Jew
 Reform view of who is a Jew by the Union for Reform Judaism
 Who is a Jew by Jewish Virtual Library
 Orthodox and Non-Orthodox Judaism: How to Square the Circle by JCPA
 Rabbi Dr. Donniel Hartman: Israel cannot be arbiter of conversions to Judaism by Shalom
Hartman Institute
 Matrilineal descent Conservative view
 The "Who Is a Jew?" Controversy by the U.S. Library of Congress
 Rabbi Dr. Donniel Hartman: The challenge and crisis of conversion in Israel by Shalom
Hartman Institute
 Who is a Jew? from www.beingjewish.com
 "How Do You Prove You’re a Jew?" Gershom Gorenberg, New York Times, March 2, 2008
 "Rabbinical Court Puts Thousands Of Converts in Legal Limbo" Ruling Reopens Fractious
Debate Over ‘Who is a Jew?’", Nathan Jeffay, The Forward, May 8, 2008
 "Israel considers question: ‘Who is a Jew?’ – Issue heads to higher court after rabbis annul
some 40,000 conversions" (November 2008)
 Who is born a Jew? Rabbinical and Karaite interpretations side by side from half-Jewish.org
 Times Online, The law of the land collides with the Law of Moses
 Israel risks alienating Jewish diaspora over definition of a Jew

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