INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

DRYING (cont’d)

Armando C. Emata PME3045

August 10, 2017
TOPIC OBJECTIVES
• Theory of Drying
• Heat Balance
• The Physical Mechanism of Drying
• Food drying
• Description
• Food types
• Preparation
• Food Drying Guidelines
• Speed
TOPIC OBJECTIVES
• Temperature
• Humidity and Ventilation
• Uniform Drying
• Nutritive Value
• Food types
• Preparation
Theory of Drying
• Charts and calculation methods are presented to provide
an engineering basis for drier design so far as heat flow
and air conditions are concerned.
• As an agreement of 10% between prediction and test is
quite good for heat requirements and moisture content, it
will be realized that refined calculations are out of place.
• Nevertheless the variables can occur such a wide range
that it is not unusual to find driers in service which are
extremely wasteful of heat or air, or which do not realize
their potential drying capacity.
Theory of Drying cont’d
• A lot can be learned by working out the performance of a
particular drier and comparing it with test.
• The ultimate basis for measuring the moisture content of
the stock is the weighing of samples, both at various stages
in the progress of drying and after complete removal of all
moisture, usually by baking at above boiling point.
• Instruments have been developed for the direct indication
of moisture content with such products as grain or timber.
• These are usually electrical and rely either on the
conductivity of moist stock or on its dielectric loss in a high
frequency field.
Heat Balance
• Whenever evaporation takes place the latent heat of
evaporation must be supplied to the liquid surface at
which the vapor is produced.
• In order to draw up a heat balance for a drying plant it is
necessary to identify all routes by which the heat may
leave.
• These include stand-by losses required to maintain the
oven walls at the required temperature against external
convection and radiation loss, heat absorbed in warming
up the stock may be assumed to reach the temperature
at which the oven is controlled.
Heat Balance cont’d
• For the present purpose it is sufficient to take the specific
heat of water as unity and the specific heat of air as 0.24
Btu/lb irrespective of temperature, pressure and humidity.
Example problem 1:
• An oven is used to dry the insulation on a batch of 800 lb.
of electrical coils prior to impregnation. The drying time is 2
hours. The 800 lb. is predominantly copper and sample
tests indicate that the amount of moisture removed is 2%
of the final weight. The oven is maintained at 200°F with
forced air circulation and 20 cfm of fresh air is taken in from
the surrounding atmosphere at 70°F and 50% RH.
Heat Balance cont’d
• The heat requirements of the oven are estimated as
follows:
To heat 800 lb. of copper from 70°F to 200°F
800 lb. x 0.093 Btu/lb. sp. ht. x 130°F = 9600 Btu
To heat 0.02 x 800 = 16 lb. of water from 70°F to 200°F
16 lb. x 1.00 Btu/lb. sp. Ht. x 130°F = 2100 Btu
To evaporate 16 lb. of water at 200°F
16 lb. x 978 Btu/lb. latent heat = 15,600 Btu
Heat Balance cont’d
To heat 20 cfm x 0.075lb./ft³ x 120 min = 180 lb. of air
180 lb. x 0.24 Btu/lb. sp. ht. x 130°F = 5600 Btu
Standby losses estimated at 5000 Btu/hr.
5000 Btu/hr. x 2 hours = 10,00 Btu
---------------
Total heat required per batch = 42,900 Btu
The Physical Mechanism of Drying
• In the evaporative drying of any product, four main phases
may be distinguished:
1. The rising rate period during which the heat supplied is
used to raise the temperature of the stock and the
liquid associated with it. During this period the
evaporation rate rises with the temperature in a roughly
exponential approach to the next phase.
2. The constant rate period during which the whole of the
exposed surface of the stock is wet. The rate of
evaporation is at maximum during this period and is
constant, together with the temperature of the wet
surface.
The Physical Mechanism of Drying
cont’d
3. The first falling rate period commences at the critical
moisture content for the material when dry patches
begin to appear on the surface. The rate of
evaporation falls with progressive reduction in wetted
area and the period terminates when the whole of the
exposed surface is dry.
4. The second falling rate period during which the rate of
loss of moisture is largely unaffected by external air
conditions, being governed by the rate of evaporation,
migration and diffusion of liquid within the material.
• It is rarely practicable to assess the rate of evaporation in
all its phases from first principles.
The Physical Mechanism of Drying
cont’d
• However, the treatments in the following sections will be
found of value in predicting full-scale drier performance
from tests on samples of material, from tests on model
driers, and from the performance of existing plant.
FOOD DRYING
Description
• Food drying is a method of food preservation in which
food is dried (dehydrated or desiccated).
• Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and mold
through the removal of water.
• Dehydration has been used widely for this purpose since
ancient times; the earliest known practice is 12,000 B.C. by
inhabitants of the modern Middle East and Asia regions.
• Water is traditionally removed through evaporation (air
drying, sun drying, smoking or wind drying),
Description cont’d
although today electric food dehydrators or freeze-drying
can be used to speed the drying process and ensure more
consistent results.
• Drying is the oldest method of preserving food.
• The early American settlers dried foods such as corn, apple
slices, currants, grapes, and meat.
• Compared with other methods, drying is quite simple.
• In fact, you may already have most of the equipment on
hand.
Description cont’d
• Dried foods keep well because the moisture content is so
low that spoilage organisms cannot grow.
• Drying will never replace canning and freezing because
these methods do a better job of retaining the taste,
appearance, and nutritive value of fresh food.
• But drying is an excellent way to preserve foods that can
add variety to meals and provide delicious, nutritious
snacks.
• One of the biggest advantages of dried foods is that they
take much less storage space than canned or frozen
foods.
Description cont’d
• Recommended methods for canning and freezing have
been determined by research and widespread
experience.
• Home drying, however, does not have firmly established
procedures.
• Food can be dried several ways.
• For example by the sun if the air is hot and dry enough, or
in an oven or dryer if the climate is humid.
Description cont’d
• With the renewed interest in gardening and natural foods
and because of the high cost of commercially dried
products, drying foods at home is becoming popular
again.
• Drying is not difficult, but it does take time and a lot of
attention.
• Although there are different drying methods, the guidelines
remain the same.
• Dependable solar dehydration of foods requires 3 to 5
consecutive days when the temperature is 95°F and the
humidity is very low.
Description cont’d
• Drying food in the oven of a kitchen range, on the other
hand, can be very expensive.
• In an electric oven, drying food has been found to be 9 to
12 times as costly as canning it.
• Food dehydrators are less expensive to operate but are
only useful for a few months of the year.
• A convection oven can be the most economical
investment if the proper model is chosen.
• A convection oven that has a controllable temperature
starting at 120°F and a continuous operation feature rather
than a timer-controlled one will function as well as a
Description cont’d
dehydrator during the gardening months.
• For the rest of the year, it can be used as tabletop oven.
FOOD DRYING
GUIDELINES
Speed
• For a good-quality product, vegetables and fruits must be
prepared for drying as soon as possible after harvesting.
• They should be blanched, cooled, and laid out to dry
without delay.
• Foods should be dried rapidly, but not so fast so that the
outside becomes hard before moisture inside has a
chance to evaporate.
• Drying must not be interrupted.
• Once you start drying the food, don’t let it cool down in
order to start drying again later.
Speed cont’d
• Mold and other spoilage organisms can grow on partly
dried food.
Temperature
• During the first part, of the drying process, the air
temperature can be relatively high, that is, 150 to 160
degrees F (65 degrees to 70 degrees C), so that moisture
can evaporate quickly from the food.
• Because food loses heat during rapid evaporation, the air
temperature can be high without increasing the
temperature of the food.
• But as soon as surface moisture is lost (the outside begins to
feel dry) and the rate of evaporation slows down, the food
warms up.
Temperature cont’d
• The air temperature must then be reduced to about 140°F
(60°C).
• Toward the end of the drying process the food can scorch
easily, so one must watch it carefully.
• Each fruit and vegetable has a critical temperature above
which a scorched taste develops.
• The temperature should be high enough to evaporate
moisture from the food, but not high enough to cook the
food.
• Carefully follow directions for regulating temperatures.
Humidity and Ventilation
• Rapid dehydration is desirable.
• The higher the temperature and lower the humidity, the
more rapid the rate of dehydration will be.
• Humid air slows down the evaporation.
• Keep this in mind if you plan to dry food on hot, muggy
summer days.
• If drying takes place too fast, however, “case hardening”
will occur.
• This means that the cells on the outside of the pieces of
food give up moisture faster than the cells on the inside.
Humidity and Ventilation cont’d
• The surface becomes hard, preventing the escape of
moisture from the inside.
• Moisture in the food escapes by evaporating into the air.
• Trapped air soon takes on as much moisture as it can hold,
and then drying can no longer take place.
• For this reason, be sure the ventilation around the oven or
in the food dryer is adequate.
Uniform Drying
• Drying the food evenly takes a little extra effort and
attention.
• Stirring the pieces of food frequently and shifting the racks
in the oven or dryer are essential because heat is not the
same in all parts of the dryer.
• For the best results, spread thin layers of uniformly-sized
pieces of food on the drying racks.
Nutritive Value
• Dried fruits are a good source of energy because they
contain concentrated fruit sugars.
• Fruits also contain a rather large amount of vitamins and
minerals.
• The drying process, however, destroys some of the
vitamins, especially A and C.
• Exposing fruit to sulfur before drying helps retain vitamins A
and C.
• Sulfur destroys thiamine, one of the B vitamins, but fruit is
not an important source of thiamine anyway.
Nutritive Value cont’d
• Many dried fruits are rich in riboflavin and iron.
• Vegetables are a good source of minerals and the B
vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin.
• Both fruits and vegetables provide useful amounts of the
fiber (bulk) we need.
• Save the water used for soaking or cooking dried foods
because this nutrient-rich water can be used in recipes to
make soups, sauces and gravy.
Food Types
• Many different foods can be prepared by dehydration.
• Meat has held an historically significant role.
• For centuries, much of the European diet depended on
dried cod—known as salt cod, bacalhau (with salt), or
stock fish (without).
• It formed the main protein source for the slaves on the
West Indian plantations, and was a major economic force
within the triangular trade.
• Dried shark meat, known as Hakari, is a delicacy in Iceland,
while dried reindeer meat is a traditional Sami food.
Food Types cont’d
• Currently popular dried meats include prosciutto (a.k.a.
Parma ham), bresaola, biltong and beef jerky.
• Dried fruits have been consumed historically due to their
high sugar content and sweet taste, and a longer shelf-life
from drying.
• Fruits are often observed differently when dried.
• The plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin.
• Figs and dates are also transformed into new, different
products that can either be eaten as they are, used in
recipes, or rehydrated.
Food Types cont’d
• Freeze-dried vegetables are often found in food for
backpackers, hunters, and the military.
• Garlic and onion are often dried.
• Edible mushrooms, as well as other fungi, are also
sometimes dried for preservation purposes or to be used as
seasonings.
Preparation
• Home drying of vegetables, fruit and meat can be carried
out with electrical dehydrators (household appliance) or
by sun-drying or by wind.
• Preservatives such as potassium metabisulfite, BHA, or BHT
may be used, but are not required.However, dried
products without these preservatives may require
refrigeration or freezing to ensure safe storage for a long
time.
• Industrial food dehydration is often accomplished by
freeze-drying.
Preparation cont’d
• In this case food is flash frozen and put into a reduced-
pressure system which causes the water to sublimate
directly from the solid to the gaseous phase.
• Although freeze-drying is more expensive than traditional
dehydration techniques, it also mitigates the change in
flavor, texture, and nutritional value.
• In addition, another widely used industrial method of
drying of food is convective hot air drying.
• Industrial hot air dryers are simple and easy to design,
construct and maintain.
Preparation cont’d
• More so, it is very affordable and has been reported to
retain most of the nutritional properties of food if dry using
appropriate drying conditions.
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QUESTIONS