Name: Alexandra Hebert

Group Members: Julia Luraguiz, Lubna Qutob, Megan Davis, Natasha Kelly
Section: 3

Title: The effects of weight on the dispersal distance and falling velocity of prototype seeds in
the presence and absence of wind

Pattern: Wind dispersed seeds have morphological features, such as weight, affecting falling
velocity and dispersal distance
Overall Research Question: How does weight affect the dispersal of red maple tree prototype
seeds?

Research Hypothesis 1: The lightest red maple prototype seed will have the greatest dispersal
distance inside.
Reasoning: Since seed weight and terminal velocity are directly correlated, decreasing
the weight will result in a decreased velocity, which results in an increase in travel time
inside
Null Hypothesis 1: The weight of the seed prototype will have no effect on the dispersal
distance inside.
Analytical Approach: ANOVA, Bar Graph
Independent Variable: Weight
Dependent Variable: Dispersal Distance
Research Hypothesis 2: The lightest seed prototype will have the greatest dispersal distance
outside.
Reasoning: Since seed weight and terminal velocity are directly correlated, decreasing
the weight will result in a decreased velocity, which results in an increase in travel time
outside
Null Hypothesis 2: The weight of the seed prototype will have no effect on the dispersal
distance outside.
Analytical Approach: ANOVA, Bar Graph
Independent Variable: Weight
Dependent Variable: Dispersal Distance
Research Hypothesis 3: The lightest seed prototype will have the slowest falling velocity inside.
Reasoning: Since seed weight and terminal velocity are directly proportional, decreasing
seed weight will lead to a slower falling velocity inside
Null Hypothesis 3: The weight of the seed prototype will have no effect on the falling
velocity inside.
Analytical Approach: ANOVA, Bar Graph
Independent Variable: Weight
Dependent Variable: Falling Velocity
Research Hypothesis 4: The lightest red maple prototype seed will have the slowest falling
velocity outside.
Reasoning: Since seed weight and terminal velocity are directly proportional, decreasing
seed weight will lead to a slower falling velocity outside
Null Hypothesis 4: The weight of the seed prototype will have no effect on the falling
velocity outside.
 Analytical Approach: ANOVA, Bar Graph
Independent Variable: Weight
Dependent Variable: Falling Velocity
Research Hypothesis 5: All three red maple seed prototypes will travel farther outside than
inside.
Reasoning: The presence of wind outside will allow the seeds to travel farther
Null Hypothesis 5: The outside elements will have no effect on how far the seeds will
travel.
Analytical Approach: T-Test, Bar Graph
Independent Variable: Location (Wind Speed)
Dependent Variable: Dispersal Distance

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Abstract
Seed dispersal is a crucial component for plant survival and evolution. Without the ability

to disperse, plants face the serious risk of extinction. We focused on how varying seed weights

impact the plant’s dispersal ability. For our wind dispersed seed prototypes, we hypothesized that

the light seed prototypes will have the greatest dispersal distances and the slowest falling

velocities when dropped both indoors and outdoors. We also predicted that all three seed

prototypes would travel farther outside than inside. A series of experiments varying weight

among the artificial seeds were tested to determine how seed weight impacts the dispersal

distance and falling velocity in the presence and absence of wind. Our results suggest that lighter

seed weights have lower falling velocities and greater dispersal distance is the presence of wind.

However, our results showed a lack of variation among all the seeds dropped inside. These

results correlate to that of other studies on seed dispersal, which found that populations will

select against heavier seeds. We concluded that weight strongly influences seed dispersal and has

a significant impact on wind dispersed seeds.

Introduction
When plant species experience difficulties in fitness, dispersal serves as a mechanism to

aid plant conservation. By reducing resource competition with the parent species as well as

establishing new habitats, dispersal enables seeds to increase their survival and productivity rates

(Ruxton and Schaefer 2012). Some seeds do not have the ability to self-distribute, and therefore

rely on external factors for transport. Dispersal distance distribution has been shown to have a

significant impact on recruitment patterns, genetic structure, and even community diversity

(Levin et al. 2003).

The spatial patterns of seedlings are heavily influenced by seed dispersal and predators,

and this causes changes in abiotic and biotic interactions. With the ability to connect populations

through dispersal, an increase in genetic variation can occur (Holt 1983). These changes could

have a significant impact on the distribution and diversity of plant populations (Beckman et al.

2012). Overall dispersal rates among local communities heavily depend on local competition and

the ability to migrate (Levin et al. 2003). While seed dispersal accelerates niche expansion, too

much dispersal as well as too little could lead to population extinction (Aguilée et al. 2013).

While some seeds can migrate on their own using active dispersal, many seeds travel

using a variety of different mechanisms. Since a great deal of plants are only mobile in the seed

stage, they require a vector for transport (Croteau 2010). When using animals as vectors for

dispersion, plants may produce fruit to be eaten and later defecated in a new location (Schupp

1993). For seeds that are prickly, animals can disperse seeds that stick to their fur or clothing. If

water serves as the primary vector, some plants produce floating seeds that rely on water currents

for dispersal (Nathan et al. 2008). Wind is commonly used for seed dispersal and can cause seeds

to have large dispersal distances.

 For wind dispersed seeds such as samaras, the seed generates lift and slows its descent as

it falls (Greene and Johnson 1993). Based on the morphology of these seed types, the mass and

area have a significant impact on the seed’s falling velocity. This relationship can be explained

1/ 2
w
using the equation for terminal velocity, V f =( )
A
, where V f = terminal velocity of the seed, A

= area, and w = seed weight equal to mass x acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/ s2) (Norberg 1973).

Terminal velocity is a measurement in the absence of wind. As a result, windy habitats will result

in greater dispersal distances and lower falling velocities (Greene and Johnson 1993).

With wind dispersed seeds having morphological features that alter their falling velocity

and dispersal distances, we hypothesized that the light seed prototypes will have the greatest

dispersal distances and slowest falling velocities both inside and outside. We also predicted that

all three seed prototypes will have greater dispersal distances outside than inside. To test this

hypothesis using seed dropping experiments, we varied the weights of our artificial seeds and

controlled height as well as morphological traits such as shape and surface area.

Methods
Each seed prototype was constructed using a pipe cleaner, an index card, hot glue, a puff

ball, and foil. The index cards were cut down to the approximate shape of the wings for a red

maple seed (Figure 1). Three treatment groups were developed by manipulating the weights of

the seeds. The weight was altered by adding foil and hot glue to the prototypes: light seeds

(approx. 0.9 g), intermediate seeds (approx. 1.7 g), and heavy seeds (approx. 2.7 g). For the

different prototypes, each treatment group had ten replicates.

 For the indoor portion of the experiment, the seed prototypes were dropped from a height

of 12 m. Seeds were also dropped from the top of an outdoor staircase 7.7 m high. Falling time

was measured in seconds, while the dispersal distance was measured in meters. The average

wind strength was measured using a kestrel meter.

Analysis of the raw data was done using JMP Pro 15 Software. Using an ANOVA, the

indoor dispersal distance, outdoor dispersal distance, indoor falling velocity, and outdoor falling

velocity were analyzed in relation to seed weight. A T-Test was used to analyze the impact of

wind speed on dispersal distance. Tukey letters were used to signify when a significant

difference was seen between variables.

Figure 1. Three prototype seeds. Orange is the

lightest, blue is the heaviest, and green is the intermediate weight.
Results
The heavy red maple seed prototype had a significantly greater mean falling velocity

inside than the light prototype (F2,27 = 8.880, p<0.0001, Figure 2).

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0 Control Heavy Light

Average seed weight (N)

Figure 2. Mean (± SE) falling velocity among differing Red Maple Prototypes indoors. Tukey
letters indicate differences (p<0.05) between groups.
 When tested outside, the heavy prototype had a greater mean falling velocity than the

light red maple prototype (F2,27 = 11.303, p<0.0003, Figure 3).

4.0

3.5 A

3.0

2.5

B
B
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 Control Heavy Light

Outside
Figure 3. Mean (± SE) falling velocity among differing Red Maple Prototypes when outdoors.
Tukey letters indicate differences (p<0.05) between groups.

Overlapping errors bars for indoor dispersal distance indicates a lack of significant

variation between the three different prototypes (F2,27 = 0.5766, p<0.5686, Figure 4).

Figure 4. Mean (± SE) indoor dispersal distance among differing Red Maple Prototypes.
 The dispersal distances of the prototypes tested outside were found to be greatest for the

light prototype seeds (F2,27 = 4.88, p<0.0155, Figure 5).

5
A

AB

0 Control Heavy Light

Outside

Figure 5. Mean (± SE) outdoor dispersal distance among differing Red Maple Prototypes. Tukey
letters indicate differences (p<0.05) between groups.
 The light seed prototypes were found to travel a greater distance outside than inside (t18 =

4.71, p = 0.0002, Figure 6).

Figure 6.
Mean (± SE)
1

dispersal
0 0.1 m/s (Inside) 0.9 m/s (Outside)
distances for indoor
light vs. outdoor light Red Wind speed (m/s) (light replicates)
Maple prototypes
 The control seed prototypes also travelled a significantly greater distance outside than

inside (t18 = 8.58, p = 0.0001, Figure 7).

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.1 m/s (Inside) 0.9 m/s (Outside)

Wind speed (m/s) (control replicates)

Figure 7. Mean (± SE) dispersal distances for indoor control vs. outdoor control Red Maple
prototypes.
 For the heavy seed prototype, there was a greater dispersal distance recorded outside than

inside (t18 = 3.26, p = 0.0044, Figure 8).

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 0.1 m/s (Inside) 0.9 m/s (Outside)

Wind speed (m/s) (heavy replicates)

Figure 8. Mean (± SE) dispersal distances for indoor heavy vs. outdoor heavy Red Maple
prototypes.

Discussion
The results for the falling velocities support our hypotheses that the light prototype seeds

have lower falling velocities than the heavy prototypes both inside and outside (Figure 2 and 3
respectively). The overlapping error bars for the indoor dispersal distance fail to confirm our

hypothesis that the lighter prototype seeds will travel the farthest inside (Figure 4). Our results

support our hypothesis that the lighter prototypes will have a greater dispersal distance outside

(Figure 5). The results for the indoor and outdoor dispersal distances for each weight confirmed

our hypothesis that all the prototypes will travel farther outside (Figure 6, 7, and 8).

Due to the lack of wind, it is not surprising that there was no significant difference

between the prototype indoor dispersal distances (Figure 4). Previous studies indicate that

external factors such as wind interact with plant traits to enable and increase movement of the

plant species (Wright et al. 2008). The presence of wind has been shown to create an effective

dispersal vector. In a study examining the behavior of a samara seed in the presence of wind, the

wings of the samara seed were shown to spin and generate lift, which then slowed the seed’s fall

and correspondingly increased the dispersal distance (Greene and Johnson 1993). The results of

this study directly correlate and support the results of our study. Longer dispersal distances have

also been shown reduce resource competition with the parent species and thus increase the

fitness of plant species (Harms et al. 2000).

Our results suggest that lighter seeds have slower falling velocities, and previous studies

help explain why these prototypes dispersed farther. The structure of spinning samaras allows

them to fall slowly, which increases the likelihood they will get caught in a gust of wind and

travel a greater distance (Green 1980). According to the study, the samaras with lower terminal

velocity compensates for its low competitive ability by increasing the number of areas they can

compete for (Green 1980). Based on our results and that of the mentioned study, lighter seeds

will be able to provide genetic material to a population far away and allow for an increase in

genetic variation.
 Corresponding with previous studies, our results indicate that the light prototype seeds

travel the farthest. Selection has shown it favors characteristics that will enhance dispersal

ability. During red maple succession, studies indicate heavy seeds will be selected against and

lighter seeds will be favored (Peroni 1994). As the generations progress, this selection for lighter

seeds remains present and thus indicates that the lighter seeds have an increased ability for

dispersal (Peroni 1994). From the data of previous studies as well as our own, we can infer that

the light seed morphology will be selected for in evolution.

Our study suggests that seed weight may help explain the dispersal patterns of wind

dispersed seeds, but further investigation is needed. A potential limitation in our experiment can

be attributed to water saturating the paper on our prototype seeds when outside and may have

impacted the dispersal distance and falling velocity values and caused a larger standard error.

Seeing how high winds speeds affect the dispersal ability of seeds with varying wingspans could

be an interesting experiment to test in the future.

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