DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

- Represented by a musculo-membranous tube called the alimentary canal extending from the mouth (anterior
opening) to the anus (posterior opening) with a distance of 30ft. long.
- It is provided with accessory organs necessary for the proper functioning of the system.

Functions:

1. Digestion – breaking down of large food particles into smaller molecules for use of body cells.

Types of digestion:
A. Chemical digestion – series of catabolic reactions (hydrolysis) that breakdown the large carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids molecule into smaller molecules that are absorbable and usable by body cells.
B. Mechanical digestion – various movements of GIT that helps chemical digestion.

2. Absorption – passage of food from GIT into cardiovascular and lymphatic system

Digestive processes:
1. Ingestion – taking food into the mouth
2. Peristalsis – movement of food
3. Digestion – breaking down of food
4. Absorption
5. Defecation – elimination of indigested substances from GIT

Organization of digestive system:

1. GIT (gastrointestinal tract), Alimentary canal – a continuous tube extending from mouth to anus.
2. Accessory digestive structures/organ
a. teeth related to d. liver related to small
b. tongue mouth e. gall bladder intestine
c. salivary glands f. pancreas

Organs of digestive system:

1. mouth
2. pharynx
3. esophagus
4. stomach
5. small intestine – duodenum, jejunum, ileum
6. large intestine – cecum, colon, rectum
7. anus

Layers of the GIT:

- from esophagus to anal canal
- from inside outward

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 1. mucosa – lines the lumen of the GIT, both absorptive and secretory layer.
2. submucosa – highly vascular
3. muscularis – responsible for intestinal contractions and peristaltic movements thru GIT.
4. serosa – outermost layer, also known as ‘visceral peritoneum’

I. Mouth (Oral cavity)

- also referred to as buccal cavity
- An oval shaped cavity limited in front by the lips, hard and soft palates, tongue, cheeks and isthmus of fauces
behind. For ingestion of food.

Divisions of mouth:
1. Vestibule – a space found in front, limited by the lips anteriorly, teeth and gums posteriorly.
2. Oral cavity proper – extends from vestibule to the fauces (an opening between oral cavity and the pharynx).

Structures of the oral cavity:

1. hard palate – forms the bony partition between the oral and nasal cavities
2. soft palate – forms the muscular partition between the oropharynx and nasopharynx.
 Contains the uvula, a conical muscular process that hangs from its free border.
 Also contains the palatine tonsils.
3. Lips or labia - a fleshy folds surrounding the orifice of the mouth, and attached to the gums by means of “labial
frenulum”.

Accessory digestive structures (related to mouth)

1. Tongue – a musculo-membranous organ that forms the floor of the mouth. At the surface are found different
papillae containing the taste buds (receptors for taste).
- It is attached to the floor of the mouth by means of “lingual frenulum”.
- Functions for speech (phonation), swallowing, and capturing prey in some animals

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 Types of papillae:
a. Filiform papillae – situated on the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, cone-shaped, whitish and contain
no taste buds.
b. Fungiform papillae – mushroom-like elevations, distributed among filiform papillae, numerous
near the tip of the tongue, appeared as ‘red dots’.
c. Circumvallate papillae – 10-12 in numbers, arranged in the form of inverted V on the posterior
d. Surface of the tongue.

2. Teeth (dentes) – are accessory structures located in the sockets of the alveolar processes of mandible and
maxillae.
- function for mastication (chewing)

Types of teeth:
a. Incisor – chisel-shaped for biting/cutting of food
b. Canine – cone-shaped for tearing/shredding of food
c. Molar – for crushing and grinding of food
d. Premolar – for crushing and tearing of food

Classifications of teeth (according to dentitions)

a. Deciduous/ milk teeth/ temporary teeth – made up of 20 teeth, 2 rows of 10 each.
- (I4-C2-M4), lost between 6-13 years of age

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 b. Permanent teeth – made up of 32 teeth, 2 rows of 16 each.
- (I4-C2-P4-M6), appear between 6-17 years of age except the wisdom tooth.
- wisdom tooth (3rd molar) erupt between 17 and 25 years of age, or never at all

Parts of teeth:
a. Crown – exposed portion above the gum
b. Neck – constricted portion between the crown and root.
c. Root – embedded part in the sockets

Structures of the teeth:

a. Dentine (inner) – a calcified tissue that gives the tooth its basic shape and rigidity
b. Pulp cavity – a cavity that encloses by dentine and containing pulp which is soft and provided
with blood vessels and nerves.
c. Enamel (outer) – the hardest substance in the body and protects the teeth from wear of chewing.
It covers the dentine in the crown region.
d. Cementum – a thin layer of true bony tissue that covers the dentine in root region.

3. Salivary glands – responsible for secretions of saliva (1000-1500ml/day)

Types of salivary glands

a. Parotid gland – the largest, provided with a duct called “stensen’s duct” about 2.5inches in
length. Situated in front and below external ear. Inflammation is parotitis (mumps).
b. Submaxillary gland – beneath the base of tongue, duct is called “wharton’s duct” on either side
of lingual frenulum.
c. Sublingual gland – the smallest, situated infront of submaxillary gland,duct is “rivinus duct” that
opens on the side of lingual frenulum.

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II. Pharynx (throat) – a musculo-membranous short tube common to both respiratory and digestive
systems, with 3 parts found behind the nasal and oral cavities.
Parts of the pharynx:
1. nasopharynx – situated behind the nasal cavity, contains the pharyngeal tonsil
2. oropharynx – situated behind the oral cavity, contains the palatine and lingual tonsils.
3. laryngopharynx – situated beneath the oropharynx

III. Esophagus (gullet) – a musculo-membranous tube about 9inches in length, has no digestive function
but only for the passage of food from the pharynx to the stomach, by means of peristalsis.
Modification of the esophagus:
Aves- crop is present which serves for temporary storage of food

IV. Stomach – a J shaped dilated portion of the alimentary canal directly under the diaphragm in the epigastric,
umbilical and left hypochondriac regions of the abdomen.

Functions:
1. temporary storage of food
2. for mechanical and chemical digestion
3. transmission of “chime” into the small intestine

Divisions of stomach
1. fundus – upper dome shaped portion, contains a small amount of gas, and found only in mammals
2. body – forms the main bulk of the stomach
3. cardia – portion leading to esophygeal opening, anterior end of the stomach
4. pylorus – it has a dilated proximal portion called the “pyloric antrum” and tubular portion called the “pyloric
canal”. Posterior end of the stomach.

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Modifications of the stomach
A. aves – stomach is divided into 2 compartments
1. proventriculus – the anterior region of the stomach which contain gastric glands; the true stomach
2. ventriculus or gizzard – the posterior highly muscular compartment of stomach that helps in grinding
and mixing of the food.

B. mammals – stomach of ruminants or cud mammals, consists of 4 compartments:

1. rumen – compartment with large cavity containing water and bacteria which aid in the fermentation of
solid food (grass) and temporary stored in it.
2. reticulum (honey comb) – 2nd compartment where food is mixed and turned into ball like masses called
bolus. The bolus is regurgitated into the mouth where it is re-chewed and
mixed with the saliva. It is then re-swallowed and directed into the next
compartment, the omassum.
3. omassum – 3rd compartment containing longitudinal folds that serve as strainers.
4. abomassum – the true stomach, contains gastric glands that secretes gastric juices. Gastric digestion
takes place in this compartment.

Gastric glands – produces “gastric juice” (a thin, colorless liquid with an acid reaction)
1. cardiac glands
2. fundic glands
3. pyloric glands

Important cells of gastric glands:

1. Chief/ central cell (peptic/ zymogenic cell) – secretes pepsinogen, precursor of protein enzyme pepsin.
2. Parietal/ oxyntic cell – secretes HCL
3. mucous cell – secretes mucin

Gastric enzymes:
1. Pepsin – for protein digestion
2. Gastric lipase – for carbohydrates digestion
3. Rennin – present in infants for milk digestion

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V. Small Intestine/ Intestinum tenue – the longest portion of the digestive tract about 21 ft long with 3parts
extending from pylorus to the ileo-cecal junction.
- longer in herbivores than in carnivores, and in men than in women.
- muscular and provided with internal folds called villi which aid in digestion and absorption.

Functions:
1. Completion of digestion of food and absorption of nutrients.

Parts of the small intestine:

1. duodenum – the shortest, 10inches in length, c-shaped enclosing the head of the pancreas. It opens the
common bile duct and pancreatic duct.
2. jejunum – 2nd portion 8ft long forming 2/5 of the small intestine
3. ileum – longest portion about 12ft long and joins the large intestine at the ileo-cecal junction.

Frog: duodenum – short anterior part

Ileum – very coiled, longer posterior part

Intestinal glands – secretes “intestinal juice” or succus entericus (a slimy liquid, alkaline in reaction)
1. Crypts of lieberkuhn – secretes intestinal juice
2. brunners glands – found in duodenum, secretes mucus

Movements in the small intestine:

1. Peristalsis – series of contraction and relaxation, sweeping the intestinal contents.
2. Segmental/ rhythmical contractions – an alternating contraction and relaxation of segments without the
forward movements.
3. Pendular movements – series of small contractions that is in a to and fro fashion.

Accessory organs related to small intestine:

1. Liver/ hepar – largest gland in the body about 1.36kg body wt, composed of 2 major lobes and 2 minor
lobes. Secretes bile for emulsification of fats.
- Functions of liver includes: secretions of bile, water metabolism, proteins, carbohydrates, and
fats metabolism, detoxify harmful substances, storage for vitamins.
- “Pathways of bile flow from the liver into the duodenum” :

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 Hepatocytes – bile capillaries – small bile ducts – right and left hepatic ducts – common hepatic duct –
common bile duct (or cystic duct for storage in gall bladder) – hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of vater).

What are the four lobes of the liver?

 There are, on the surface, four lobes: right, left, caudate and quadrate.
 The Falciform ligament divides the liver into two main lobes, right and left, with the right lobe being the larger and
is sub- divided into the right lobe proper, the caudate lobe and the quadrate lobe.

2. Gall bladder – a pear shaped sac about 3-4inches long, situated on the posterior surface of the liver. The
function is for the storage of bile produced by the liver.

Bile – a yellow, brownish, or olive green liquid produced by the liver and stored in the bile. Hepatocytes secrete
800 – 1000ml each day.

3. Pancreas – a retroperitoneal gland about 5-6 inches in length found at the back of the stomach, each day it
produces 1200 – 1500ml of pancreatic juice emptied into the duodenum by pancreatic duct. It
also contains a special cell called islets of Langerhans which secrete a hormones insulin and
glucagons.

VI. Large Intestine (Intestinum Crossum) - forms the large part of the GIT, 5ft in length extending from the ileum to
the anus, much wider and thicker than the small intestine.
o With no villi and digestive enzymes (except in herbivores, with cellulose) thus
no digestion takes place.
o Glands which are present secrete substances mainly for lubrication.
Functions:
1. Absorption of a large amount of water
2. production of vitamin K by the normal bacterial flora
3. temporary storage of undigested materials

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Divisions of large intestine:
1. caecum – a large blind pouch 2.5in long found at the junction of the small and large intestines. The blind
end consists of a narrow, worm like projection “the vermiform appendix, (has no medical function,
as of this date)”.
2. colon
a. Ascending colon – continuation of cecum, short vertical portion.
b. Transverse colon – portion that passes horizontally across the abdomen
c. Descending colon – vertical in position, forms the sigmoid/pelvic colon
d. Sigmoid colon – omega shaped and terminates into the rectum
3. Rectum – the last 7inches terminal portion of the large intestine
 In frog, the large intestine is merely an expanded portion of the digestive tube, the posterior part
of which is called the “cloaca”.
4. Anus – terminal opening of the large intestine which serves as exit of undigested and digestive residue.

The end/eamallo