Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 100 (2019) 44–51

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Exergy and sustainability index of photovoltaic thermal (PVT) air collector: T

A theoretical and experimental study
Ahmad Fudholia, , Muhammad Zohria,b, Nurul Shahirah Binti Rukmana, Nurul Syakirah Nazria,
⁎

Muslizainun Mustaphaa, Chan Hoy Yena, Masita Mohammada, Kamaruzzaman Sopiana

a
Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
b
College Computer Information Management (STMIK), Mataram, Indonesia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper presents a review of the exergy and sustainability index of solar thermal systems. The review includes
Solar energy exergy analyses of solar collectors, solar drying systems and photovoltaic thermal (PVT) systems. Solar collec-
Exergy analysis tors, the most essential components of solar thermal systems, receive solar energy and convert it into thermal
Solar collector energy. The PVT collector is a popular means of harvesting solar energy. A PVT collector can generate electrical
Thermal
and thermal energies simultaneously. Experimental and theoretical approaches for a PVT air collector with a
Electrical
∇-corrugated absorber are investigated in this study. A steady-state energy analysis of the PVT air collector is
Improvement potential
performed to predict photovoltaic (PV) and air outlet temperatures. Experimental results are in close agreement
with the results of the theoretical study. The percentage errors of PV and air outlet temperatures between
experimental and theoretical values are 5.49% and 3.75%, respectively. The PVT exergy efficiency of the PVT air
collector with a ∇-corrugated absorber is 13.36% and 12.89% for the theoretical and experimental study, re-
spectively. Furthermore, a sustainability index is proposed. The sustainability index of the PVT air collector is
1.168 and 1.148 for the theoretical and experimental study, respectively.

1. Introduction systems to grid connections. Connection to PVT increases the efficiency

As the human population continues to grow, the economic and
energy demands of countries sharply increase. Thus, energy consump-
tion increases tremendously annually. Most of this energy is generated
by a carrier from the centre of a conventional type of energy, such as
coal and natural gas. Considering that renewable energy sources are
economical and practical, researchers continue to focus on them be-
cause of the increasing energy demand and oil prices. The amount of
greenhouse gas simultaneously increases because of the increasing
usage of electricity for heating, refrigeration and air conditioning.
Green technologies, such as solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind
turbines, hydrogenation plants and biomass and photovoltaic thermal
(PVT) systems, can overcome the decreasing conventional energy.
PVT systems have been developed for various applications over the
past few years. However, new studies are still being conducted to im-
prove the electrical and thermal efficiencies of PVT. Modules and
building integration photovoltaic (BIPV) systems have become in-
creasingly popular in many areas, particularly in industrialised coun-
tries where government support has accelerated the installation of PV
of PV. Various studies have been conducted in recent years, and PVT
systems with water and air as the heat carrier have been developed and
reviewed [1–5]. Various experimental and theoretical studies on PVT
collectors are available in the literature. Kern and Russell [6] proposed
PVT collectors that use air or water as a heat removal fluid. Ra-
ghuraman [7] introduced methods for predicting the efficiency
achieved by the flat plates of air and water PVT collectors. Prakash [8]
conducted a detailed study on the effect of air duct length, depth, mass
flow rate and area fraction of an absorber plate surrounded by solar
cells.
Caliscan [9] analysed the performance of solar collectors. The per-
formance analysis included exergoenviroeconomic, exergoenviron-
mental, enviroeconomic, environmental, exergy and energy analyses.
He reported that the sustainability index and exergy efficiency of solar
collectors are 1.0073% and 0.732%, respectively. The sustainability
index was initially implemented for this type of systems in open lit-
erature. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, only one da-
taset regarding the sustainability index of solar energy systems cur-
rently exists, and no information is available with regard to the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: a.fudholi@ukm.edu.my (A. Fudholi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.10.019
Received 3 December 2017; Received in revised form 14 July 2018; Accepted 15 October 2018
Available online 30 October 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Fudholi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 100 (2019) 44–51

Nomenclature emissivity
efficiency
A area (m2) ρ density (kg/m3)
C specific heat of air (J/kg °C) μ dynamic viscosity
d channel high transmission coefficient
Dh equivalence diameter (m) Stefan–Boltzmann constant
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 °C)
H height of PV(m) Subscripts
k thermal conductivity (W/m °C)
L length of PV (m) 1 and 2 refer to first and second streams
m air flow rate (kg/) a ambient
Nu Nusselt number b back plate
Re Reynolds number c convection
Pr Prandtl number f fluid
V wind velocity (m/s) i inlet
W width of PV (m) o outlet
S solar radiation (W/m2) p photovoltaic
T temperature (°C) r radiative
s sky
Greek symbols w wind

absorption coefficient

sustainability index of PVT air collectors. The aim of this study is to
review the exergy and sustainability index of solar thermal systems. A
model is developed to predict performance, and the experimental re-
sults are verified to obtain the exergy efficiency of solar thermal sys-
tems. The sustainability index and exergy of a PVT air collector with a
∇-corrugated absorber are calculated via an exergy analysis.
2. Exergy analysis of solar thermal systems
Exergy analysis can effectively evaluate the performance of systems
or processes. The concept of exergy destruction or rate of irreversibility
is extensively used in the exergy analysis of current thermal systems.
The second law of thermodynamics can be defined as the ratio of the
exergy output to the energy input when the maximum power point of
the electrical power output is the exergy output accepted from a solar
PV system. This concept is a promising tool for the design, analysis,
evaluation and performance improvement of systems or processes
[10,11].
2.1. Exergy analysis of solar collectors
Solar collectors are essential components when conservation design
is considered; thus, exergy analysis, which provides a highly re-
presentative performance evaluation, is a valuable method for assessing
the feasibility of solar thermal systems [12].
Table 1 shows the equations involved in the exergy analysis of solar
collectors [13,14]. Fudholi et al. [13] studied cost–benefits and per-
formed an exergy analysis of a solar air collector with fins. They re-
ported that the exergy efficiency of this collector is 6–30%, and the
Nusselt number is 5.42–36.34. Another study [14] reported that the
improvement potential (IP) is 740–1070 W, and the exergy efficiency is
15–28% at solar radiation ranges of 425–790 W/m2. Several studies
Table 1
Equations in the exergy analysis of solar collectors [13,14].
IP = (1 Ex) Ex loss Exloss = Ex d = Exi
( ) Q + ln ( )
Ta Sgen 1 1 To
Ex =1 Sgen = s +
Ta
Ta Ts Ti
1 Qs
Ts
Qs = S ( ) A c Ex d = Ta Sgen
have also been conducted on the exergy of different types of solar
collectors [15–17]. Benli [18] performed an exergy analysis of solar
collectors with different surface shapes. He reported on the perfor-
mance of the following solar collectors: reverse trapeze, base plate
collector, corrugated trapeze and reverse corrugated. He proposed the
use of new relations to evaluate the energy and exergy of solar collec-
tors. Sing et al. [19] studied the exergy efficiency of solar collectors
with different Reynolds numbers and rib roughness parameters. He-
dayatizadeh et al. [20] investigated the effect of inlet air temperature,
aspect ratio and mass flow rate with various artificial roughness on the
exergy of a V-corrugated solar collector. Torres-Reyes et al. [21] pre-
sented graphs of exergy flow rate versus mass flow rate for various
collector configurations. In another study [22], a thermohydraulic
model was developed to optimise a solar collector by using a general-
ised methodology. Akpinar and Kocyigit [23] performed an exergy
analysis of a solar collector with various obstacles on absorber plates.
They reported that thermal efficiency depends largely on mass flow
rate, surface geometry and solar radiation. Ucar and Inalli [24] re-
ported that thermal efficiency increases by 10–30% when passive
augmentation techniques are used. Kurtbas and Durmus [25] showed
that air temperature difference, pressure loss and collector efficiency
decrease exergy loss.
2.2. Exergy analysis of solar drying systems
Air and water-based solar drying systems have been review by
Fudholi et at. [26–28]. They reported the equations involved in the
exergy analysis of air and water-based solar drying systems as shown in
Table 2. Akpinar [29] investigated the IP of an indirect forced-con-
vection solar drying system for mint leaves. He discovered that IP is
0–17 W and decreases with the increase in time. Fudholi et al. [30–32]
studied the exergy of a solar drying system for seaweed, chili and palm
oil fronds. The exergy efficiencies for seaweed are from 1% to 93%
[30]. Another study [31] performed an exergy analysis for chili and
found that the range of exergy efficiencies is 43–97%. For palm oil
fronds [32], the exergy efficiency ranges from 10% to 73%, with an
Ex o average of 47%. Yahya et al. [33] studied the energy and exergy of
hybrid solar drying for paddies. They reported that exergy efficiency is
To Ti
mC
approximately 48% and 50% for chamber temperatures of 61 °C and
Ta Ta
78 °C, respectively. Several studies have been conducted on the exergy
analyses of solar drying systems for agricultural produce [34–38].

45
A. Fudholi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 100 (2019) 44–51

Table 2 Table 3
Equations in the exergy analysis of solar drying systems [26,27]. Equations in exergy analysis of PVT collectors [59].
General (with drying chamber): Greenhouse tunnel-type: IP = (1 Ex) Ex loss Exi Ex o = Ex d
Exo Exi (Exth + ExPV ) = Ex d
Ex , PVT =
IP = (1 Ex) Ex loss Ex , net = Ex , da × Ex , solar Exi
ExPVT = Exth + ExPV
Ex loss = Ex dci Ex dco
Ex , da =
Exdco
Exdci
=1
Exloss
Exdci
Exi = ANS 1
4
3 ( )+ ( )
Ta
Ts
1
3
Ta 4
Ts
Ex dco Exloss Ex out
Ex =
Exdci
=1
Ex dci Ex , solar = Ex
rad
ExPV = PV AS Exth = mC (To (
Ti) 1
Ta +273
To +273 )
Ex dci = mC (Tdci Ta)
T
Taln dci
Ta
Ex out = 1 ( Ta
Tat ) mC (Tat Ta)
t PV = 0 [1 0.0045(TPV 25)]

( )+ ( ) Ta 4
Tdco 4 Ta 1
Ex dco = mC (Tdco Ta ) Taln Exrad = SA 1
Ta 3 Ts 3 Ts

and electrical efficiencies. The electrical efficiency of a PV panel de-

2.3. Exergy analysis of PVT systems pends on its temperature, which corresponds to cooling performance.
Cooling is a feature that distinguishes the PV panel from the PVT col-
Recently, energy and exergy analyses for nanofluid-based PVT sys- lector. Generally, the performance of the PVT air collector is presented
tems were conducted by [39,40]. Lari and Sahin [39] reported that the by thermal, electrical and combined efficiencies, which are functions of
PV energy efficiency is 13.2%, and Khanjari et al. [40] indicated that various parameters, such as solar radiation, mass flow rate and am-
the PVT exergy efficiency is 15%. The energy efficiencies of PV, thermal bient, inlet and outlet temperatures. The general exergy rate balance
and PVT are 10–13.7%, 55% and 90%, respectively. Salem et al. [41] has been given by [59], as shown in Table 3. Another performance of
performed an exergy and energy analysis of a hybrid PVT system using exergy analysis is sustainability index. The sustainability index of the
an aluminium cooling plate with straight and helical channels. They PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated absorber was calculated by using
reported that the PVT energy efficiency is 59.3–92%, and the PVT ex- Eq. (1) as follows [9]:
ergy efficiency is 11.1–13.5%. The PV and thermal efficiencies are 1
17.7–38.4% and 31.6–57.9%, respectively. Tripathi et al. [42] con- SI = .
1 Ex (1)
ducted enviroeconomic and exergoeconomic analyses based on the
energy and exergy of a PVT concentrating collector. Similar analyses
were performed by Shyam and Tiwari [43] for PVT air collectors with a 3.1. Theoretical approach for a PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated
semi-transparent PV module. Shyam et al. [44] conducted an environ- absorber
mental analysis based on energy and exergy for PVT water collectors
partially covered by a PV module. Environmental and exergoeconomic Fig. 1 shows a cross-sectional view of a PVT air collector with a
analyses for a PVT mixed-mode greenhouse solar dryer were studied by ∇-corrugated absorber; it also shows various heat transfer coefficients.
Tiwari and Tiwari [45]. They reported that the PVT energy efficiency is The energy balance equation of the PVT air collector with a ∇-corru-
68.5%. Rajoria et al. [46] studied energy–exergy–economic–environ- gated absorber can be obtained by considering the following assump-
mental analyses for different PVT array systems. Rajoria et al. [47] tions.
studied energy and exergy analyses for building integrated photovoltaic The steady-state thermal balance equations for the PVT air collector
thermal (BIPVT) systems. Energy and exergy analyses for PVT air col- with a ∇-corrugated absorber are as follows:
lectors were investigated in [48,49]. Gholampour and Ameri [48] and for PV,
Hazami et al. [49] reported that the PVT exergy efficiency is 8.66% and
S = Ut (Tpv Ta ) + hpvf (Tpv Tf ) + hr , pvb (Tpv Tb) + Q + pv S ;
14.8%, respectively. Singh et al. [50] studied the energy and exergy for
active solar distillation systems integrated with two hybrid PVT (2)
collectors. In 2015, energy–exergy–environmental–enviroeconomic– for the air flow channel,
exergoeconomic analyses were studied for hybrid PVT air collectors
[51] and active solar distillation systems [52]. Tiwari et al. [52] re- 2mC (Tf Ti ) = hpvf (Tpv Tf ) + hbf (Tb Tf ) + Q ; (3)
ported that thermal and PVT energy efficiency is 13.4–23.2% and and for the back plate,
28.5–53.4%, respectively. Jahromi et al. [53] studied the energy, ex-
ergy and economic analysis for commercially available PVT water hr , pb (Tpv Tb) = hbf (Tb Tf ) + Ub (Tb Ta), (4)
collector for different climates in Iran. They reported that PV and
thermal energy efficiency is 7.5–8.7% and 51.6–52%, respectively. The
PVT exergy efficiency is 9.6–9.7%. Rajoria et al. [54] studied the en-
ergy, exergy and enviroeconomic analysis of semitransparent PVT array
based on optimum air flow configuration. They reported that PV and
thermal energy efficiency is 3.1–9.1% and 12.1–28.1%, respectively. In
2014, energy-exergy-environmental analyses were studied for semi-
transparent hybrid PVT double pass façade [55]. Kamthania and Tiwari
[55] reported that the PV efficiency is 12%. In 2013 and 2012, energy-
exergy-economic analyses were studied for air and water-based PVT
collectors in India [56–58].

3. Exergy and sustainability index of a PVT air collector with a

∇-corrugated absorber: theoretical approach and experimental
study
Fig. 1. Schematic of heat transfer characteristic in the PVT air collector with a
∇-corrugated absorber.
The performance of a PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated ab-
sorber is characterised by the increase in air temperature and thermal

46
A. Fudholi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 100 (2019) 44–51

where µ = [1.1983 0.00184(T 27)]10 5. (21)

1
1
An iterative process was initiated. Excel was used to calculate all
Ut = , required heat transfer characteristics (HTCs). The HTCs were calculated
h w + hrpa (5)
according to the initially estimated temperature values. The air, am-
kt bient, PV and back plate temperatures of the first section were initially
Ub = ,
lt (6) predicted and specified, except those of PV, which was set to 30 °C
above the ambient temperature. The back plate and air temperatures in
(Tp2 the channel were set to 20 °C and 10 °C above the ambient temperature,
2
hrpa = p + Tsky )(Tp Tsky ), (7)
respectively. The major design parameters were as follows: L = 1.2 m,
(Tp + Tb )(Tp2 + Tb2 ) W = 0.53 m, α = 0.9, τ = 0.92, εp = 0.7, εb = 0.9, Ta = Ti = 27 °C and
hrpb = ,
( 1
p
+
1
b )
1
(8)
V = 0.5 m/s.
For simplicity, Eqs. (2)–(4) can be displayed in a 3 × 3 matrix form,
as follows:
Tsky = 0.0522Ta1.5, (9)
[A][T ] = [B] (22)
where , p , Tp, Tsky and Ta are the Stefan–Boltzmann constant and the
emissivity of PV, PV, sky and ambient temperature, respectively. Ut + hpvf + Q + hr , pvb hpvf + Q hr , pvb
The convective heat transfer coefficients are as follows [60,61]: hpvf + Q (hpvf + hbf + 2mC + Q ) hbf
k hr , pvb hbf (hr , pvb + hbf + Ub)
h= Nu,
Dh (10) Tpv S + Ut Ta pv S
where Tf = 2mCTi ,
4Wd Tb Ub Ta (23)
Dh = ,
2(W + d ) (11) where
where Dh, d, and W are the equivalence diameter of the channel, height Q = N . An , (24)
and width, respectively. Nu is the Nusselt number, and k is air thermal
conductivity. = tanMH / MH , (25)
The Nusselt numbers are as follows:
0.5
for Re > 6000, M=
2hc l
.
kw (26)
Nu = 0.018Re0.8 Pr 0.4; (12)
In Eq. (23), the temperature vector may be calculated with Excel by
for 2300 < Re < 6000,
using the matrix inversion form, as follows:
2/3 0.14
Dh µ [T ] = [A] 1 [B]. (27)
Nu = 0.116(Re 2/3 125) Pr 1/3 1+ ;
L µw (13)
and for Re < 2300, 3.2. Experimental study on the PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated
absorber
( ) Dh 1.71
0.00190 RePr L
Nu = 5.4+ ,
The PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated absorber consisted of a
RePr ( )
Dh 1.17
1 + 0.00563 L (14) PV panel, a ∇-corrugated absorber at the back of the PV panel, fans and
insulation, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The type of PV panel is 100 W
where Pr and Re are the Prandtl and Reynolds number, respectively,
mono-crystalline silicon solar cells.
given as follows:
This experiment was conducted in a laboratory using a solar simu-
µC lator. The solar simulator was built using 45 halogen lamps with 500 W
Pr = ,
k (15) of power for each lamp. Regulators were used to control the solar ra-
mDh diation of the solar simulator. This experiment was conducted by using
Re = . two values of solar radiation (522 and 820 W/m2) and five different
Ach µ (16)
The theoretical approach is assumed for a short collector or less than
10 m. Then, the mean air temperature is equal to the arithmetic mean,
as follows:
(Ti + To)
Tf = .
2 (17)
The physical properties of air are as follows [61]:
for density,
= 1.1774 0.00359(T 27); (18)
for thermal conductivity,
k = 0.02624 + 0.0000758(T 27); (19)
for specific heat,
C = 1.0057 + 0.000066(T 27); (20)
Fig. 2. Photograph of the ∇-corrugated absorber at the back of the PV panel.
and for viscosity,

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A. Fudholi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 100 (2019) 44–51

Table 4
Percentage error between the experimental and theoretical values.
m (kg/s) S (W/m2) PV temperature, Tpv (°C) Outlet temperature, To (°C)

Theo. Exp. Error Theo. Exp. Error

(%) (%)

0.0069 522 61.34 62.99 2.61 48.81 44.97 7.86

820 79.16 79.11 0.06 61.39 54.58 11.09
0.0249 522 56.37 61.07 7.70 38.56 38.49 0.19
820 73.48 77.79 5.54 45.70 45.72 0.04
0.0353 522 54.69 59.66 8.33 35.07 35.46 1.11
820 69.60 75.41 7.71 40.36 42.05 4.19
0.0407 522 54.04 58.20 7.15 34.44 34.42 0.07
820 68.66 73.11 6.09 39.40 39.11 0.72
0.0491 522 53.18 55.53 4.24 33.71 30.46 9.64
820 67.41 71.30 5.45 38.27 37.27 2.62
Average 5.49 3.75

Fig. 3. Photograph of the ∇-corrugated absorber under a solar simulator.

Fig. 6. Variation in PVT exergy rate and PVT exergy efficiency versus mass flow
rate for solar radiation of 522 W/m2.

3.3. Results and discussion

A mathematical model for predicting the first and second effi-

Fig. 4. Variations in PV temperature (Tpv) and outlet temperature (To) for solar
radiation of 522 W/m2.
values of mass flow rates in the range of 0.0069–0.0491 kg/s. Suitable
equipment was installed to obtain the selected desired parameters.
Solar radiation was measured by a pyranometer. An anemometer was
used to determine the air flow velocity. Electronic load was utilised to
collect data voltage and current with model 8500 from BK Precision. A
data logger with K-type sensors was used to measure the different types
of temperatures at the top and bottom of PV.
ciencies of a PVT air collector with ∇-corrugated absorber was con-
ducted. The experimental results were compared with the mathematical
model. Results indicated that the effects of solar radiation and mass
flow rate on the temperature difference and efficiencies of PVT air
collector with ∇-corrugated absorber were obtained. The temperature
distribution of PVT air collector with ∇-corrugated absorber was ob-
tained from the mathematical model result. The result shows that by
increasing the mass flow rate simultaneously dropped the temperatures
of the PVT air collector with ∇-corrugated absorber for both the solar
radiations as more and more air volume is available to take away heat

Fig. 5. Variations in PV temperature (Tpv) and outlet temperature (To) for solar Fig. 7. Variation in PVT exergy rate and PVT exergy efficiency versus mass flow
radiation of 820 W/m2. rate for solar radiation of 820 W/m2.

48
A. Fudholi et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 100 (2019) 44–51

Table 5 The results for various mass flow rates are shown in Figs. 4 and 5, where
PVT exergy efficiency and sustainability index of the PVT air collector with a the experimental results are also shown. Good agreement was observed
∇-corrugated absorber. between the experimental and theoretical values of PV and outlet
S (W/m2) PVT exergy efficiency (%) Sustainability index temperatures. The errors had appropriate percentages of 5.49% and
3.75% as shown in Table 4. With the result that the mathematical
Theo. Exp. Error (%) Theo. Exp. Error (%) model are consistent with the experimental data with accuracies of 95%
and 96% for PV and outlet temperatures, respectively.
0.0069 522 14.30 13.28 7.13 1.167 1.153 1.18
820 14.41 12.91 10.41 1.168 1.148 1.72 Figs. 6 and 7 show the results of PVT exergy efficiency versus mass
0.0249 522 13.11 13.32 1.60 1.151 1.154 0.24 flow rate of the PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated absorber for the
820 13.45 13.18 2.01 1.155 1.152 0.31 theoretical and experimental study, respectively. The PVT exergy effi-
0.0353 522 13.26 13.11 1.13 1.153 1.151 0.17
ciency value is shown in Table 5. Table 5 also shows the results of the
820 13.01 13.40 3.00 1.150 1.155 0.45
0.0407 522 13.19 12.92 2.05 1.152 1.148 0.31
sustainability index. The sustainability index can be calculated using
820 12.92 12.52 3.10 1.148 1.143 0.46 the value of PVT exergy efficiency as shown in Eq. (1). Thus, it should
0.0491 522 13.12 12.09 7.85 1.151 1.138 1.17 be analysed to evaluate the performance of the PVT air collector with a
820 12.81 12.16 5.07 1.147 1.138 0.74 ∇-corrugated absorber. Fig. 8 shows that the system performance was
Average 4.33 1.154 1.148 0.67
affected by the variations in mass flow rate. The sustainability index
fluctuated, and the graph continued to decrease. From Fig. 8 the sus-
tainability index value of experimental study is not in good agree with
the theoretical one. This is due to the lack of precision in measuring the
air flow speed manually. The mass flow rate value is calculated using
the air flow speed value.

4. Conclusions

The following conclusions were drawn based on the present review.

– In this study, the sustainability index generally decreased with the

mass flow rate.
– The sustainability index of the PVT air collector with a ∇-corrugated
absorber ranged from 1.147 to 1.68 and 1.138 to 1.155 with an
Fig. 8. Sustainability index versus mass flow rate. average of 1.168 and 1.148 for the theoretical and experimental
study, respectively.
– The PVT exergy efficiency of the PVT air collector with a ∇-corru-
from the channel walls hence decreasing PV temperature. The outlet
gated absorber ranged from 12.81% to 14.41% and 12.09 to 13.40%
temperature also reduces with increasing air flow rate since the air
with an average of 13.36% and 12.89 for the theoretical and ex-
velocity in the channel is increased hence air has less time inside the
perimental study, respectively.
channel to attain higher outlet temperatures, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5.

Table 6
Comparison of previous exergy analyses for solar thermal systems and the analysis in the present study.
Solar thermal systems Exergy Analysis Ref.

Exergy Efficiency (%) Improvement potential (W) Sustainability index

Solar water collector 0.73 NA 1.0073 [9]

Solar air collector with and without fins 6–30 NA NA [13]
Solar air collector with fins 15–28 740–1070 NA [14]
4 types of solar air collectors 8.32–44.00 NA NA [16]
5 types of solar air collectors 36–56 NA NA [17]
4 types of solar air collectors 25.65–60.97 NA NA [23]
Solar drying system for mint leaves NA 0–17 NA [29]
Solar drying system for seaweed 1–93 0.3–630 NA [30]
Solar drying system for chili 43–97 0.135–47 NA [31]
Solar drying system for palm oil fronds 10–73, average 47 8–455, average 172 NA [32]
Nanofluid in a water-cooled PVT system 15 NA NA [40]
Hybrid PVT system 11.1–13.5 NA NA [41]
PVT flat transpired air collectors 8.66 NA NA [48]
PVT air collector system 14.8 NA NA [49]
Commercially available PVT water collector 9.6–9.7 NA NA [53]
PVT water collector 12.0–14.0 98–404 NA [59]
Heat pipe PVT system 6.8 NA NA [62]
Heat pipe PVT hybrid system 10.26 NA NA [63]
Hybrid micro-channel PVT air collector 9.38–18.03 NA NA [64]
PVT air collector 10.75 NA NA [65]
PVT integrated with a solar greenhouse 4 NA NA [66]
Novel hybrid PVT air collector 16.3 NA NA [67]
PVT water collector 10–13.95 NA NA [68]
PVT solar collectors 13.5 NA NA [69]
Hybrid PVT air collector 12–15 NA NA [70]
PVT air collector with ∇-corrugated absorber 12.89–13.36 NA 1.15–1.17 Present study

49
A. Fudholi et al.
– The results of outlet and PV temperatures from the theoretical study
were in close agreement with the results of the experimental study,
with an accuracy of approximately 95%.
Table 6 shows a summary of the exergy analysis of solar thermal
systems as reported by various authors. In open literature or references,
as shown in Table 6, no studies have been conducted on the sustain-
ability index of PVT air collectors. Data on exergy analysis are limited,
and only one dataset regarding the sustainability index of solar energy
systems is available.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank UKM for its funding (DLP/1/2015/
ST02/UKM/03/1) and (GGP-2017-045). The authors also extend their
gratitude to Prof. Dr. Zahari Ibrahim for indoor testing in Physics
Laboratory (Solar Simulator Lab.) and the SERI, UKM.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.rser.2018.10.019.
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