Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Experimentally derived efficiency and exergy analysis of a new solar air heater
having different surface shapes
Hüseyin Benli*
, Turkey
Department of Technical and Vocational Education, Fırat University, TR-23119 Elazıg

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study is to provide a remedy for the low thermo-physical properties of air which is used
Received 1 May 2012 as different absorber surface of air heater. This paper presents an experimental investigation on the
Accepted 9 June 2012 absorber surface of the collector whose shape and arrangement were made up to provide better heat
Available online 17 July 2012
transfer surfaces. In the study an experimental performance and exergy analysis of five types of air
heating solar collectors: corrugated trapeze, reverse corrugated, reverse trapeze, and a base flat-plate
Keywords:
collector are presented. The results of the experiments were evaluated at the same time of the days
Solar air collector
with the same radiation. The efficiencies were determined for the collectors and comparisons were made
Collector efficiency
Exergy loss
among them. The present data showed that heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop increase with
Thermal efficiency shape of absorbers surface.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction constructed of corrugated surfaces similar to those used for

Solar energy can play vital role in clean and sustainable energy
sources. Solar collectors have an important place among applica-
tions of solar energy system. Solar collectors are classified into two
groups according to the fluid used. Water is usually used in liquid
collectors and air is used in gas collectors. Since the air has worse
thermodynamic properties in terms of heat transfer compared to
liquid, the efficiency of air collectors is naturally of low value.
Concerning the solar air collectors, various techniques favor and
increase the heat transfer coefficient between the using fluid (air)
and the absorber surface. One of these techniques is to improve the
heat transfer, which can be achieved by creating fully turbulent
flow in these systems. The other technique is to improve the
absorber surface shape. The absorber surface shape factor is the
most important parameter in the design for solar air heaters. The
main applications for solar air heaters are space heating, drying and
paint spraying operations. Numerous solar air heater devices have
been developed and used experimentally. The effects of material
and construction of the absorber on the efficiency of the collectors
have been widely reported in the literature.
Recently, several researchers have undertaken many studies
covering the thermodynamic analysis of solar air heater system
(SAHs). Metwally et al. [1] conducted an experimental investigation
on an advanced corrugated duct solar collector. The collector was
* Tel.: þ90 424 2370000x4402; fax: þ90 424 218 8947.
E-mail addresses: hbenli@firat.edu.tr, hbenli@msn.com.
compact heat exchangers, with the air flowing normal to the
corrugations. Reyes et al. [2] studied the optimal process of solar
thermal energy conversion and design optimization of irreversible
flat-plate solar collector based on energy analysis for different
geometry of system and derived different formula. Öztürk and
Demirel [3] presented an experimental investigation of the thermal
performance of a SAH having its flow channel packed with Raschig
rings. They observed that the energy and exergy efficiencies of
packed-bed SAH increased as the outlet temperature of heat
transfer fluid increased. Moummi et al. [4] conducted experiments
in solar air collectors with rectangular plate fins inserted perpen-
dicular to the flow. Kurtbaş and Durmuş [5] experimentally eval-
uated the energy efficiency, friction factor and dimensionless
exergy loss, of a solar air heater having five sub-collectors for
various values of Reynolds numbers. Tayagi et al. [6] investigated
energy analysis and parametric study of concentrating type solar
collectors. Karsli [7] determined the first and second laws of effi-
ciencies of four types of air heating flat-plate solar collectors. The
results showed that the efficiency depends on the solar radiation
and the construction of the solar air collectors. The temperature rise
varied almost linearly with the incident radiation. Hatami and
Bahadorinejad [8] studied experimentally, natural convection heat
transfer in a vertical flat-plate solar air heater of 2.5 m height and
1 m width, with one-and two glass covers. An experimental study
has been carried out to investigate the effect of roughness and
operating parameters on heat transfer and friction factor in
roughened duct provided with dimple-shape roughness geometry
by Saini and Verma [9]. Gupta and Kaushik ([10] studied energetic

0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.06.022
 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67 59

Nomenclature W uncertainty in the measurement (%)

a heat convection coefficient (W/m2 K)
Ac collector surface area (m2) l heat conduction coefficient (W/m K)
Ah channel cross-section area (m2) m_ mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
Cp specific heat (J/kg K) DTlog-mean logarithmic main temperature difference (K)
DH hydraulic diameter (m) r density of air (kg/m3)
E_ energy rate (W) m dynamic viscosity of air (Pa. s)
Ex exergy rate (W)
ExD dimensionless exergy loss (-) Greek symbols
_
Ex rate of irreversibility (W) a absorptivity (dimensionless)
dest
f friction coefficient hI thermal efficiency (dimensionless)
h specific enthalpy (J/kg) hII exergetic efficiency (dimensionless)
I global solar irradiance (W/m2) ho optical yield (dimensionless)
I P_ rate of improvement potential (W) sa effective transmission (dimensionless)
k adiabatic constant of the air j specific exergy (J/kg)
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s)
M mass (kg) Subscripts
Nu Nusselt number (e) a air
P pressure (N/m2) ave average
Pr Prandtl number (e) C collector
R universal gas constant (J/kg K) e environment
R regression coefficients f fluid
Re Reynolds number (e) gen generation
Qc useful heat rate (W) in inlet
Qs incident energy in the collector area (W) m mean
s specific entropy (J/kg K) out outlet
S entropy generation rate (W/kg K) max maximum
t time (s, min) min minimum
T temperature (K) p plate
Tas surface temperature of the absorber (K) r radiation
U channel perimeter exposed to air (m) s sun
V average velocity of air (m/s) x x, direction
W _ work rate or power (W)

performance of solar air heater. The studies aim to establish the
optimal performance parameters for the maximum exergy delivery
during the collection of solar energy in flat-plate solar air heater.
They stated that based on the output energy evaluation, the SAH
should have high aspect ratio, low duct depth and low inlet
temperature of air. They have observed and proved that if the inlet
temperature of air is low, then maximum exergy output is achieved
at low value of mass flow rate. Esen [11] reported an experimental
study to evaluate the energetic and exergetic efficiencies of four
types of double-flow SAHs with several obstacles and without
obstacles under a wide range of operating conditions. Esen et al.
[12] investigated a modeling of new SAHs efficiency by using least-
squares support vector machine (LS-SVM) method. In their study,
an LS-SVM based method was intended to adopt SAH system for
efficient modeling. They showed that the proposed LS-SVM model
can be used for estimating the some parameters of SAHs with
reasonable accuracy. Esen et al. [13] investigated a modeling study
of new SAHs by using artificial neural network (ANN) and wavelet
neural network (WNN) models. In this study, an ANN and WNN
based methods were intended to adopt SAH system for efficient
modeling. They found that the WNN model can be used for esti-
mating the some parameters of SAHs with reasonable accuracy.
Akpınar and Koçyig it [14] performed an experimental study to
investigate the performance of four flat-plate solar air heater Three
of them were several obstacles, the other one was without obsta-
cles. They used two different air mass flow rates. The first and
second laws of efficiencies were determined for SAHs and
comparisons were made among them.
This paper presents the performance and exergy analysis of five
types of air heating solar collectors. The experimental analysis includes
both the first law and second law of thermodynamics. The collector
efficiencies, friction coefficient and exergy loss were determined for
five types of solar collectors and comparisons were made among them.
2. Experimental setup
The experimental setup of the solar air collector is schematized
as shown in Fig. 1. Although, the collectors designed are composed
of basically the same elements present in the conventional flat-
plate solar air collectors, it has special constructions due to the
absorption surface. The system is comprised of solar air collectors,
an air circulation fan, air valves, a multi-meter, a pyranometer, and
other measurement devices (Fig. 2).
Five different solar air collectors are used. The main features of the
five tested solar air collectors are described below. The air flow is
provided as seen in Fig. 3a-e. Type-I is named as corrugated profile
plate solar air collector. In this type, the narrowest gap is 25mm and
the widest gap is 50 mm along the plates (Fig. 3a). Type-II is named as
trapeze profile plate. In this type, the narrowest gap is 25 mm and the
widest gap is 50 mm, too (Fig. 3b). Type-III and type-IV are named as
reverse corrugated profile plate and reverse trapeze profile, respec-
tively. In these types, the gap between plates is kept as 25 mm along
the plates (Fig. 3c, d). Type-V of the absorber is flat-plate with 25 mm
gap between parallel plates (Fig. 3e). In this study experiments were
performed at the Firat University campus under the meteorological
conditions in Elazig, East Anatolia of TURKEY (38:41 N latitude;
60 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67

Fig. 1. Design of solar collectors and insulation of the collector.

39:14 E longitude). All the collectors were placed facing south and
a slope angle of 37 with respect to horizontal line.
Each of the five collectors had 0.7 m width and 1.7 m length. The
collection surfaces area of solar radiation were 1.8663 m2 in type-I,
1.3125 m2 in type-II, 1.8663 m2 in type-III, 1.3125 m2 in type-IV and
1.19 m2 type-V. All collectors had a 25 mm minimum flow duct
height, leading to a minimum flow passage area of 0.0175 m2. The
absorbing surfaces in all collectors were formed by a dull black-
painted galvanized sheet with 0.4 mm thick. A single glazing of
4 mm glass was used in all collectors.
In order to minimize energy losses from the bottom of the
collectors, all collectors had the backs and sides insulated with a 70
and 50 mm of glass wool insulation, respectively. The detailed
specifications of the absorbers are given in Table 1.
The air was provided by a radial fan with a maximum
m_ ¼ 0:05 kg=s mass flow rate. The radial fan placed at the outlet of
the collectors sucked in the air. If the radial fan was placed at the
inlet of collectors, the turbulence could have occurred because of
blowing. However, sucking of the air prevented this condition. The
pressure loss was measured by means of a water U-manometer

Fig. 2. Air circulation lines and solar collectors.

 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67 61

Fig. 3. Types of used collectors and dimensions: (a) Corrugated (type-I) (1700  700  25), (b) Trapeze (type-II) (1700  700  25), (c) Reverse corrugated (type-III)
(1700  700  25), (d) Reverse trapeze (type-IV) (1700  700  25) and (e) Flat-plate (type-V) (1700  700  25).
h i1=
placed between the entrance and the exit and the velocity of the air
W ¼ ðX1 Þ2 þðX2 Þ2 þ/ðXn Þ2 2 (1)
was measured at the inlet of the collector.
3. Analysis
2.1. Experimental uncertainty
SAHs contain a process where energy intensity is high, in other
words where the energy has to be used. This study contains the
Errors and uncertainties in the experiments can arise from
analysis of the first and second laws of SAH with different absorber
instrument selection, condition, calibration, environment, obser-
surfaces; in other words the exergy and energy analysis.
vation, reading and test planning. In experiments in SAH, the
temperatures, velocity of air, solar radiation and pressure loss were
measured with appropriate instruments. During the measurements 3.1. Energy analysis
of the parameters, the uncertainties occurred were presented in
Table 2. Considering to relative uncertainties in the individual The theoretical model employed for the study of the solar
factors denoted by xn, uncertainty estimation was made using the collector that operates in unsteady state is made using a thermal
following equation Holman [15]. energy balance [11].
62 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67

Table 1 absorbed by the plate and depends mainly on transmittance of the

Detailed specifications of the absorber. transparent covers and on the absorbance of the plate [11]. The
Plate type Corrugated, trapeze, reverse corrugated, energy loss coefficient includes the losses by the upper cover, the
reverse trapeze, flat laterals, and the bottom of the collector. The upper cover losses
Absorber material Galvanize prevail over the others, depending to a large extent on the
Plate thickness 0.4 mm temperature and emissivity of the absorbent bed, and besides, on
Dimension of absorber plate 1.70 m  0.7 m
the convective effect of the wind on the upper cover. The thermal
Absorber coating Dull black paint
Glazing Normal window glass (thickness 4 mm) efficiency of the solar collectors (hI) is defined as the ratio between
Number of glazing 1 the energy gain and the solar radiation incident on the collector
Back insulation Glass wool (thickness 70 mm) plane [5,7,11].
Side insulation Glass wool (thickness 50 mm)
 
Sealant Silicon rubber _ p Ta;out  Ta;in
mC
Collector frame material Steel hI ¼ (8)
Collector tilt 38:41 (with provision to adjust) IAC
Air flow area between 0.0175 m2
absorber and back plate
Absorptivity of the absorber a ¼ 0.85 3.2. Exergy analysis
Reflectivity of the absorber r ¼ 0.16
Transmissivity of the absorber sy0:9 This article focuses on the combination of the two laws of
Effective product (s$a) ¼ 0.76 thermodynamics, which are described in the concept of exergy
transmittanceeabsorptance
Collector heat transfer Type-I AI¼1.8663 m2
analysis.
(surface) area A (m2) Type-II AII ¼ 1.3125 m2 The assumptions made in the analysis presented in this study
Type-III AIII ¼ 1.8663 m2 are [5,7,11,16]:
Type-IV AIV ¼ 1.3125 m2
Type-V AV ¼ 1.19 m2
(i) steady state, steady flow operation,
(ii) negligible potential and kinetic energy effects and no chemical
or nuclear reactions,
(iii) air is an ideal gas with a constant specific heat, and its
½Accumulated energy þ ½energy gain humidity content is ignored,
¼ ½absorbed energy  ½lost energy (2) (iv) the directions of heat transfer to the system and work transfer
from the system are positive. The mass balance equation can
for each term of equation the following expressions are formulated: be expressed in the rate form as
 
½Accumulated energy ¼ MP Cp dTP;ave =dt (3) X X
_ in ¼
m _ out
m

_ p ðTout  Tin Þ
½Energy gain ¼ mC (4) where m _ is the mass flow rate, and the subscript in stands for inlet
and out for outlet.
½Absorbed energy ¼ h0 IAc (5) If the effects due to the kinetic and potential energy changes are
neglected, the general energy and exergy balances can be expressed
  in rate form as given below [5,7,11,16]:
½Lost energy ¼ UC TP;ave  Te AC (6) X X
E_ in ¼ E_ out (10)
By combining Eqs. (3)e(6), the thermal energy balance equation
necessary to describe the solar collector functioning is obtained: X X X
_ _ out ¼ _
Ex in  Ex Ex dest (11a)
 
_ p ðTout  Tin Þ
MP CP dTP;ave =dt þ mC
  or
¼ h0 IAC  UC TP;ave  Te Ac (7)
_ _ _ _ _
Ex heat  Exwork þ Exmass;in  Exmass;out ¼ Exdest (11b)
The optical yield (ho) and the energy lose coefficient (UC) are
the parameters that characterize the behavior of the solar Using Eq. (11b) the rate form of the general exergy balance can be
collector. Note that ho represents the fraction of the solar radiation expressed as follows:
X 
Te _ X X
1 _ þ
QS W _ in Jin 
m m _
_ out Jout ¼ Ex (12)
dest
TS
where
Table 2
The uncertainties during the measurements of the parameters.
Jin ¼ ðhin  he Þ  Te ðsin  se Þ (13)
Parameter Unit Comment
Uncertainty in the temperature measurement

Jout ¼ ðhout  he Þ  Te ðsout  se Þ (14)
Collector inlet temperature C 0.168  C

Collector outlet temperature C 0. 168  C If Eqs. (13) and (14) are substituted in Eq. (12), it is arranged as

Absorber surface (galvanization plate) C 0. 168  C

below:
Ambient air temperature C 0. 168  C

Uncertainty in the time measurement

Temperature values min 0.1  
Te _ _
Uncertainty in the air velocity measurement m s1 0.16 1 _ out  hin Þ  Te ðsout  sin Þ ¼ Ex
Q s  mðh dest (15)
Uncertainty in the measurement of solar energy 
C 0.1 TS
0.35
where Q_ s .is the solar energy absorbed by the collector absorber
Uncertainty in the measurement of pressure loss bar
Uncertainty in reading values of table % 0.1e0.2
surface and it is evaluated with the expression given below [5,7,11]:
 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67 63

Q_ s ¼ IðsaÞAc (16) temperature of the collector inlet and outlet and the radiation
intensity are measured simultaneously.
The changes in the enthalpy and the entropy of the air at the The collectors were tested experimentally to study its thermal
collector are expressed by [5,7,11,16]:
  performance and efficiency. The experimental data obtained were
Dh ¼ hout  hin ¼ Cp Tf;out  Tf;in (17) used to draw the efficiency curves of the collectors at different mass
flow rates. Thermal efficiency of collector is defined as the ratio of
Tf;out Pout useful energy to the incident solar energy.
Ds ¼ sout  sin ¼ Cp ln  Rln (18)
Tf;in Pin
Q
By substituting Eqs. (16)e(18), into Eq. (15) the equation below h¼ (25)
I$Ac
can be derived [5,7,11]:
The useful energy Q used in the calculation of collector effi-
   
Te ciency can be estimated by using following equation:
1 IðsaÞAc mC
_ p Tf ;out  Tf ;in þ mC _ p Te
TS
_ Cp ðTo  Ti Þ
Qx ¼ m (26)
Tf;out P _
ln _ e ln out ¼ Ex
 mRT dest ð19Þ
Tf;in Pin The flow in the x-direction has been considered, therefore the
flows in y- and z-directions have been neglected (Fig. 3e). Air
The exergy destruction or the irreversibility may be expressed collectors (flat-plate solar air heaters) are radiative heat
as follows [5,7,11]: exchangers, transferring solar radiant energy into heat, which is
_ _ transferred by convection from the absorber to the working fluid
Ex dest ¼ Te Sgen (20)
(air). According to this definition, heat transfer obtained can be
The exergy efficiency of a solar collector system can be calcu- given in terms of Nusselt number.
lated in terms of the net output exergy of the system or exergy
destructions in the system. The exergy efficiency of SAH system has aDH
Nu ¼ (27)
been evaluated in terms of the net output exergy of the system. The l
second law efficiency is calculated as follows [16]: where DH is the hydraulic diameter and evaluated as
_
Ex _ out  hin  Te ðsout  sin Þ
m½h
hII ¼ _ out ¼   (21) 4Ah
Exin Te _ DH ¼ (28)
1 Qs U
Ts
where Ah is the channel cross-section area, U is the channel
When dealing with the exergy of a process component, the
perimeter exposed to air, a and k are the coefficients of convective
difference between exergy losses and destruction should be noted.
heat transfer and of conductive heat transfer of air, respectively.
Exergy losses consist of exergy flowing to the surroundings,
For the coefficient of convective heat transfer
whereas, exergy destruction indicates the loss of exergy within the
system boundary due to irreversibility [17]. Phrasing it another
Qx ¼ aADTlogmean (29)
way, the exergy destruction is the actual change in exergy for the
irreversible process minus the change in exergy that would have where DTlogmean is the logarithmic main temperature difference
occurred if the process had been reversible. The exergy destruction between temperature of absorber surface and air. If Eq. (29) is
due to the irreversibility generates when chemical reaction, heat equalized to Eq. (26), the coefficient of convective heat transfer can
transfer, pressure drop and mixing proceed in the process [17,18]. be calculated.
The dimensionless exergy destruction or loss is the result of Then the Reynolds number, which depends strongly on the
dividing Eq. (20) by the energy gain value of Eq. (4), [5]. velocity of air, has been written as
_
Ex rVDH
dest
ExD ¼ (22) Re ¼ (30)
Q_c m
Van Gool [18] has also proposed that maximum improvement in The velocity (V) of the air was measured at the collector
the exergy efficiency for a process or system is obviously achieved entrance; the continuity equation permits us to obtain the velocity
_ _
when the exergy loss or irreversibility Ex in  Exout is minimized. in any frontal section of collector duct.
Consequently, he suggested that it is useful to employ the concept
of an exergetic “improvement potential” when analyzing different _ ¼ rAh V
m (31)
processes or sectors of the economy. This improvement potential in Dynamics viscosity, density of air and specific heat of air are
the rate form, denoted. determined according to average air temperature between
 
I P_ ¼ ð1  hII Þ Ex
_ _
in  Exout (23) entrances and exits of the collector.

All physical properties of air were selected according to the

following bulk mean temperature: 4. Methods and measurements

DTm ¼ ðTin þ Tout Þ=2
3.3. Performance of solar collectors
The efficiency of solar heating systems extensively depends on
the efficiency of the collectors. Test methods based on incident
measures are applied to the whole collector throughout both liquid
and gas flows. In this method, mass flow rate of the fluid, the
(24) The experiments were conducted from September 2009 to
December 2009. The experiments were carried out at the same
time periods between 9.00 and 16.00e17.00 of the days for
a variety of mass flow rates. The air flow through the collectors
were supplied by a radial fan and adjusted via a sliding valve
located at the air inlet. The flow rate was kept constant and same
in both the collector designed and conventional flat-plate
collector.
64 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67
The experiments were carried out for five different mass flow
rates. The sliding valve at the radial fan caused the changes in these
rates. The air flow was provided by a centrifugal fan 3.0 HP and
3750 rpm. The air flow rate was measured by a flow meters placed
at the outlet of the collectors in a vertical position. The collectors
were tested according to the ASHARE 93-97 standards [19]. The
incident solar radiation was measured with a Kipp and Zonen
piranometer. The collectors were instrumented with T-type ther-
mocouples for measuring temperatures of flowing air at inlet and
outlet of the collectors, and the ambient temperature. The ther-
mocouple, which measured the ambient temperature, was kept in
a shelter to protect the sensor from direct sunlight. A flow meter
with an electronic transducer was used to measure the wind
velocity and wind direction. All the sensors used in the collector
test were continuously monitored and output signals were recor-
ded in a 20-channel data acquisition system. The empirical rela-
tions which are shown in Table 3 are constructed by the least
square method, for the Nusselt number and friction coefficient (f),
respectively. The empirical formulas given in Table 3 are valid for
Reynolds number in the range of 2500 and 5000.
5. Results and discussion
In this study, the aim was to increase the collector efficiency
using passive method in air collectors. When a comparison was
made among collectors, the same time of days with the same
radiation were used for all collectors. Collector performance tests
were conducted on days with clear sky condition. The results ob-
tained from the collectors designed are depicted in Fig 4. More-
over, the efficiency in each collector is also given in the same
figures in terms of mass flow rates. Increasing the mass flow rates
caused 1.5- to 4-fold increase in each collector efficiency. However,
the outlet temperature of air significantly changes with the
geometry of the absorber. As known, the incident solar radiation is
one of the most important parameters in the collector efficiency.
The temperature of absorber surfaces increased up to 71  C
depending on the incident solar radiation. In addition, the outlet
temperature of air increased 66  C for the lowest mass flow rate
(0.02 kg/s), and 54  C for the highest mass flow rate (0.05 kg/s).
This behavior may be explained by longer constant times of air
with the hot surfaces inside the collector. As seen from the results,
the collector efficiency increased with increasing mass flow rate of
fluid. When the radiation is maximum value, collector efficiency is
also maximum value. The radiation values change in the range of
597 W/m2 and 307 W/m2 and it reaches the maximum in the
midday. It is clear from Fig 4 that the corrugated collector is more
efficient than the trapeze collector, and the reverse corrugated
collector is more efficient than reverse trapeze and flat-plate
collectors.
According to Fig 4 the efficiency varies between 25% and 55% for
type-I (Fig. 4a), between 22% and 46% for type-II (Fig. 4b), between
20% and 42% for type-III (Fig. 4c), between 15% and 28% for type-IV
(Fig. 4d) and between 7% and 17% for type-V (Fig. 4e). The
maximum efficiency in type-I is 55%, 46 % in type-II, 42% in type-III,
Table 3
Empirical correlations obtained from result of experiments.
Nusselt number Friction coefficient Dimensionless exergy
(Nu) (f) loss (ED)
Type-I 0.5999Re0.419 1.0866Re0.6635 31496Re1.1717
Type-II 0.1708Re0.6337 1.0298Re0.7057 47493Re1.1659
Type-III 0.0437Re0.7728 0.9564Re0.743 57969Re1.1338
Type-IV 0.0025Re1.0871 0.8588Re0.8103 69385Re1.1303
Type-V 0.0014Re1.225 0.4053Re0.8851 71670Re1.0993
Theoretical 0.0158Re0.8 (0.79 ln Re 1.64)2 e Q_ max ¼ mC
28% in type-IV and 17% in the type-V conventional flat-plate
collector. It was revealed from Fig 3, that the effect of absorber
construction on the collector efficiency is fairly important.
The efficiency for mass flow rate of 0.036 kg/s is given in Fig. 5
for all types collectors according to day times. The efficiency of
the flat-plate collector changed between 6% and 12%, the efficiency
of collector increased up to 12% at midday by extending the flow
line without changing surface geometry. According to Fig. 5,
maximum efficiencies were 39% in type-I, 33% type-II, 27% type-III
and 17% type-IV for mass flow rate of 0.036 kg/s. The efficiencies of
collectors increased approximately 3.5-fold in type-I, 2.75-fold in
type-II, 2.25-fold in type-III and 40% in type-IV compared to the
flat-plate (type-V) collector.
The effects of extending the flow and the surface geometry on the
heat transfer are clearly depicted in Fig 6. In this figure, the variation
of Nusselt number with Reynolds number is given. The heat gain is
proportional to the collector efficiency as given in Eq. (25). As
known, the same parameters such as ambient air temperature,
collector overall heat loss coefficient and collector efficiency factor
are critical parameters for collector efficiency. Therefore, the
comparison of the heat transfer among five collectors and correla-
tions would be more practical. For full developed turbulent flow of
air between two plates with one side heated and the other side
insulated, the correlation was given by Kays and Crawford [20].
Nu ¼ 0:0158Re0:8 (32)
According to this equation obtained for turbulent flow, Nusselt
number changed between 9.5 and 14.3 level for 3000 < Re < 5000.
The values of Nusselt number in flat-plate collector were found to
be higher than the theoretical values. The lower useful heat gain (Q)
and the higher logarithmic main temperature difference may be the
reason for decreasing the convective heat transfer coefficient. In
type-I, although the efficiency increased by three-times by
extending flow line compared to flat-plate collector, the magnitude
of heat transfer was less than the theoretical value. In types-II, III
and IV, the heat transfer significantly increased. The heat transfer in
type-II increased 2e2.5-fold, 1.5e2-fold in type-III and 60e70% in
type-IV compared to the flat-plate collector (type-V). The reason for
that was most probably, the extending of the flow line and forming
of swirl and secondary flows by staggering the flow line with
surface geometry. Hence, the convective heat transfer coefficient
increased by introducing turbulence effect to the fluid and this also
increased Nusselt number.
The variations of pressure loss and friction coefficient in each
collector with Reynolds number are given in Fig. 7 for the
maximum mass flow rates. In the collector designed, the pressure
loss changed approximately from 1.5 to 5.5 N/m2. Petukhov [21]
developed the friction factor for smooth tubes as follows.
f ¼ ð0:79 ln Re 1:64Þ2 (33)
According to this correlation the friction coefficient in flat-plate
collector increased 2.8-fold, 6-fold in type-III, 7.6-fold in type-IV,
9.6-fold in type-I and 11.6-fold in type-II. The increase in friction
coefficient resulted in an increase in pressure loss. As known, the
pressure loss is an important parameter in terms of overall cost.
The total exergy loss is shown in Fig 8. The dimensionless exergy
loss is obtained from Eq. (22). The exergy loss changes with
ambient conditions. If the solar collectors are considered as a heat
exchanger, the maximum heat transfer occurs in case of discharg-
ing the collector at the surface temperature of the air inlet and
minimum heat loss occurs. According to this statement, for the
maximum heat transfer the following equation can be used.
_ p ðTas  Ti Þ (34)
 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67 65

Fig. 4. The collector efficiency as a function of day times for five mass flow rates; (a) For type-I, (b) for type-II, (c) for type-III, (d) for type-IV and (e) for type-V.

_ ¼ 0:036 kg=s.
Fig. 5. Change of collector efficiency for all types in m
66 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67

Fig. 6. Change of Nusselt number with Reynolds number.

Fig. 7. Change of pressure loss and friction coefficient with Reynolds number.

Likewise, the minimum pressure loss occurred in collector
ðP0 =Pi ¼ 1Þ can be defined as the minimum exergy loss. As seen in
Fig 8, the lowest exergy loss occurred in type-I as given in Eq. (22).
There is a reverse relationship between dimensionless exergy loss
and collector effciency, as well as temperature difference (DT). It is
clear that when the effciency is maximum value, the exergy loss is
minimum value. The minimum exergy loss is also given in Fig 8 for
type-I. The experimental results revealed that the pressure loss
significantly affected the exergy loss. The effect of pressure loss on
the exergy loss is in the range of 12e15%. Approximately the similar
results were also obtained for other collectors. The exergy loss
approximately increased % 60 for type-II, 2.5-fold for type-III, 2.8-

_ ¼ 0:036 kg=s.
Fig. 8. Change of dimensionless exergy loss with Reynolds number for each absorber in m
 H. Benli / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 58e67
fold for type-IV and 3.8-fold for type-V compared to the type-I. The
results obtained for exergy loss gave us same information about
collector overall heat loss coeffcient and collector efficiency.
6. Conclusions
A detailed analytical and experimental study was conducted to
evaluate the thermal performance of five different types, ten solar
air collectors, under a wide range of operating conditions. The
conclusions can be drawn from the experimental study of the new
collectors designed, and show that the effciency of the collector
improves with increasing mass flow rates due to an enhanced heat
transfer to the air flow. The effciency of air collectors increases
depending on the surface geometry of the collector and extension
of the air flow line. When the surface roughness is increased, both
the heat transfer and pressure loss increases.
The corrugated absorber surface has narrowed-extended shape.
In this way, the heat transfer was increased by being extended
along the flow line of fluid (air) and changing velocity and pressure
in narrowed-extended area in which swirl and secondary flows
form. As known, swirl and secondary flows cause the convection
coefficient of the heat transfer to increase.
The exergy loss of the system decreases depending on the
increase of the collector efficiency. There is a reverse relationship
between dimensionless exergy loss and heat transfer as well as
pressure loss. The more important parameters in order to decrease
the exergy loss are the collector efficiency, temperatures and
pressure loss. New relations were proposed to evaluate of the
energy and exergy analysis of SAH. It is concluded that the
proposed procedure can be successfully employed for predicting
the SAH performance. Important results can be gained to the
literature as well, if SAH studies are performed on energy and
exergy analysis by increasing parameters and variables.
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