The Japanese Aesthetics of Imperfection and Insufficiency

Author(s): Yuriko Saito

Reviewed work(s):
Source: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Autumn, 1997), pp. 377-
385
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 YURIKO SAITO
The JapaneseAesthetics of
Imperfectionand Insufficiency
The Japanese aesthetic tradition,just like any
other cultural tradition, encompasses diverse
tastes and arts. They range from the minimal-
ism of Noh theater to the flamboyance of Ka-
buki theater, the somber severity of mono-
chrome brush ink paintings to the opulence of
gold-gilded screen paintings, and the simple
rusticity of tea huts to the augustmajestyof cas-
tles. Among these diverse aesthetic phenomena
and pursuits, one theme stands out for being
somewhatunusual,yet is generallyidentified as
forming a quintessentiallyJapanese taste. It is
the celebrationof those qualities commonly re-
gardedas falling short of, or deterioratingfrom,
the optimalcondition of the object. Specifically,
these qualities are found in objects with defects,
an impoverishedlook, or aging effects, as well
as in a landscape or the moon obscured by
clouds, mist, or fog.
I shall refer to this Japanese appreciationof
the aged, the obscured, the impoverished,and
the defective as "the Japaneseaesthetics of im-
perfection and insufficiency."' In the following
discussion, I shall explore the aesthetic, social,
historical, and philosophical dimensions of this
Japaneseaesthetic taste. I hope to shed light on
the complexity of this aesthetic phenomenon
which is intertwinedwith diverse aspects of the
Japanesepeople's lives.
I. EXAMPLES
This aesthetics of imperfection and insuffi-
ciency first developed as a celebrationof a nat-
ural aging process or obscuring effect. For ex-
ample, consider a series of aesthetic preferences
noted by a tenth-centurycourt lady and one of
the first trendsettersin Japanesesensibility, Sei
Shonagon (965?-c. 1020), in her well-known
The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism55:4 Fall 1997
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essays in The Pillow Book. One of the things
which she considers hideous is "a new cloth
screen with a colorful and clutteredpainting of
many cherryblossoms,"while she is excited by
"'notic(ing) that one's elegant Chinese mirror
has become a little cloudy."2As for her taste in
gardenponds, she dislikes"thosein whichevery-
thing is carefully laid out"; she much prefers
"one that has been left to itself so that it is wild
and coveredwith weeds."3
Sei Shonagon's taste, typical of the ancient
Japanesecourt aesthetic sensibility, was inher-
ited and further developed by Yoshida Kenko
(c. 1283-c. 1350), a retiredBuddhistmonk.4His
influence on the subsequentdevelopmentin Jap-
anese aesthetics as well as philosophy of life is
quite significant. In an oft-quoted passage re-
gardedas the manifesto of the aesthetics of im-
perfection and insufficiency, he states the fol-
lowing:
Arewe to lookatcherryblossomsonlyin fullbloom,
the moononly whenit is cloudless?To long for the
moonwhilelookingon the rain,to lowerthe blinds
andbe unawareof the passingof the spring-these
are even more deeply moving.Branchesaboutto
blossomor gardensstrewnwith fadedflowersare
worthierof ouradmiration.5
Similarly,regardingartifacts,he finds aesthetic
appeal in those objects that show wear and tear
or that are incomplete:
It is only afterthe silkwrapperhasfrayedat topand
bottom,andthe mother-of-pearl has fallenfromthe
rollerthata scrolllooksbeautiful.I wasimpressedto
heartheAbbotKMyd say,"Itis typicalof theunintel-
ligentmanto insiston assemblingcompletesets of
everything.Imperfectsetsarebetter."In everything,
378
no matter what it may be, uniformity and complete-
ness are undesirable.6
It was during the sixteenth century, with the
flourishing of the tea ceremony, that this aes-
thetics of imperfection became established as a
principleof artistic creation.The first stage was
to incorporatein its artistic creation"foundob-
jects" which have alreadybeen damaged, aged,
or blemished. For example, weather-beatenor
moss-covered rocks were aggressively pursued
for use as stepping stones, lanterns, and water
basins in tea gardens.7Tea huts were made to
appear rustic and impoverished with an un-
painted, stark interiorwith a crooked tree for a
pillar and caked mud for walls.
By far the most conspicuousexamples can be
found in tea wares and utensils for the cere-
mony. Impoverished-looking and irregularly
shaped Korean peasants' bowls, often with
chips and cracks, were highly esteemed for use
in the tea ceremony.The accidental damages to
tea wares or signs of their age did not stop their
use; either the bowls were left unrepairedor the
trace of repair was left visible. Furthermore,
many tea wares were cherished precisely be-
cause of these seeming defects. A seventeenth-
century record of the teachings of tea masters
explicitly states:
Concerning the tea utensils for the small tea room ...
it is recommendedthat they should, in every way and
aspect, fall rathershort of perfection. There are peo-
ple who find it repugnantto have a tiniest defect in
them. This I do not understand.8
That "defective"wares were indeed fully appre-
ciated and utilized is evidenced by the specific
instructions left by Sen no RikyU(1522-1591),
perhaps the most noted tea master, concerning
how to handle a tea bowl with a big crack.9
One of the accomplishmentsof the tea masters
was to go beyondmerelyappreciatingthese signs
of imperfectionby actually creatingthe appear-
ance of imperfection and impoverishment.For
example, in pursuit of domestically produced
tea bowls, tea masters commissioned potters to
emulate the plain rusticity of Korean wares. In
addition, they also resorted to what may be
called iconoclastic acts. Consider the action of
MurataShuko(1423-1502), a founderof the tea
ceremony,when he received a gift from his pa-
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The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism
tron Shogun. It was an exquisite and colorful
tenth-century Chinese silk painting of two
white herons. Shuk6 proceeded to change its
scroll from gold brocade to subdued-colored
damask,eliminateda thin stripof cloth immedi-
ately below the painting which is requiredfor
any properframing, and replacedthe ivory bot-
tom roll with a branch from a Chinese quince.
The resultanthanging scroll, thus transformed
to appearless opulent, is said to have continued
to impress the succeeding tea masters.10
Or consider anotheranecdote of a tea master
and his disciple who found a perfectly formed
flower vase with symmetrical handles. The
master purchasedthe vase and the disciple was
invited to the tea ceremony the following day.
The disciple hid a hammerin his sleeve, hoping
to make the vase even more appealingby break-
ing one of its handles. To his surprise,the disci-
ple found that the master had already broken a
handle to diminish the well-formed appearance
of the vase. II
Finally, another tea master, Furuta Oribe
(1543-1615), was somewhat ridiculed by his
contemporarywho claimed:
This mandestroystreasures.He trimsa scrollto im-
proveits shape,and he breaksan unblemishedtea
bowlora teacaddyandthenrepairsit to makeit more
amusing.12
There are important aesthetic differences be-
tween a vase whose handlebrokeoff by accident
and an identical vase whose handle was inten-
tionally broken off. Chips and cracks on a tea
bowl have different aesthetic connotations de-
pending upon whetherthey are due to a natural
aging process or a part of the calculateddesign.
For the moment, however, I will not address
these differences;let me insteadexplore the rea-
sons behind these seemingly unusual aesthetic
tastes and pursuits.
II. AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
The emergence of this aesthetics of imperfec-
tion and insufficiency can be partly explained
by the aesthetic value of contrast. One of the
hallmarksof the traditionalJapanese aesthetic
design principle is harmony brought about by
juxtaposing disparate, often contrasting, ele-
ments. The unity of the whole is designed to
Saito The JapaneseAesthetics of Imperfectionand Insufficiency
emerge spontaneouslyfrom the contributionof
each element, ratherthan each part subsumed
under a preconceived, overall plan. For exam-
ple, Japanesegardens in general are created by
arrangingvariousrocks and trees so as to artic-
ulate their individual characteristics. This is
often accomplishedby juxtaposing materialsof
contrasting qualities for mutual enhancement,
such as a vertical rock with a horizontalrock, or
a smooth-texturedrock with a rough-textured
rock. Similarly, one of the techniques of com-
posing haiku is to juxtapose disparateand unre-
lated objects, such as a tiny flower and a vast
sky or a present phenomenon and an ancient
event, in orderto give rise to an ineffable atmo-
spherewhich would color the whole verse.'3
The appreciation of the imperfect is based
upon the same consideration of aesthetic con-
trast.That is, juxtaposingthe opulentor the per-
fect with the impoverishedor the imperfect fa-
cilitates mutual emphasis of each asset. This
point is succinctly expressed in Shukd'sverse:
'A prize horse looks best hitched to a thatched
hut."'4 Accordingly, the exquisite painting of
the white herons will not stand out if the fram-
ing scroll is equally gorgeous. Conversely,the
aesthetic value of the irregularlyshapedobjects
is enhancedby surroundingsmarkedby regular
patterns.Such a contrastcan be found between
the misshapentea utensils and the geometrically
shaped and regularly textured tatami mat, be-
tween one irregularly formed pillar and the
straight,geometrical divisions of the rest of the
tea hut interior,between the impoverished-look-
ing tea hut and the adjacent august castle or
luxurious residence.15 The aesthetic value of
contrast underlies one of the instructions in a
seventeenth-century tea manual: "as for the
combination of the types of tea utensils ... a
plain tea bowl of present-dayporcelain should
be combined with an exquisite antique piece of
Chinese tea-caddy."16
This principle of contrast operates in imagi-
nation as well. Even in the absence of an actual
object or phenomenonin a perfect, optimalcon-
dition, one can still appreciatethe contrastbe-
tween the perfect and the imperfect by imagin-
ing the former. Such was the explanation
offered by Kenko. The obscured moon, fallen
cherry blossoms, and the end of a love affair,
normallyconsideredas falling short of the opti-
mal condition, are much more interestingto the
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379
imagination than if they were at the height of
their condition. "In all things, it is the begin-
nings and ends that are interesting,"according
to Kenkd, because they stimulate our imagina-
tion to eitheranticipateor to reminisce.Further-
more, "how incomparablylovely is the moon ...
when seen throughthe tops of the cedars deep in
the mountains, or when it hides for a moment
behind clustering clouds during a sudden
shower!"A view of something half-obscuredin
such a manneris much more alluringthan when
it is fully exposed.17
A similar reasoning can be given for the ap-
preciationof the imperfect and the insufficient.
A brokenware, for example, intriguesour imag-
ination by making us wonder about the history
behind the object: What was its optimal condi-
tion like? How did the damageoccur?Whataes-
thetic value was found in it by the tea master
who decided to keep using it? A twentieth-cen-
turyart critic, YanagiSdetsu,summarizeshis at-
tractionto "the irregular"as based upon the al-
lurement when "there is ... a little something left
unaccountedfor."'18
One could question why these associations do
not occur regarding objects and phenomena
with optimalcondition, such as cherryblossoms
in full bloom, the unobscuredmoon, and a per-
fectly shaped bowl with no damage. Theoreti-
cally it would be possible for us to imagine how
it came to be, what it will be like if it is obscured
or when it is past its prime, what kind of possi-
ble damageor aging effect it may accrue,and so
on. However,it may be that since we normally
expect and imagine objects and phenomenato
be in their optimal condition, any deviation
from that surprisesus, stimulatingour imagina-
tion and triggeringcuriosity.
There is a sense in which we not only expect
and imagine objects in their optimal conditions
but also yearn for them. Kenko recognizes this
tendency while advocating the appreciationof
the imperfect,the obscured,and the insufficient:
People commonly regret that the cherry blossoms
scatter or that the moon sinks in the sky, and this is
natural; but only an exceptionally insensitive man
would say, "This branch and that branch have lost
theirblossoms. There is nothing worthseeing now."'19
A clearly viewed moon, cherry blossoms in
their full glory, or the unblemished scroll are
380
easier to appreciate.Kenk6'sproposed aesthet-
ics of imperfectionand insufficiency can be re-
gardedas a challenge to this common and preva-
lent taste.
The premise that the perfect and the opulent
are easier to appreciate is also shared by Mo-
toori Norinaga(1730-1801), a noted philologist
and literary critic. Norinaga,however,uses this
premise to criticize the aesthetic sensibility ad-
vocated by Kenko:
Whatthatmonksaid does not accordwith human
feelingsbutis afabricated aesthetictasteformedin
the impertinentmindof a manof a laterage andit is
nota trulyaesthetictaste.Whatthatmonksaidcanbe
described... as contrivedonly to make what does not
accordwithhumanwishesa refinedtaste.20
If, as Norinaga insists (and Kenko agrees), it is
"natural"for humansto long for clarityand per-
fection, the aesthetics of imperfection trans-
forms what otherwise would be a disappointing
experience, such as of an obscured moon or a
shabby-lookingscroll,into a positive experience.
The appreciationof the imperfect is then inter-
preted as an end product of a dialectic move-
ment, a resolution to the disappointmentor dis-
satisfaction in the ordinarycontext.
However, why challenge this "natural"aes-
thetic attractionand advocatewhat may be con-
sidereda subversiveaesthetics?Wasit merely to
provideaesthetic contrastand stimulationto the
imagination?
III. SOCIAL/POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS
It is important to note that this aesthetic cele-
brationof the imperfectand the insufficientpre-
supposes not only the yearning for but also the
attainability of the optimum condition, under-
stood as a shiny mirror,a gorgeous and properly
framedscroll,a meticulouslymaintainedgarden,
and a perfectly formed vase. A cloudy mirror
Sei Shonagon appreciatesis not a cheap or de-
fective product;it was shiny once. A wild gar-
den exalted by her did not resultfrom the owner
not being able to afford maintainingit; rather,it
was a calculatedneglect. Fallingcherryblossoms
are aesthetically superiorto those in full bloom
precisely because they had previously achieved
the stage of full blossom. Chipped and cracked
tea wares could be repaired.The impoverished-
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The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism
looking scroll does not imply an inability to
choose opulentmaterials;it is a productof con-
scious design. Similarly, a flower vase missing
one handle is not a resultof failed creation.
These considerationsmake apparentthat the
appreciationof the imperfectwas not merelydi-
rected toward the sensory qualities such as
asymmetry, irregularity,or obscurity, or their
contrastwith the opposite qualities.These qual-
ities are aesthetically appreciableprecisely be-
cause their opposites are possible to achieve.
It is noteworthy that the proponentsof this
aesthetics of imperfection and insufficiency
came from the position of social privilege and
culturalsophistication.For example, Sei Shona-
gon, born into a family of noted poets, belonged
to the culturalelite of her time by servingan em-
press. Similarly, Kenko, coming from a family
of noted diviners serving emperors, tutored a
young prince and enjoyed easy access to the
nobility. With his knowledge of ancient court
culture and religious teachings, as well as con-
temporary issues, Kenko circulated among the
aristocrats comfortably. His association with
the nobility continuedeven after he "renounced
the world" to lead the life of a Buddhist monk
at the age of thirty, partly motivated by the de-
cline of his patronfamily's political fortune.21
Neither of them was underprivilegedwith no
choice but to deal daily with simple materials,
defective objects, and old, worn-out items.
Rather,their privileged position afforded them
the luxury of adopting a purely aesthetic atti-
tude toward the signs of insufficiency and im-
poverishment.22
It is the art of the tea ceremony that added a
political dimension to this aesthetics. Primarily
wealthy merchants under generous patronage
from shoguns, tea masters of the sixteenth cen-
tury acted not only as aesthetic consultants to
the shogunsbut sometimes also as theirpolitical
confidants. In particular, they cultivated and
recommended the aesthetics of imperfection
and insufficiency as their patrons became in-
creasingly temptedto display their growing po-
litical power and wealth. For example, Rikyti
severely criticized his patron shogun Toyotomi
Hideyoshi's (1536-1598) gold-gilded tea hut,
not only for its garish uncouthnessbut also for
its political imprudencefor possibly incurring
the wrathof the underprivileged.23
In an effort to counterbalancesuch an osten-
Saito TheJapaneseAesthetics of Imperfectionand Insufficiency
tatiousdisplayof theirpatrons'powerand wealth,
the tea masters made the tea hut to emulate the
humble, simple rusticity of a mountain hut.
Specifically, the size of the hut became smaller,
the height of the ceiling became lower to prevent
the display of an expensive, long hanging scroll,
and the interiorbecame less finished by using
unpolished wood, unpainted walls, or some-
times even mud walls.24In addition, a symbolic
gesture toward social egalitarianism was dis-
played in a low washbasin and an extremely
small entranceto the tea hut, forcing all partici-
pants to literally lower themselves and the war-
riors to cast aside their long swords, a proud
symbol of their status. The absence of a spatial
center in the tea hut also eliminated the social
hierarchyof seating the guests.25
The aesthetics of imperfection and insuffi-
ciency promotedby the tea ceremony,however,
went beyond merely restrainingthe ostentatious
display of wealth and power. It also helped jus-
tify insufficiency and poverty throughaestheti-
cizing them. The most explicit expression con-
cerning this political significance of the tea
ceremony is found in an essay by a nineteenth-
centurystatesman,Ii Naosuke (1815-1860), en-
titled "Essayon the Service of the Wayof Tea to
the Way of Government."In it he emphasizes
the political importance of the tea ceremony's
teaching regardinghow to be satisfied with in-
sufficiency.26The aesthetic sensibility was thus
utilized for instilling the virtue of being satis-
fied with and finding pleasure in one's lot, no
matter how imperfect and disappointing ini-
tially, a virtue consideredcrucial in maintaining
stability in a hierarchicalsociety.
The success of this aesthetic means of social
control is not clear, as some critics saw through
the promotion of this aesthetics to expose the
social/political purpose behind it. For example,
Dazai Shundai(1680-1747), a Confucianscholar,
points out:
Whateverteadilettantesdo is a copyof thepoorand
humble.It maybe thatthe richandnoblehavea rea-
sonto findpleasurein copyingthepoorandhumble.
Butwhywouldthosewho are,fromthe outset,poor
and humblefind pleasurein furthercopying the poor
and humble?27
However,despite such criticismregardingits so-
cial/political implications, the philosophical/
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381
religious foundationof this aesthetics did func-
tion as a powerful means of justifying life in
general for everyone, for the rich and powerful
as well as for the poor and humble. To this
philosophical dimension of this aesthetics we
shall turnnext.
IV. PHILOSOPHICAL/RELIGIOUS CONSIDERATIONS
In additionto the political dimension,therewas
also an importantphilosophicalunderpinningto
this aesthetics of imperfection and insuffi-
ciency. The indigenous religious tradition of
Japan, Shintoism, is noted for its affirmation
and celebrationof everything in this world, ex-
pressed in its natureworship.While not directly
giving rise to the aesthetics of imperfectionand
insufficiency, Shintoism provides the spiritual
foundation which encourages the appreciation
of this life and this world.
The attitudetowardaffirmationof this world
is further developed by Zen Buddhism, im-
ported from China toward the end of twelfth
century. It is Zen Buddhism that provides the
most direct philosophical foundation for the
aesthetics of imperfection and insufficiency.
Except for Sei Shonagon, whose life predates
the introductionof Zen Buddhismto Japan,the
advocatesof this aesthetics were either students
or practitionersof Zen Buddhism.
One of the most importantdoctrines of Zen
Buddhism is its thoroughgoing egalitarianism
concerning the Buddha nature (understood
roughlyas the ultimatereality),which makes no
value discriminationbetweenvariousobjectsand
activities. This view leads to the absolute affir-
mation of the facticity of everything existent.
This egalitarianview is expressedrepeatedlyby
Dogen (1200-1253), the founderof the Soto sect
of Zen Buddhism and perhapsone of the most
important figures in the history of Japanese
thought. He identifies Buddha nature with
grasses, trees, bushes, mountains,rivers,bricks,
tiles, chairs, and ceremonialbrushes,as well as
body, mind, delusion, enlightenment,birth, and
death.By far the most vivid exampleshe cites to
illustratethis omnipresenceof Buddhanatureare
"a donkey'sjaw,""a horse's mouth,""the sound
of breakingwind,"and "thesmell of excrement";
in short,those objectsand phenomenawhich are
commonly shunned, neglected, or depreciated
for being ignoble, vulgar,or unpleasant.28
382
Hindrance to realizing the Buddha natureof
everything whatsoever, including those unsa-
vory objects and phenomena,is our ordinaryex-
perience of the world, which is facilitated by
what Dogen calls "the burdenof self." Whether
the viewpoint be egocentric, ethnocentric,pres-
ent-minded, or anthropocentric, experiencing
the world from a particularcentristposition will
preventus from seeing into the reality of every-
thing, describable only as "thus-ness,""such-
ness," or "being-suchness."Until we "learn to
penetrate freely beyond these bounds,"that is,
bounds created by the burdenof self, we "have
not been liberated from the body and mind of
ordinarypeople."29
One of the bounds to be overcome in Zen en-
lightenment is our "natural"tendency to appre-
ciate the perfect, the opulent, and the gorgeous
while being disappointed and dissatisfied with
the opposite qualities. Our tendency to depreci-
ate the imperfect and the insufficient is based
upon our all-too-humanperspective;in terms of
ultimate reality,however,they are equally valu-
able for manifesting their own Buddha nature.
Hence,
Whenwe look at the moon and flowers,it is just
the moonandflowerswe shouldsee, not somedis-
tortedpicturecreatedto conformto a preconceived ocable fact of life rangedfrom resignation,find-
idea. Experiencespringas springand autumnas
autumn.Acceptboth the beautyand lonelinessof
both. ... Determinationto see all things as they really world, the Pure Land.32
are,freeof preconceived ideas,resultsin emergence
of truepractice.30
Shunning academic discourses, Zen thinkers
typically transmittheir world view to the popu-
lace through aesthetic means. Specifically, the
Zen commitment to thorough egalitarianismis
embodied in the aesthetic elevation of the mun-
dane and the ordinary,practicedin particularby
the tea ceremony and haiku. The former ele-
vates the so-called mundane activities such as
washing hands, boiling water, and drinkingtea
to an artistic height, while the lattertakes seem-
ingly vulgar objects, such as urination of a
horse, droppingsof a warbler,fleas, and flies, as
subject matters. The aesthetically worthwhile
objects and activities are not limited to what is
normally consideredto be noble and elegant.
Similarly, this Zen egalitarianism raises the
value of misshapenforms and impoverishedap-
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The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism
pearances,qualities which are normallynot ap-
preciated.The challenge to find an aesthetic ap-
peal in those things to which we do not normally
feel attractedis also an invitation to experience
the world from the Zen standpoint.
In one sense, this aesthetics of imperfection
overcompensatesfor the commonplacedevalua-
tion of imperfection by purging from the aes-
thetic spherethatwhich is well formed, opulent,
and gorgeous, creating an equally nonegalitar-
ian view on aestheticvalues. However,this over-
compensation underscores the presupposition
that the "natural"aesthetic tendency towardthe
perfect and the opulent is prevalentand deeply
entrenchedamong people.31
The Zen foundationfor the aesthetics of im-
perfection and insufficiency was not limited to
its metaphysical consideration; it also encom-
passed an existentialdimension.This aesthetici-
zation of what is normally considered disap-
pointing and difficult to accept facilitates
acceptanceof the ultimatelot in life: the univer-
sal condition of transience, a great equalizer.
One of the most importantthemes in Buddhism,
as in many world traditions, concerns how to
cope with the challenge of the transience of
everything existent, particularlyof human life.
Early Japaneseattemptsto cope with this irrev-
ing analogue and solace in the evanescent as-
pects of nature,to seeking salvationin the other
Zen Buddhism introducesa positive celebra-
tion of transience, as perhaps most eloquently
expressedby Kenki:
If man were never to fade away like the dews of
Adashino, never to vanish like the smoke over Tori-
beyama, but lingered on forever in the world, how
things would lose their power to move us! The most
precious thing in life is its uncertainty.33
This affirmation of transience receives an aes-
thetic supportby the penchantfor imperfection
and insufficiency. Many examples of imperfec-
tion are drawnfrom appreciatingthe aging ef-
fects on the object. Chipped or broken objects
evoke a history of being used, while faded,
rusted, or aged appearance of lacquer ware,
metalwork,and unpaintedarchitecturalinterior
suggest noble patina.34A garden with a wild,
neglected appearancealso conjuresup an image
Saito TheJapaneseAesthetics of Imperfectionand Insufficiency
of the passage of time. Instead of lamenting the
fact that the object no longer exhibits the origi-
nal, perfectly shaped,lustrouslycolored appear-
ance, the aesthetics of imperfectionelevates this
fall from the graceful perfection to an even
higher aesthetic plane by celebratingvicissitude
and perishability.
Appreciating chips and cracks of the tea
wares not due to aging but rather as a result
of the firing process also encouragesour accep-
tance of and submissionto our condition in life.
The art of pottery-makingconsists both of the
potter's manipulation of the material and of
the factors beyond the potter's control (such
as the precise temperatureof the fire, the exact
response of the clay and glazing to the particu-
lar fire, etc.). The resultant product often ex-
hibits unexpected colors, shape, and texture.
In one sense, pottery embodies the potter's par-
tial surrenderto the materialand process.35The
accidentalcracks and chips in the firing process
thus reminds us of the fact that one cannot
always manipulate and control events and
processes in life. Furthermore,by not discard-
ing the crackedtea bowl butratherby cherishing
such an object, this submission of one's ego
to the naturalprocess receives a positive aes-
thetic endorsement.
In this context, a problem arises concerning
the aesthetic value of those objects which are
designed to appeardefective. That is, is not the
aesthetic justification of transience and human
powerlessness over natural process possible
only when the signs for these areproducedwith-
out any human control? Indeed, some critics
adopt a puristposition regardingthis, question-
ing the value of those objects made to appear
impoverishedand defective. Yanagi, a contem-
porarycommentatorcited previously,for exam-
ple, regardsKoreanpeasants' bowls superiorto
those Japanesetea wares which are made by tea
connoisseursto emulate the former.The differ-
ence between the two, accordingto him, is "be-
tween things born and things made."36
However, I do not believe that this purist
predicamentis necessary for the objects with
imperfection to justify transience and human
surrenderto naturalprocess. Considerthe possi-
bility of distinguishing, within intentional de-
sign activity, contriveddesign and spontaneous
design. This distinction refers to the difference
in the makers' attitude. According to Zen aes-
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383
thetics, artists are successful in their endeavor
only when they overcome or transcendtheir im-
mediate intentions concerning the design (such
as to make a misshapen object). This is accom-
plished when they submittheir ego to the mate-
rials and let these materials take a lead in de-
signing or performing. Specifically, a master
artistlets a form emerge from the given clay, as-
sists trees and rocks to articulate their unique
characteristicsin a garden, listens to pines and
bamboos in composing a haiku aboutthem, and
enables a spontaneousharmonyto emerge from
the interactionwith tea ceremony guests.37The
product or activity executed in this manner,
thoughnot resultingfrom accidentsor processes
beyond humancontrol, is said to embody spon-
taneity and freedom. Hence, even when de-
signed to appear defective, it is possible for
cracked tea bowls to invoke the attitude of ac-
ceptance of the forces and situations beyond
human control. By celebrating the aesthetic
value of such objects, human submissionto and
eventual affirmation of life with all its contin-
gencies become aestheticized.
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
ManyJapaneseartisticactivitiesbothpresuppose
andencouragethe artists'listeningto and submit-
ting themselvesto the voice and dictateof the ma-
terialand subjectmatter,as well as affirmingthe
various elements of accidents and surprisesbe-
yond their control. The attitudetoward society,
nature,and life as well as artistic work encour-
aged as virtuousis to acknowledgeand acceptthe
given condition in toto, even including their
painful,difficult,or disappointingaspects,and to
appreciatewhat is given. I have triedto arguein
the precedingthatthe traditionalJapanesemeans
of nurturingthis attitudewas justifying the un-
palatablein life and society throughaestheticiz-
ing the imperfectand the insufficient.38
YURIKO SAITO
Division of LiberalArts
Rhode Island School of Design
2 College Street
Providence, Rhode Island 02903
1. Needless to say, the concepts of imperfection and in-
sufficiency are wholly dependentupon humanexpectations.
384
This point will be explored subsequently,particularlyin the
section on Zen Buddhism.
2. The first passage, not included in the English transla-
tion, is from Section 144 of Makurano S6shi (The Pillow
Book), ed. Ishida Joji(Tokyo: KadokawaShoten, 1984), my
translation and emphases added. The second passage is
taken from The Pillow Book of Sei Sh5nagon, trans. Ivan
Morris (Harmondsworth:Penguin Books, 1982), p. 51. For
furtherdiscussion of Sei Sh6nagon'saesthetic taste, I have
consulted Tanaka Hisao, Nihon Bi no Sekai (The Worldof
JapaneseBeauty),includedin Nihon Bungakuni OkeruBi no
K5z5 (The Structureof Beauty in Japanese Literature),ed.
KuriyamaRiichi (Tokyo: Ydsankaku,1982), pp. 371-372.
3. The Pillow Book, Morristranslation,p. 138.
4. For the Japaneseauthors'names, I will follow the cus-
tom of puttingthe first name last and the last name first, ex-
cept when citing their writings published in English. I will
also observe the Japanese custom by referringto classical
authorsby theirpersonalnames.Forexample,YoshidaKenk6
will hereafterbe Kenko.
5. Kenk6 Yoshida,Essays in Idleness: The Tsurezuregusa
of Kenk5,trans. Donald Keene (ColumbiaUniversity Press,
1967), p. 115.
6. Ibid., p. 70. Keene's translationhas "uniformity"in-
stead of "uniformityand completeness" at the end of this
passage. I added "completeness"here to capturethe entire
meaning of the original term: "kotono totonooritaru."
7. For example, in one garden,crackson variousstone ob-
jects such as water basins are left unrepairedwhile in an-
other garden the top of a stone lantern was intentionally
chipped. There is even an explicit instruction for garden
making which recommendsthat "if an old stone with moss
is used (for a lantern),place it withoutcleaning the surface"
and that "if it is damaged, it is fine, too." Cited by Mori
Osamu in Teien (Garden) (Tokyo: Kondo Shuppansha,
1984), my translation,pp. 135-136.
8. Sen no Riky5 in Namb6rokuo Yomu(Reading Nam-
b6roku),ed. KumakuraIsao (Kyoto: Tankosha,1989), p. 45.
Translationtaken from Toshihikoand Toyo Izutsu,The The-
ory of Beauty in the Classical Aesthetics of Japan (The
Hague:MartinusNijhoff Publishers, 1981), p. 146.
9. Sen no Rikya, pp. 343-344.
10. This incident is discussed in Kuwata Tadachika,
Chaki to Kaiseki (Tea Utensils and Tea CeremonyCooking)
(Tokyo: Kodansha, 1991), pp. 37-38, and in Minamoto
Toyomune,Nihon BijutsushiTankya(Essays in JapaneseArt
History), vol. 6, pp. 421-430.
11. Namb5rokuo Yomu,pp. 301. This incident is also dis-
cussed in Minamoto,pp. 425-426.
12. The quotation continues: "He will not die a normal
death."Indeed, Oribewas orderedto commit suicide during
a battle.Cited in Nambfrokuo Yomu,p. 305 (my translation).
13. I explored this design principleused in Japanesegar-
den making in "JapaneseGardens:The Art of Improving
Nature,"Chanoyu Quarterly(Summer, 1996): 41-61. The
principle of composition regarding haiku is discussed by
MakotoUeda in his Literaryand Art Theoriesin Japan(The
Press of WesternReserve University, 1967), pp. 145-172.
14. Cited by Koshiro Haga in "The Wabi Aesthetic
throughthe Ages," trans.and adaptedby MartinCollcutt, in
Tea in Japan: Essays on the History of Chanoyu,eds. Paul
Varley and Isao Kumakura(University of Hawaii Press,
1989), p. 196.
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The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism
15. See Marc Treib'sdiscussion of the contrastingfactors
in the interiorof a tea room in "The Dichotomies of Dwell-
ing: Edo/Tokyo,"in Tokyo:Form and Spirit, ed. Mildred
Friedman(Minneapolis: WalkerArt Center, 1986), p. 122.
See also Izutsu'sdiscussion on this matterin The Theoryof
Beauty,p. 57.
16. Sen no RikyOin Izutsu,The Theoryof Beauty,p. 146,
emphases added. The passage continues: "Juko-although
it was a time when every tea utensil to be used in tea parties
was supposed to be of the taste of sumptuousexquisite-
ness-would presentthe tea-bowl of ido which he had cher-
ished, avoiding a tea-bowl of tenmoku,wrappingthe ido in
a tea-bowl-pouch giving it the authenticityof a tenmoku."
Ido bowls are plain-looking bowls used by Koreanpeasants
while tenmokubowls are opulent-looking wares imported
from China.
17. Kenk6, pp. 117-118. The preference for things ob-
scured to things exposed is also expressed by a twentieth-
centurywriter,TanizakiJun'ichiro,in his In Praise of Shad-
ows, trans. Thomas J. Harperand EdwardG. Seidensticker
(New Haven:Leete's Island Books, 1977), pp. 1-17.
18. Soetsu Yanagi, The UnknownCraftsman:A Japanese
Insight into Beauty, adapted by Bernard Leach (Tokyo:
KodanshaInternational,1982), p. 121.
19. Kenk6,p. 115, emphases added.
20. Cited by Hiroshi Minami in Psychology of the Japa-
nese People, trans. Albert R. Ikoma (University of Toronto
Press, 1971), p. 91, emphases added.
21. For Kenko's biographicalinformation, in particular
concerning his political connections, see pp. 128-135 of
Michele Marra'sThe Aesthetics of Discontent: Politics and
Reclusion in Medieval Japanese Literature(University of
Hawaii Press, 1991).
22. A contemporaryarchitecturalcritic points out that
this appreciationof impoverishmentwhich presupposesaf-
fluence underliesnot only the medievalaesthetics of imper-
fection but also the contemporary architecture of Tadao
And6. And6's residential architecture,which is character-
ized by rawconcrete,is enjoyedby its residentsfor the cold-
ness during winter and the leaking roof precisely because
they can affordmore comfort. KumaKengo, Jatakuron(Es-
says on Ten Types of Dwelling) (Tokyo: Toso Shuppan,
1989), pp. 119-127. It seems to me that the contemporary
Americancraze over the "grunge"look in clothing also pre-
supposes affluence.
23. Forthis incident,see TheodoreM. Ludwig's"Chanoyu
and Momoyama: Conflict and Transformationin Riky5's
Art" included in Tea in Japan, eds. Varley and Kumakura.
This work also contains a color photographof the modem
replica of Hideyoshi's golden tea room.
24. This continuousmovementtowardemulatingimpov-
erishment in a tea hut is recorded in Sen no Rikyui,
Namboroku,pp. 147-148.
25. For the symbolic expressions of social egalitarianism
in the tea ceremony, see Izutsu, pp. 57-59. Similarly, one
contemporarycritic points out, "the tea ceremonywas born
out of astute political acumen and economic sensitivity
among the wealthy merchants from Sakai. Paradoxically,
precisely because of their wealth, they tended towardwabi
tea. The tea hut, 'the urbanmountainhut' was a thatchedhut
in the middle of a palace." KumakuraIsao, Chanoyu no
Rekishi(TheHistory of TeaCeremony)(Tokyo: Asahi Shin-
bunsha, 1991), p. 146, my translation.We should also note
Saito TheJapaneseAesthetics of Imperfectionand Insufficiency
the way in which the tea ceremony was used as a political
vehicle in the extraordinarytea partyhosted by Hideyoshi in
1587 held in the forest of Kitano. It was the largesttea party
in which literally anyone, whether military attendants,
townspeople, or farmers, was invited. For details of this
gathering,see IsaoKumakura,"Senno RikyTi"in TeainJapan.
26. Ii Naosuke, Sadc5no seid5 no tasuke to narubeki o
agetsuraerubun (1846), cited by Minami, p. 88.
27. Dazai Shundai, Dokugo (Solitary Words,1816), cited
by Minami, p. 90. I changed the translationof the last two
sentences to be more faithful to the original.The translation
reads: "The rich and noble, however,must have a reason to
find pleasure in copying the poor and humble. Why should
those who are, from the outset, poor and humble further
copy the poor and humble and make fun of them?"
28. The specific examples of a donkey'sjaw and a horse's
mouth come from the chapteron Bussh6 (Buddha Nature),
the soundof breakingwind and the smell of excrementfrom
the chapter on Gy6butsu ligi (The Dignified Activities of
PracticingBuddha)from Shobogenz5:TheEye and Treasury
of the True Lawtby Dogen Zenji, trans. Kosen Nishiyama
(Tokyo: NakayamaShob6, 1986).
29. The notion of "burdenof self" is explored by D6gen
in the Chapterof Genj6k6an (Issues at Hand) and the no-
tions of bounds and liberation in the chapterof Sansuikyo
(Scriptureof Mountains and Waters),both taken from the
Thomas Cleary translation, Sh5b5genz&:Zen Essays by
Dogen (University of Hawaii Press, 1986).
30. Fromthe chapteron YuibutsuYobutsu(only a Buddha
can transmitto a Buddha)in Shobogenz5,Nishiyama trans-
lation.
31. The Zen emphasis on the aestheticvalue of thatwhich
is not normally appreciated still pervades contemporary
writings on this issue. Consider,for example, the discussion
of the Buddhistbeautyof imperfectionby YanagiSoetsu. He
claims thatthe beautyof the tea ceremony"cannotlie either
in the perfect or the imperfect,but must lie in a realmwhere
such distinctions have ceased to exist, where the imperfect
is identified with the perfect." However,in defining such a
beauty as "irregular,"he fails to explain why transcending
both regularand irregularor perfect and imperfectmust al-
ways result in the irregular.Yanagi,p. 121.
32. I explored the manner in which the Japanese tradi-
tionally sought solace for their mortality in the evanescent
aspect of naturein "The JapaneseAppreciationof Nature,"
TheBritishJournalof Aesthetics25 (1985): 239-251, and in
"The JapaneseLove of Nature:a Paradox,"Landscape 31
(1991): 1-8.
33. Kenko,p. 7. Michele Marraexplains how aestheticiz-
ing transiencecarrieda personalmeaning to Kenko,because
his own life was greatly affected by the vicissitude of the po-
litical situationof his time. See his Aestheticsof Discontent,
chap. 6.
34. Izutsu claims that the aesthetics of imperfection de-
veloped in the tea ceremonyaccountsfor the Japanesefasci-
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385
nationwith things such as "aweatheredrock, a weatherworn
and grainy piece of wood, a piece of old multi-coloredbro-
cade with its colors now faded and subdued,an ancientland-
marknow totally deserted soon to be effaced and go irrevo-
cably into naught,etc." (Izutsu, p. 52). It is also recordedthat
Rikyiipreferredshort-livedflowers to long-lived flowers for
decoration in a tea room. Kumakura,Chanoyuno Rekishi,
p. 230.
35. This aspect of pottery making is explored in a dia-
logue between the fifteenth generationof the Raku Family
(a noted pottery-makingfamily in Kyoto) and ShifichiKat6,
an artcritic,recordedin a film entitledJapanSpiritand Form:
the Cosmos in the Hand, directed by Yuichi Funakoshi,
NHK, 1989.
36. Yanagi,p. 125.
37. One of the most importantdesign principlesfor mak-
ing a Japanese garden has traditionally been the rule of
"Kowanni Shitagau,"satisfying the requestof the objects.
This means that the gardenmakerarrangesrocks or prunes
trees in such a way as to articulateand enhance the unique
characteristicsof individualobjects. In composing a haiku,
Master Basho (1644-1694) claims that "when we observe
calmly, we discover that all things have their fulfillment";
hence, we must "learnfrom a pine things about a pine, and
from a bamboo things about a bamboo."Cited by Makoto
Ueda in "Bash6and the Poetics of Haiku,"The Journal of
Aestheticsand Art Criticism21 (1963): 424. With respect to
creating a harmonious atmosphere in the tea ceremony,
Rikyii repeatedly stresses the importance of letting such a
harmony between the host and the guests emerge sponta-
neously withoutforcing to create it (Namborokuo Yomu,pp.
21, 256, and 350).
38. My discussion suggests at least two areas of compar-
ative study for furtherinquiry.One is a comparisonbetween
this Japaneseaesthetics and the eighteenth-centuryBritish
cult of the picturesque.There are severalpoints of similarity
between the two: the celebrationof obscurity,agedness, ir-
regularity;the creationof an aesthetic value throughicono-
clastic acts (as in partiallydestroyingthe perfect facade of a
Palladianedifice to make it picturesque,describedby Wil-
liam Gilpin); the emphasis on the stimulationto the imagi-
nation through association of ideas; fascination with the
passage of time as exemplified by the picturesquecult of
ruins;and the wealth and social privilegeenjoyedby the ad-
vocates of the picturesque.
Another comparisoncan be made between the Japanese
means of justifying every aspect of one's life through aes-
theticization (particularly of those aspects which are dif-
ficult to accept) and FriedrichNietzsche's aesthetic justi-
fication of life. He develops a way of coping with life's
contingencies by saying "yes"to everything, therebycreat-
ing an artworkout of one's life as an organicwhole in which
nothing can be missing and everythinghas to be exactly the
way it is. Both proposea total affirmationof whatexists and
happensthroughaesthetic means.