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The intraplate Changbaishan volcanic field (China/North Korea): A review on

eruptive history, magma genesis, geodynamic significance, recent dynamics and
potential hazards
Article in Earth-Science Reviews · July 2018
DOI: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.07.011

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The intraplate Changbaishan volcanic field (China/North Korea): A review T on

eruptive history, magma genesis, geodynamic significance, recent dynamics
and potential hazards
a,c a,b,c,d, a e,f a a
Maoliang Zhang , Zhengfu Guo , Jiaqi Liu , Guoming Liu , Lihong Zhang , Ming Lei ,
a a g g,h
Wenbin Zhao , Lin Ma , Vincenzo Sepe , Guido Ventura
a Key Laboratory of Cenozoic Geology and Environment, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
b CAS Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Beijing 100044, China
cInstitutions of Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
d University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
e Earthquake Administration of Jilin Province, Changchun 130022, China
f Changbaishan Volcano Observatory, Antu 133613, China
g Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Roma 00143, Italy
h Istituto per l'Ambiente Marino Costiero, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Napoli 80133, Italy

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The geodynamic significance of continental volcanoes located far from the plate boundaries remains highly
Changbaishan volcanoes controversial as exemplified by contrasting models that favor either a deep mantle plume rooted from the base of
Continental intraplate volcanism the mantle or, alternatively, the shallower subduction or lithospheric-related processes. The Changbaishan (also
Magma origin and evolution referred to as Paektusan or Baekdusan) volcanic field (CHVF), located in the interior of eastern Eurasian con-
Deep subduction of the Pacific slab
tinent, provides a good opportunity to constrain the magma origin and geodynamic mechanism governing
Big mantle wedge
continental intraplate volcanism. Here, we review the volcanic geology, eruptive history, geochemical data on
Volcanic hazards
volcanic rocks and released gases and geophysical observations of the Changbaishan volcanoes with the aim to
(a) reconstruct temporal and spatial evolution of eruptive activities, (b) identify source of the primary magmas,
(c) delineate magma evolution in the crust, (d) highlight geodynamic significance of the CHVF volcanism, (e)
characterize crustal magmatic structure, and (f) analyze recent dynamics with a focus on the 2002–2005 unrest
episode at Tianchi caldera, the only active volcano in the area (last eruption in 1903 CE).
The eruptive activities of the Changbaishan volcanoes can be divided into three main stages: (1) central vent
and fissure eruptions of basaltic magmas started approximately in Pliocene and culminated in Early Pleistocene
(ca. 5–1 Ma), forming a shield-like lava plateau; (2) multi-stage eruptions of voluminous silicic (and minor
intermediate) magmas constructed cones of the polygenetic volcanoes (e.g., Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe)
between Late Pliocene and Pleistocene (3.14–0.01 Ma); and (3) explosive silicic eruptions [e.g., the Millennium
eruption (ME) in 946 CE] during Holocene dominated the Tianchi volcano and led to the formation of its summit
caldera. Small-scale eruptions of basaltic magmas from monogenetic scoria cones (and minor fissures) were
coeval with the Tianchi cone-construction stage (ca. 1–0.01 Ma). The elemental and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic
characteristics of the Changbaishan basalts indicate an enriched, heterogeneous mantle source with components
from depleted mantle (DM), enriched mantle 1 (EM1) and subduction-related materials (e.g., re-cycled oceanic
crust and sediments). The interaction between the DM-like peridotite and carbonatite melts released by subducted
oceanic slab in the mantle transition zone (MTZ) led to the formation of carbonated peridotite characterized by low
26
δ Mg values. By contrast, origin of the EM1-like components remains highly debated. The alkaline basalts and
intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks from the polygenetic volcanoes constitute an integrated spectrum of magma
composition controlled by closed system fractionation according to their element co-variations and uniform Sr-Nd-
Pb isotopic compositions. Subordinate mingling between trachyte and comendite has been reported only for the
ME at Tianchi caldera.
The occurrence of a big mantle wedge (BMW) with a continuous stagnant Pacific slab in the MTZ is re-
sponsible for origin of the Changbaishan volcanoes. On the basis of subduction dynamics of the Pacific plate, we
present a Late Cenozoic geodynamic framework of NE Asia, which can account for formation of the present-day

Corresponding author at: No. 19, Beitucheng Western Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, China. E-
mail address: zfguo@mail.iggcas.ac.cn (Z. Guo).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.07.011
Received 19 May 2018; Received in revised form 12 July 2018; Accepted 23 July 2018
Available online 29 July 2018
0012-8252/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Zhang et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

BMW system via: (a) shallow-angle subduction (55–25 Ma), (b) slab rollback and sinking into the MTZ together
with trench retreat (25–15 Ma), and (c) slab bottoming, thickening and flattening in the MTZ (15–0 Ma). Constraints
from reconstructed plate motion history, numerical simulation and present-day geophysical ob-servation of the
BMW lend support to our geodynamic model, which reconciles well with the Izanagi slab break-off, development of
the Japan Sea and Late Cenozoic continental intraplate volcanism in NE China. In response to the Rayleigh-
Taylor instability, a MTZ-derived plume incorporating fragments of carbonated peridotite, EM1-like components
and the Pacific slab-derived materials ascended and experienced decompression partial melting at shallow depths
to feed the Changbaishan volcanism. From the perspective of magma origin and geodynamic mechanism, the
Changbaishan volcanoes can shed light on the potential relationships between origin of con-tinental intraplate
volcanism and deep subduction of oceanic lithosphere.
The spatial distribution of the Changbaishan volcanoes shows that the magmas ascended along a NW-SE
trending, strike-slip fault oriented perpendicularly to the major faults delimiting the Songliao Basin, NE China. This
interpretation is consistent with the 2009–2013 epicenters of tectonic earthquakes, also suggesting a NW-SE
trending, buried and seismically active deep fault in the crust. Geophysical and petrological constraints indicate the
presence of magma reservoirs at crustal depth beneath the active Tianchi volcano, which are likely to have high
thermal state and act as the source of heat and material for shallow hydrothermal system. In consideration of
magma origin from the MTZ-derived plume, the volatile outgassing from the Tianchi volcano associated with deep
subduction of the Pacific plate represents an important mechanism for liberating volatile elements (especially
carbon) from Earth's interior to the exosphere. Tianchi caldera suffered an unrest episode between 2002 and
2005, as evidenced by increased shallow seismicity, surface uplift and changes in chemical and iso-topic
composition of the hydrothermal gases. Such volcanic unrest was triggered by pressurization of a 2–6 km depth
magma reservoir, from which magmatic volatiles were released into shallow hydrothermal system. Tianchi caldera
shows different types of hazards related to volcanic, tectonic, geomorphological and hydro-logical processes.
Further monitoring and additional volcanological data, especially those on eruptive dynamics of the past eruptions,
should be collected to better constrain the potential hazards of future eruptions and to improve early warning
management.

1. Introduction
Active volcanoes with complex eruptive history and a wide spec-
trum of magma compositions can provide important insights into how
volcanoes work from different aspects, such as magma evolution and
eruptive dynamics (Cashman and Sparks, 2013; Cole et al., 2014;
Sheldrake et al., 2016; Sparks and Cashman, 2017). Such information,
together with data from volcanic monitoring networks, is of funda-mental
importance for evaluation of volcanic hazards and correctly interpreting
volcanic unrest episodes. Changbaishan volcanic field (CHVF), straddling
the border between China and North Korea (Fig. 1), represents the largest
active volcanic system in continental intraplate

Fig. 1. Schematic map showing distribution of polygenetic volcanoes (i.e., Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe) and representative monogenetic volcanoes (scoria
o o o o
cone) in the CHVF (127 00’ − 129 00’E, 41 20’ − 42 40’N). Digital topography data are originally from the new ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model (GDEM v2)
database. The thick solid white line represents border between China and North Korea. The inset shows locations of the CHVF and its adjacent countries.

20
M. Zhang et al. setting of NE Asia. It mainly consists of three polygenetic volcanoes
(i.e., Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe; Liu et al., 2015a) with ba-
saltic to silicic volcanic rock suites and over 200 monogenetic
volcanoes dominated by basaltic eruptive products (Jin and Zhang,
1994; Liu and Xiang, 1997). Volcanic eruptions of the CHVF volcanoes
started ap-proximately in Pliocene (Wei et al., 2013) and occurred
intermittently until historical time (Xu et al., 2013; Oppenheimer et al.,
2017; Sun et al., 2017; Hakozaki et al., 2018). In particular, the Tianchi
(also known as Paektu and Baekdu) volcano has been widely
recognized as an active volcano of global significance due to its
Millennium eruption (ME, VEI ≈ 7), which occurred about 1000 years
ago (Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Xu et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2014a;
Sigl et al., 2015). This eruption is comparable in explosive magnitude
to the 1815 CE (Common Era) Tambora eruption (McLean et al.,
2016) and represents one of the most violent eruptions during the past
2000 years on the Earth (Oppenheimer, 2003, 2011).
From a geodynamic point of view, the CHVF is ca. 1400 km west of the
Japan Trench (Fig. 2a), where the Pacific plate subducts beneath eastern
Eurasian continent (including the Eurasian, Amurian and Okhotsk plates;
Bird, 2003) and becomes horizontally stagnant in mantle transition zone
(MTZ; Fig. 2b). It is noted that western edge of the stagnant Pacific slab
beneath NE China may extend to the west of 120°E longitude ( Fig. 2a;
Huang and Zhao, 2006; Zhao and Tian, 2013; Liu et al., 2017b), apparently
covering the location of the Changbaishan volcanoes (Zhao et al., 2009;
Tang et al., 2014). The relatively unusual geodynamic setting of the CHVF
makes it an ideal laboratory for un-derstanding the interplays between
deeply subducted slab and con-tinental intraplate volcanism. Unlike other
Late Cenozoic volcanoes above the stagnant Pacific slab, where only
basaltic magmas were erupted (Chen et al., 2007; Yan and Zhao, 2008;
Zou et al., 2008), the
21
M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
CHVF are characterized by a wide spectrum of magma compositions
ranging from alkaline and sub-alkaline basalts to trachytes and rhyo-
lites. These features further highlight the need to better analyze the
CHVF magmas with the aim to (a) understand the cause of continental
intraplate volcanism, (b) identify characteristics of the mantle source,
and (c) recognize the magma evolution processes.
Many studies aimed at deciphering Changbaishan volcanoes from the
perspective of magma origin (e.g., Fan et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2007; Zou
et al., 2008; Kuritani et al., 2009, 2011; Zhang et al., 2015a; Choi et al.,
2017), eruptive history (e.g., Yin et al., 2012; Wei et al., 2013; Sun et al.,
2014b, 2015, 2017; Yang et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2016; Ramos et al.,
2016), climatic impact (e.g., Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Guo et al., 2002;
Xu et al., 2013; Iacovino et al., 2016) and crust-mantle structure (e.g.,
Hetland et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2004, 2009; Tang et al., 2014; Ri et al.,
2016; Kim et al., 2017) have been conducted since the 1980s, with the
most recent studies especially benefited from cooperation between
international scientific organizations (e.g., Liu et al., 2015a; Hammond,
2016; Iacovino et al., 2016; Ramos et al., 2016). However, there are still
several open questions on the Chang-baishan volcanism, such as why
Changbaishan is the unique Late Cenozoic volcanic field in NE China that
is characterized by volcanic rock suites ranging in composition from
basaltic to silicic magmas (i.e., transition from effusive basaltic eruptions to
explosive silicic erup-tions). As a highly populated region and tourist resort,
the Tianchi volcano has drawn growing attention from its neighboring
countries and volcanologists worldwide (Stone, 2010, 2011, 2013; Witze,
2016), partly as a result of the volcanic unrest between 2002 and 2005 (Xu
et al., 2012a). In addition, the underground nuclear explosions (UNEs; only
ca. 140 km away from the Tianchi volcano; Zhao et al., 2015; Hong et al.,
2016; Liu et al., 2017a) conducted by North Korea since 2006
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic map showing location of the
CHVF within a continental intraplate setting. Digital
topography data are originally from National
Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (website: https://maps.
ngdc.noaa.gov/viewers/wcs-client/). The red solid
lines with red triangles represent oceanic trenches
where the Pacific and Philippine Sea (PHS) plates
subduct beneath the Eurasian plate. The black da-
shed lines denote depth contours of the present
upper boundary of the subducting Pacific slab esti-
mated from seismicity (Liu et al., 2017b). The da-
shed red line shows the western edge of stagnant
Pacific slab in the MTZ beneath East Asia estimated
from the tomographic model (Wei et al., 2012). The
dashed blue line denotes the North-South gravity
lineament (NSGL; Liu et al., 2017b). (b) High-re-
solution P wave model showing the big mantle wedge
(BMW) beneath NE Asia (modified from Huang and
Zhao, 2006). Location of the seismic to-mography
cross-section is denoted by the horizontal solid black
line in Fig. 2a. The white dots denote earthquakes
that occurred within a 50-km width of the profile
(Huang and Zhao, 2006). (For inter-pretation of the
references to color in this figure le-gend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
have also aroused concern on the question of whether dynamic stresses
generated by the UNEs are large enough to destabilize magma chamber
beneath Tianchi volcano (Hong et al., 2016), which casts a shadow on its
potential future eruption that may cause immeasurable hazards.
The aim of this review is to clarify the facts, theories and con-
troversies with respect to some important scientific issues of the
Changbaishan volcanoes based on an up-to-date review of volcanolo-
gical, geochronological, geochemical and geophysical studies. A geo-
dynamic model involving deep subduction of the Pacific slab is pro-
posed to account for development of the CHVF in the interior of
eastern Eurasian continent. The results represent a beneficial
contribution to the models on origin of the continental intraplate
volcanism. Additionally, several open questions will be put forward for
future re-search with the aim of achieving a better understanding on
how the Changbaishan volcanoes work.
2. Geological and geophysical background
Situated within central part between the Pacific subduction zone
and inland of the Eurasian continent, the CHVF holds the key to un-
derstanding evolution of regional tectono-magmatism that is poten-
tially related with deep subduction of the Pacific plate (Fig. 2a). In this
section, we briefly review regional geology, tectonic evolution and
geophysical characteristics of NE China, in order to (a) clarify the
geological and geophysical background and (b) highlight the role of the
Changbaishan volcanoes in deciphering the geodynamic mechanism
that accounts for Late Cenozoic continental intraplate volcanism in NE
China.
2.1. Regional geology and tectonic evolution
NE China comprises the easternmost segment of the central Asian
orogenic belt (CAOB) and northern part of the North China craton (NCC),
which resulted from the Paleozoic to Mesozoic amalgamation of several
micro-continental blocks along suture zones or faults (Fig. 3a; Wu et al.,
2002; Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Wilde, 2015; Liu et al., 2017c). As shown in
Fig. 3b, the CAOB in NE China could be divided, from west to east, into the
Erguna, Xing'an, Songliao-Xilinhot and Jiamusi-Khanka blocks (Fig. 3b), as
well as the E-W-elongated Liaoyuan terrane (i.e., the
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic map showing the eastern Eurasian continent. Abbreviations: CAOB, central Asian orogenic belt; NCC, North China craton; SC, Siberian craton;
TC, Tarim craton. (b) Schematic map showing tectonics and distribution of Cenozoic intraplate basalts in NE China (modified from Liu et al., 2001). Abbreviations:
NSGL, North-South gravity lineament; EB, Erguna block; XB, Xing'an block; SXB, Songliao-Xilinhot block; JB, Jiamusi block; KB, Khanka block; LT, Liaoyuan terrane.
Faults and/or sutures are labeled as follows (Zhou and Wilde, 2013): F1, Xinlin-Xiguitu fault; F2, Hegenshan-Heihe fault; F3, Solonker-Xar Moron-Changchun-Yanji
suture; F4, Chifeng-Kaiyuan fault; F5, Yitong-Yilan fault; F6, Jiamusi fault; F7, Dunhua-Mishan fault; F8, Primoria fault.
22
M. Zhang et al.
2.2. Crust-mantle structure
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
southernmost part of the CAOB) accreted to the NCC in Early Paleozoic
(Wu et al., 2011; Wilde, 2015). Since Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous,
tectonic evolution of NE China and adjacent region has been dominated by
successive subduction of the Izanagi and Pacific plates, as recorded by the
Jurassic-Cretaceous accretionary complexes along eastern margin of the
Eurasian continent (Wu et al., 2007) and development of the Japan
Sea/East Sea during Late Cenozoic (Tatsumi et al., 1989, 1990). Late
Mesozoic and Cenozoic continental rifting systems in NE China (e.g., the
Yitong-Yilan and Fushun-Mishan faults; Fig. 3b) are suggested to be
related with subduction of the Izanagi and Pacific plates (Ma and Wu, 1987;
Northrup et al., 1995; Ren et al., 2002; Zhu et al., 2010; Gu et al., 2017).
Previous studies have recognized two types of basement rocks in NE
China (Liu et al., 2017c): (a) Precambrian granitoids and metamorphic
rocks (Pei et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2009, 2011), and (b) juvenile crustal
crystalline rocks (e.g., Paleozoic to Mesozoic granitoids beneath the
Songliao Basin; Wu et al., 2001, 2002, 2011). These basement rocks are
overlain by sedimentary sequences (e.g., limestone and clastic sedi-ments;
Liu et al., 2017c). Accompanied by subduction of the Izanagi and Pacific
plates, Late Mesozoic (e.g., Fan et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2006a; Xu, 2014;
Pang et al., 2015; Hong et al., 2017) and Cenozoic (Fig. 3b; e.g., Fan and
Hooper, 1991; Liu et al., 2001; Deng et al., 2004; Zou et al., 2008; Liu et
al., 2016) volcanism prevailed in NE China and yielded extensively
distributed volcanic rocks. In particular, the CHVF is the largest volcanic
field in terms of magma eruption volume among all the Quaternary volcanic
fields in China (Fan et al., 2007). The total eruptive volume of the CHVF
3 3 3
volcanoes ranges between 1.7 × 10 and 5.8 × 10 km , including 1.2–4.8
3 3 4
× 10 km of basalts forming the lava plateau with a total area of ~1.2 × 10
2 3 3
km and thickness of 100–400 m, and 0.5–1 × 10 km of intermediate to
3 2
silicic magmas forming volcanic cones with a total area of ~2 × 10 km
and height of 800–1500 m. In particular, the ME ejected approximately 24 ±
3
5 km dense rock equivalent of material emplaced in the form of ash,
pumice and pyroclastic flows (Horn and Schmincke, 2000). The CHVF area
covered by volcanic products is comparable to or even larger than the
Cenozoic intraplate volcanic fields in Europe, such as those in the Massif
3 2
Central (> 8 × 10 km ; Lustrino and Wilson, 2007), Rhenish Massif (~1.3 ×
4 2 3 2
10 km ; Lustrino and Wilson, 2007), and Bohemian Massif (> 2 × 10 km ;
Dostal et al., 2017).
The present-day crust-mantle structure beneath NE China and ad-
jacent region is characterized by a mantle wedge (the so-called big mantle
wedge, BMW; Zhao et al., 2007), located above the stagnant Pacific slab in Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
the MTZ (Fig. 2b). Owing to rapid development of in-ternational seismic
networks and portable seismic array observation, high-resolution images of increasing trend from the Songliao Basin (80–120 km; Ma, 1987;
crust-mantle structure and the BMW are available (e.g., Fukao et al., 1992, Zhang et al., 2014) to its surrounding orogenic belts (120–160 km;
2009; Zhao et al., 2007, 2009; Zhao and Tian, 2013; Tang et al., 2014; Liu Zhang et al., 2014). In the mantle, low seismic velocity anomalies have
et al., 2017b). These geophysical observations have contributed to been imaged in the BMW (e.g., Zhao et al., 2004; Huang and Zhao,
understand the significant role of the Pacific subduction dynamics on the 2006; Takeuchi et al., 2014; Lei et al., 2013), which reach the 410 km
surface tectonics (Ren et al., 2002; Gu et al., 2017), deep earthquakes depth discontinuity beneath the CHVF (Zhao et al., 2009; Takeuchi et
(Zhao et al., 2011; Zhao and Tian, 2013; Tian et al., 2016b; Liu et al., al., 2014; Tian et al., 2016b). Moreover, low-velocity–high-conductivity
2017b), and the development of continental intraplate volcanism in NE
zones (LV–HCZs) at crustal depths beneath some active volcanoes
China (Kuritani et al., 2011; Xu, 2014; Zhang and Guo, 2016; Wang et al.,
[e.g., Tianchi (Ri et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2017) and Wudalianchi (Li et
2017). After slab bending at approximately 130°E longitude (Liu and Zhao,
al., 2016b)] suggest the presence of partially molten zones that could
2016), the Pacific plate becomes horizontal and extends to the west over a
be interpreted as magma reservoirs.
distance of 800 to 1000 km along the 660 km depth discontinuity in the
MTZ beneath NE China (Fig. 2b; Zhao et al., 2004; Huang and Zhao, 2006;
3. Volcanic geology
Zhao and Tian, 2013). According to the younging trend in slab age from the
Japan Trench to its western leading edge, Liu et al. (2017b) proposed that
Two types of central vent volcanoes could be recognized in the
the stagnant slab in the MTZ consists of a section of the Pacific plate that
CHVF, which are (1) polygenetic volcano characterized by diverse
started to subduct in Early Cenozoic (ca. 60–50 Ma; Müller et al., 2008;
magma compositions and complex eruptive history (including caldera-
Seton et al., 2015). Moreover, the occurrence of a gap in the stagnant
forming eruptions), and (2) basaltic monogenetic volcano with small
Pacific slab with associated mantle convection or not re-mains highly
eruptive volumes and short eruptive history (Németh and Kereszturi,
debated, as suggested by the contrasting geophysical ob-servations
2015; Smith and Németh, 2017). Except for central vent volcanoes,
favoring a continuous stagnant slab (e.g., Huang and Zhao, 2006; Zhao et
al., 2009; Chen et al., 2017a; Liu et al., 2017b; Lei et al., 2018) or a window fissure eruptions of basaltic magmas also occurred in the CHVF (Wei
in the stagnant slab (Tang et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015b; Guo et al., 2016). et al., 2013), such as the lava flows along the Tumen River and Heishi
River (Fig. 5).

As shown in Fig. 4a, crustal thickness of NE China gradually in-
creases from central part of the Songliao Basin (< 30 km; He et al.,
2014; Zhang et al., 2014) to its surrounding orogenic belts (> 40 km;
Zhang et al., 2014), which can be best exemplified by seismic profile
across the NSGL (Fig. 4b and c). Similar to the spatial variations in
Moho depth, lithospheric thickness of NE China also exhibits an
3.1. Polygenetic volcanoes
Polygenetic volcanoes in the CHVF traditionally refer to Wangtian'e
volcano in China, Namphothe volcano in North Korea, and Tianchi volcano
that straddles the border between China and North Korea (Fig. 5; Liu et al.,
2015a). Moreover, small-scale volcanoes (e.g., Tu-dingzi, Xiaobaishan and
Huangfeng; Fig. 5) with eruptions of inter-mediate to silicic magmas are
also suggested to exist in the CHVF (Wei, 2014; Qian et al., 2016; Tang et
al., 2017). Rising approximately 1500–2000 m above surface of the Gaima
Plateau (Fig. 1), the Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe volcanoes are
composed of an earlier ba-saltic lava plateau, a younger trachytic to
rhyolitic volcanic cone, and a summit caldera (Wei, 2014; Liu et al., 2015a;
Qian et al., 2016; Tang

Fig. 4. (a) Spatial variations in crustal thickness of NE China (He and Santosh, 2016). Abbreviations: NSGL, North-South gravity lineament; EM, Erguna Massif; JMM,
Jiamusi Massif. The black triangles denote seismic stations or valid data points. The white dotted line shows location of lithospheric seismic cross-section in Fig. 4b and
c. (b) Migrated S receiver function (SRF) image of the Moho transect across NE China from west to east ( Zhang et al., 2014). (c) P receiver function image along the
same transect as in Fig. 4b (Zhang et al., 2013). Black dots represent Moho depths from SRFs automatically picked from the largest positive amplitudes within a 20–50
km depth range beneath each surface location.

23
M. Zhang et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

Fig. 5. Simplified map showing distribution of Late Cenozoic volcanic rocks in the CHVF (modified from Qian et al., 2014). NW-SE trending and NE-SW trending faults
are from Liu et al. (2004) and Wei (2014). Typical localities of basalt are labeled as follows: A, Yaoshui Spring; B, Huangsongpu; C, Flying Fox hotel; D, Heishi River; E,
Jinjiang Bridge; F, Ma'anshan; G, 18th-valley. Color legends are as follows: 1, Pre-shield basalts (N 1); 2, Shield-forming basalts (N2-Qp1); 3, Post-shield basalts (Qp 2–3);
4, Intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks (primarily trachyte with minor trachyandesite; N 2-Qp1); 5, Intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks (primarily trachyte with minor
trachyandesite; Qp2–3); 6, Rhyolite (N2-Qp1); 7, Rhyolite (Qp3-Qh); 8, Pyroclastic deposits (primarily trachytic and rhyolitic in composition with minor mafic pyroclasts;
Qh) erupted by caldera-forming eruptions of Tianchi volcano. Blank area represents country rocks or sediments.

et al., 2017). Taking Tianchi volcano as an example, the digital terrain
map (Fig. 6a) and the schematic anatomy (Fig. 6b) exhibit the typical
architecture and eruptive phases of a polygenetic (or composite) vol-
cano, including different types of lava flows and widespread pyroclasts
[i.e., pyroclastic fall deposits and pyroclastic density current (PDC)
deposits].
Basaltic magmas with low viscosity overflowed 50–60 km from
Tianchi volcano and formed a shield-like lava plateau. As observed in
some deeply eroded river gorges (Fig. 7a), the basaltic lava flows
usually have columnar jointing and unconformably overlie gravel layers
or crustal bedrocks (not shown; Wang et al., 2013). By contrast, silicic
lava flows with high viscosity were piled up within a few kilo-meters to
form the Tianchi volcanic cone (Fig. 6), such as the trachyte lava flows
observed in the Changbai Valley (Fig. 7b). The volcanic
explosivity increased with increasing magma viscosity at Tianchi vol-
cano, resulting in a transition from effusive to explosive activity as
recorded by the voluminous pyroclastic rocks and the summit caldera
(Fig. 7c and d). The Tianchi caldera resulted from several caldera-
forming eruptions (Sun et al., 2017), of which the ME is widely invoked
to account for its final formation (e.g., Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Zou
et al., 2010). The Qixiangzhan Formation (25–10 ka; Wang et al.,
2001; Singer et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2014), extending from the
Tianwen Summit to its hillside (Fig. 7c), is composed of comenditic
lava (rhyolite and obsidian) and pyroclasts (Wei et al., 2013). Previous
studies clas-sified the Qixiangzhan Formation either as high-viscosity
comenditic lava flow related with effusive eruption (Liu et al., 2007b),
or as clas-togenic lava (Liu et al., 1998) and/or ignimbrite (Pan et al.,
2013) generated by explosive eruption. Pyroclastic fall deposits are

Fig. 6. Digital terrain map (a) and schematic anatomy (b) showing volcanic structure and eruptive products of Tianchi volcano. Abbreviations: PFD, pyroclastic fall

deposit; PDC, pyroclastic density current; QXZ, Qixiangzhan Formation.

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M. Zhang et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

Fig. 7. (a) Shield-forming basalts in the 15th Valley (South of the Wangtian'e volcano) showing vertically intersecting directions of columnar jointing between the upper
and lower sections. (b) Trachyte lava flow in the Changbai Valley, North of the Tianchi volcano. Changbai Waterfall at the upper end of this valley is the only water
outlet of the Tianchi Caldera Lake. (c) The Qixiangzhan Formation on northern flank of the Tianchi volcano (photo by Yunqiang Xian). (d) Tianchi caldera lake viewing
from western flank of the Tianchi volcano. Depth contours and other parameters are shown.

extensively distributed in the CHVF and adjacent region (Horn and
Schmincke, 2000; Sun et al., 2015) and have been found in further regions
(e.g., the Japan Sea, Japan island arc and Greenland; Machida and Arai,
1983; Sun et al., 2014a; McLean et al., 2016). The PDC de-posits induced
2
by column collapse cover a total area of ~2430 km and are mainly
exposed in river gorges surrounding Tianchi caldera (Fig. 6), such as the
Erdaobaihe, Jinjiang and Yalu Rivers (Liu and Xiang, 1997). Field
observations indicate that the PDC deposits, which resulted from the ME as
14
revealed by C dating of charcoal (Jwa et al., 2003), can be traced 30–50
km away from the Tianchi caldera (Liu and Xiang, 1997).
CHVF lahars deposits are associated to the pyroclastics of
explosive silicic eruptions (e.g., the ME) of the Tianchi volcano (Fig.
7d). Lahars are mainly exposed along the Songhua and Yalu Rivers,
especially the former, which represents the only water outlet of the
Tianchi Caldera Lake (Fig. 7c). Lahar deposits also outcrop to the
north of the volcano in the Erdaobaihe River west of Naitoushan (32
km north of the Tianchi caldera), in Liangjiang Town (83 km north of
the Tianchi caldera), and in the Songhua River of Jinlin City (> 400 km
north of the Tianchi caldera). These deposits change northwards from
pumice-rich flows (between west of Naitoushan and Liangjiang) to
hyperconcentrated flows (further north of Liangjiang; Liu and Xiang,
1997). In particular, the total volume of these flows is about 0.14 km
3 by significant hydrothermal activity (about 120 hot springs in 2018) as a
(Liu and Xiang, 1997), a value comparable to the Electron lahars at Mt.
3 from a deep magma chamber to a shallow hydrothermal system (Zhang et
Rainier volcano, USA (0.15 km ; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984).
3.2. Monogenetic volcanoes
Monogenetic volcanoes in the CHVF are exposed in the dominant
form of scoria cones (Fig. 1), which are commonly lower than 200 m in
height and extensively scattered around the polygenetic volcanoes
(especially the Tianchi volcano). Most of the scoria cones are situated
on the lava plateau (i.e., away from the polygenetic volcanic cones),
such as the 10-mile-hill (Fig. 8a and b) and Hongtushan (Fig. 8c and d)
cones, which are ~60 km and ~40 km NW of the Tianchi caldera, re-
spectively. Notably, there are also some scoria cones on flanks of the
Tianchi volcano (referred to as flank volcano in Németh and
Kereszturi, 2015), such as Laohudong scoria cone in China (Xu et al.,
1993; Zheng et al., 1998) and Wutoufeng scoria cone in North Korea
(Park et al., 2016).
Eruptive products of the monogenetic volcanism are dominated by
pyroclastic fall deposits, including volcanic block (e.g., spindle bomb;
Fig. 8a), scoria, lapilli and ash. Additionally, spatter deposits are
commonly embedded in proximal pyroclastic fall deposits (Fig. 8b and
c). Eruptive products of the monogenetic volcanoes are mostly basaltic
in composition, and thus are quite dark when fresh (Fig. 8c), although
high-temperature oxidation may turn their slopes and summits brick
red. Feeder dikes vertically cut through the pyroclastic fall deposits of
some scoria cones such as Hongtushan cone (Fig. 8d).
3.3. Hydrothermal activity
Tianchi volcano, the only active volcano in the CHVF, is char-acterized
consequence of continuous advection of heat (and transfer of material)
al., 2015b). Similar to hydrothermal systems observed at active volcanoes
(Sano and Fischer, 2013), the spatial distribution of the hot springs in the
CHVF exhibits close correlation with their dis-tance to Tianchi caldera. Most
of the hot springs are located within the Tianchi caldera (i.e., Lake
Shoreline hot springs; Fig. 9a) and in the valleys around the cone (e.g.,
Julong and Jinjiang hot springs; Fig. 9a); only a few hot springs are located
further away from the Tianchi

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M. Zhang et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

Fig. 8. (a) 10-mile-hill scoria cone. (b) Spatter lava embedded in pyroclastic fallout deposits. (c) Pyroclastic fallout deposits and spatter lava at Hongtushan scoria cone.

(d) Feeder dike that cuts across pyroclastic fallout deposits at Hongtushan scoria cone.

Fig. 9. (a) Distribution of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits around the Tianchi Caldera Lake (modified from Wei et al., 2013). Color legends are as follows: 1,
Trachyte; 2, Rhyolite lava flow; 3, 946 CE pyroclastic deposits; 4, 1668 CE pyroclastic deposits; 5, 1702 CE pyroclastic deposits; 6, 1903 CE pyroclastic deposits; 7,
Rock and debris flow; 8, Tianchi Caldera Lake. Profiles of pyroclastic deposits are marked at Baguamiao, Wuhaojie and Liuhaojie. Abbreviations for hot springs are as
follows: LS, Lake Shoreline; JL, Julong; JJ, Jinjiang. (b) Photo showing pyroclastic deposits at the Tianwen Summit. From bottom to top, the pyroclastic deposits
change in color from grey (C-5) and yellow (C-4), via light grey (C-3), to dark grey (C-2) and black (C-1), indicating multi-stage eruptions of diverse magmas at Tianchi
volcano. (c) Sampled stratigraphy at the Tianwen summit on the Chinese flank of the Tianchi caldera (modified from Chen et al., 2016). (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

26
M. Zhang et al. caldera (e.g., Xianrenqiao, Yaoshui and the 18th-valley hot springs; Jin
et al., 2003). In particular, numerous hot springs are clustered along
several shoreline segments of the Tianchi Caldera Lake forming ice-
free zones with water temperature of 10–40 °C during winter as a
result of heterogeneous mixing between deep-seated hydrothermal
fluids and meteoric lake water (Gao et al., 2010). Water temperature of
the Julong hot springs generally varies between 63 °C and 82 °C,
whereas the Jinjiang and 18th-valley hot springs have temperatures of
about 44–58 °C and 34–39 °C, respectively. These hot springs,
together with diffusive degassing of soil microseepage, can act as
important conduits for the release of magmatic CO2 from Tianchi
volcano during its quiescent stage (Zhang et al., 2011, 2015b).
4. Eruptive history
Eruptive events or episodes of the CHVF have been documented
by a series of geochronological methods (Supplementary Table S1),
such as KeAr dating (Liu, 1999; Liu et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2006; Wei
40 39
et al., 2007), Ar/ Ar dating (Yang et al., 2014; Ramos et al., 2016),
14
te-phrochronology (Sun et al., 2014a; Chen et al., 2016) and C
wiggle-matching (Xu et al., 2013; Oppenheimer et al., 2017). In this
section, we summarize the eruptive history of the CHVF based on the
re-lationships between magma composition and temporal development
of volcanic landforms. A schematic cartoon showing the development
of the CHVF is presented to better summarize the eruptive history in
Fig. 10.
4.1. Eruptions that contributed to basaltic lava plateau
Multi-stage eruptions of basaltic magmas have occurred in the
CHVF since Early Miocene (ca. 23 Ma; Wei et al., 2013). Based on
radiometric dating results and field observations, these basaltic vol-
canic rocks can be attributed to pre-shield eruptions (Miocene, N 1),
shield-forming eruptions (Pliocene to Early Pleistocene, N 2-Qp1) and
post-shield eruptions (Middle to Late Pleistocene, Qp2–3). As our clas-
sification would suggest, pre-shield basalts and post-shield basalts
contributed little to development of the shield-like lava plateau, which
instead is dominated by the shield-forming basalts.
4.1.1. Pre-shield eruptions
Available radiometric dating results reveal Miocene ages
(22.6–10.4 Ma; Fig. 11a and Table 1) for the pre-shield basalts, which
are rarely outcropped in the CHVF. As suggested by borehole samples
27
M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
from Flying Fox hotel (22.6–15.8 Ma; Wei, 2014) and Ma'anshan (10.4
Ma; Jin and Zhang, 1994), pre-shield basalts tend to be embedded in
Tertiary sedimentary strata and/or covered by shield-forming ba-salts.
In addition to deep drilling sites, typical outcrops of pre-shield basalts
have been recognized on highlands over the plateau surface and in
river gorges. The highland pre-shield basalts can be best exemplified
by (a) Zengfengshan basalts (20.6–19.8 Ma; Liu et al., 2001) that are
outcropped as thick lava flows atop high-elevation mountains (> 1200
m a.s.l.) and (b) Naitoushan basalts (20.7–15.1 Ma; Liu et al., 2001;
Kuritani et al., 2009) that are outcropped as a volcanic neck towering
over the plateau surface. Lava flows with Miocene ages have also
been discovered in deeply eroded river gorges surrounding poly-
genetic volcanoes, as represented by the Jinjiang River (18.9 Ma; Wei
et al., 2007), the 18th-valley (16.4 Ma; Liu et al., 1989) and the Yalu
River near Yanjiangcun (12.3 Ma; Fan et al., 2006).
We suggest that the pre-shield basalts could be topographically in-
terpreted as the base of the shield-forming basalts, but their actual
coverage is difficult to evaluate. Notably, there is no evidence arguing
for provenance affinities between the pre-shield lava flows and
Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe volcanoes. Moreover, the few
outcrops of the pre-shield basalts have to some extent hindered
geochronological studies in details, leading to an open question about
the occurrence of a gap in volcanic activity between the pre-shield
stage (ca. 23–10 Ma) and the shield-forming stage (ca. 5–1 Ma). It is
thus reasonable to ex-clude the pre-shield basalts with Miocene ages
in discussion on tem-poral development of the Changbaishan
volcanoes (e.g., Tianchi vol-cano; Table 1), which is different from
other classification that prefers Miocene to Early Pleistocene ages for
the shield-forming eruptions (e.g., Wei et al., 2013).
4.1.2. Shield-forming eruptions
Basaltic magmas erupted by shield-forming eruptions flooded over
4 2
an area of ca. 1.2 × 10 km , giving rise to a shield-like lava plateau
that covers most crustal rocks in the CHVF (except for a few isolated
country rocks and the pre-shield basalts; Fig. 5). Most part of the lava
plateau was dominated by eruptions of Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Nam-
phothe volcanoes, as testified by the radial slope arrangement of the
lava flows and low slope gradient (see details in Supplementary Mate-
rial A). Minor fissure eruptions of basaltic magmas along the Tumen
River also contributed to the formation of the lava plateau (Figs. 1 and
5).
Shield-forming basalts of Tianchi volcano range in age from 5.02 Ma to
1.05 Ma (KeAr ages; dating methods are given in Supplementary
Fig. 10. Schematic model showing temporal devel-
opment of the Changbaishan volcanoes. (a) Shield-
forming eruptions of basaltic magmas from central
vent volcanoes (Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe)
and fissure vent (i.e., the Tumen River basalts)
between Pliocene and Early Pleistocene (5–1 Ma).
During Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene (3.14–
2.12 Ma), Wangtian'e volcano built volcanic cone by
eruptions of dominant silicic magmas. Notably,
volcanic cone of the Namphothe volcano is also
shown, but its cone-construction time remains poorly
constrained due to the lack of geochronolo-gical work
so far. Detailed information on magma derivation from
the MTZ-derived plume is available is Section 7.3.2.
(b) Volcanic eruptions in the CHVF since 1 Ma. Most
part of the Tianchi volcanic cone was formed by
eruptions of trachytic and rhyolitic magmas between 1
Ma and 10 ka, which were fol-lowed by explosive
eruption in the past 10 ka. Ac-companied with cone-
construction stage of Tianchi volcano, post-shield
basaltic magmas were erupted in terms of
monogenetic scoria cones and small-scale fissure
basalts.

Fig. 11. (a) Age (Ma) versus SiO2 (wt%) for Late Cenozoic volcanic rocks in the
CHVF. Age data are compiled in Supplementary Table S1. Minor trachyandesite
samples (brown diamond) are shown for comparison with the bimodal volcanic
rock suites. (b) Enlarged plot of age (Ma) versus SiO 2 (wt%) for Pliocene to
Holocene volcanic rocks in the CHVF. Data sources and symbols are as in Fig.
11a. The inset denotes age histogram of basalts from Tianchi, Wangtian'e,
Namphothe and Tumen River. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Table S1 for age data hereafter), while those from Wangtian'e volcano
show ages between 4.77 Ma and 1.86 Ma (Table 1). Due to insufficient
geochronological studies in North Korea, only two KeAr ages (i.e.,
1.22–1.18 Ma; Guo, 2015) are available for the shield-forming erup-
tions of Namphothe volcano. The Tumen River basalts have ages ran-
ging from 5.50 Ma to 1.11 Ma (Liu et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2006), which
are generally overlapping those of the shield-forming basalts from
Tianchi volcano (Fig. 11b). Based on available age data
(Supplementary Table S1), we suggest that effusive eruptions of
voluminous basaltic magmas in the CHVF initiated approximately in
Pliocene and culmi-nated in Early Pleistocene (Figs. 10a and 11b),
yielding a rough time interval of ca. 5–1 Ma for the shield-forming
stage. The termination of basaltic magma eruptions at Wangtian'e
volcano appears to be earlier than that of the Tianchi volcano (Fig. 11b
and Table 1). This hypothesis is consistent with the observation that
the earliest cone-construction eruptions of intermediate to silicic
magmas in the CHVF occurred at the Wangtian'e volcano (Table 1).
28
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
4.1.3. Post-shield eruptions
Approximately after the shield-forming stage (ca. 5–1 Ma), small-
scale eruptions of basaltic magmas occurred in the CHVF (Fig. 11) be-
tween 1.17 Ma and 0.05 Ma (mostly < 1 Ma; Jin and Zhang, 1994; Liu
and Xiang, 1997; Liu et al., 1998; Fan et al., 2006; Wei et al., 2007;
Kuritani et al., 2009; Guo, 2015; Liu et al., 2015a; Qian et al., 2016).
The post-shield basalts are associated with Strombolian-type eruptions
of monogenetic volcanoes and small-scale fissure eruptions, which
mainly occur in river gorges (e.g., the Heishi River; Fig. 5), in stark
contrast to voluminous effusion of basaltic magmas during shield-
forming stage. Therefore, small-volume eruptions of basaltic magmas
during the post-shield stage (1.17–0.05 Ma; Table 1) have little con-
tribution to development of the lava plateau. Temporally, the post-
shield basalts are generally coeval with cone-construction stage (1.12–
0.01 Ma; Figs. 10b and 12a) of the Tianchi volcano. However, the
relationships between the post-shield eruptions and the synchronous
cone-construction eruptions remain poorly constrained.
4.2. Cone-construction eruptions
Following and/or accompanied with the shield-forming and post-shield
eruptions of basaltic magmas, the Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe
volcanoes erupted intermediate to silicic magmas (Fig. 11b), leading to the
formation of polygenetic volcanic cones that consist of evolved magmas
with high viscosity (Schmincke, 2004). Geochronological studies (e.g., Fan
et al., 1998a; Wei et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2008) suggest that probably no
intermediate to silicic magmas were erupted in the CHVF before the cone-
construction eruptions of the Wangtian'e volcano (3.14–2.12 Ma; Fig. 11b).
Nonetheless, minor Early Pleistocene intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks
were discovered in localities away from polygenetic volcanic cones, such
as Tudingzi (2.47 Ma; Jin and Zhang, 1994) and Xiaobaishan (1.49 Ma;
Wei et al., 2013). Two trachyte samples from the boreholes in Changbai
Valley were dated by K- Ar methods at 2.14 ± 0.03 Ma (Wei et al., 2007)
and 1.93 ± 0.19 Ma (Cui et al., 2017), respectively.
Prior to cone-construction stage of the Tianchi volcano (1.37–0.01
Ma and mostly < 1 Ma; Fig. 12 and Table 1), eruptions of intermediate
to silicic magmas contributed to development of (a) cone of the
Wangtian'e polygenetic volcano (Fig. 10a), and (b) dispersed lava
flows in the lower section of the Tianchi volcanic cone. As shown in
Fig. 10a, cone-construction stage of the Namphothe volcano (1.79–
0.70 Ma; Table 1) is inferred to be earlier than that of Tianchi volcano,
which is consistent with observations on regional topography and river
drainage system near the Namphothe volcano (Fan et al., 2007).
Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that only a few age data are available for
the Namphothe volcano, which may hinder comprehen-sive
interpretation of its cone-construction stage. The main stage of
development of the Tianchi volcanic cone initiated at ca. 1 Ma and
ended at ca. 10 ka (Figs. 10b and 12a). In particular, the Qixiangzhan
Formation (25–10 ka; Wang et al., 2001; Fan et al., 2006; Singer et al.,
2011; Yang et al., 2014) may result from explosive eruptions (Liu et al.,
1998; Pan et al., 2013), thus differing from the trachyte lava flows
forming most part of the Tianchi volcanic cone. From the point view of
eruptive volume, however, we suggest that the Qixiangzhan Formation
(5.4-km-long, 400–800-m-wide and 50–150-m-thick; Pan et al., 2013)
volumetrically contributed to the cone construction (Fig. 7c). There-
fore, the Qixiangzhan Formation and the youngest trachyte lava flow
(19–15 ka; Wei et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2014) at the Tianwen Summit
can be interpreted as the final products of the cone-construction stage
(Figs. 7c, 9a and 12a).
4.3. Caldera-forming eruptions
Explosive eruptions of a polygenetic volcano that follow its cone-
M. Zhang et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

Table 1
Eruptive episodes of Late Cenozoic volcanism in the CHVF based on development of the Changbaishan volcanoes.

Eruptive episode Age Eruptive product Description

Pre-shield stage 22.6–10.4 Ma Trachybasalt, Tholeiitic basalt Rarely outcropped and commonly embedded in Tertiary sedimentary strata or
covered by shield-forming basalts. Typical outcrops can be found at highland
and deeply eroded river gorges, such as Zengfengshan, Naitoushan and the 18th-
valley. Mantle xenoliths can be found in some localities.
Shield-forming stage 5.02–1.05 Ma Trachybasalt, Tholeiitic basalt, Alkaline Basaltic lava flows form a shield-like plateau (diameter = 50–60 km,
(Tianchi) basalt, Basaltic trachyandesite, elevation = 600–1100 m) centering on the Tianchi volcano. Unconformably
Trachyandesite overlying the gravel layer or weathering crust of bedrocks such as granite.
Typical outcrops include Lushuihe, Toudaobaihe, Yaoshui Spring and Manjiang.
4.77–1.86 Ma Basaltic trachyandesite, Alkaline basalt, Basaltic lava flows flooded over an area of about 4000 km2, and experienced
(Wangtian'e) Trachybasalt significant erosion to generate > 20 N-S-trending river gorges. Unconformably
overlying on the weathering crust of Mesozoic granites or gravel layer. Typical
outcrops include the 15th-valley and 18th-valley.
1.22–1.18 Ma Basalt4, Basaltic trachyandesite Shield-forming basalts of Namphothe volcano are named Pochon Formation in
(Namphothe1) literature of North Korea, and covered an area of > 5000 km2. Detailed study on
geochronology and geochemistry remains fairly limited.
5.50–1.11 Ma Trachybasalt, Tholeiitic basalt, Alkaline Basaltic lava flows are distributed along the Tumen River, ranging in thickness
(Tumen River) basalt, Basaltic trachyandesite from dozens of meters to hundreds of meters. Unconformably overlying on the
weathering crust of Mesozoic granites or gravel layer. Typical outcrops include
Guangping, Junjianshan and Nanping.
Post-shield stage 1.17–0.05 Ma Trachybasalt, Tholeiitic basalt, Basaltic Resulting from both the Strombolian-type eruptions of monogenetic volcanoes
trachyandesite and small-scale fissure eruptions in river gorges. Monogenetic volcanoes are
extensively scattered around the polygenetic volcanic cones. Typical outcrops
include 10-mile-hill, Laohudong and Hongtushan.
Cone-construction 1.37–0.01 Ma Trachyte, Rhyolite, Trachyandesite, Dominant development of Tianchi volcanic cone (elevation = 1100–2749 m)
stage2 (Tianchi) Basaltic trachyandesite initiated at ca. 1 Ma and ended at ca. 10 ka. Intermediate volcanic rocks have
been found in the lower section of volcanic cone. Typical outcrops include
Changbai Valley and Tianwen Summit.
3.14–2.12 Ma Trachyte, Rhyolite, Trachyandesite Wangtian'e volcanic cone (elevation = 1200–2051 m) may be the earliest one
(Wangtian'e) that ceased to develop, as represented by the Hongtoushan lava dome 30 km to
its south. Intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks differ in magma differentiation
from those of Tianchi volcano.
1.79–0.70 Ma Trachyte, Rhyolite, Trachyandesite Namphothe volcanic cone (elevation = 1200–2343 m) is poorly constrained on
(Namphothe1) geochronology and geochemistry according to available data.
Caldera-forming stage3 0.01 Ma to 946 CE Trachyte5, Rhyolite5 Explosive silicic eruptions dominated Tianchi volcano since Holocene, giving
(Tianchi) rise to a giant caldera system atop Tianchi volcanic cone. The most important
eruption events are the 4–5 ka BP eruption and the ME at 946 CE.
Post-caldera stage3 1403/1668/1702/1903 CE Trachyte5, Rhyolite5 Post-caldera eruptions are mainly based on historical documents from China and
(Tianchi) neighboring countries. Eruptive products of the post-caldera eruptions are
mainly distributed within scope of the CHVF.

1 Namphothe volcano remains poorly studied by geochronological methods, thus the given ages of eruptive episodes do not represent the overall eruptive history.
2 Cone-construction stage does not include a few intermediate to silicic samples (Supplementary Table S1), which (1) are away from three polygenetic volcanic
cones (e.g., Tudingzi and Xiaobaishan samples), or (2) represent dispersed lava flows in lower section of the Tianchi volcano (e.g., borehole samples in Changbai
Valley).
3 No previous studies reported caldera-forming and post-caldera stages of the Wangtian'e and Namphothe volcanoes.
4 Comprehensive whole-rock geochemical data of shield-forming basalts from Namphothe volcano are unavailable for detailed rock classification.
5 Caldera-forming and post-caldera eruptions of Tianchi volcano yielded pyroclastic rocks (e.g., pumice) of trachyte and rhyolite compositions.
Tianchi volcano can be di-vided into two groups: the pre-Millennium
construction stage are commonly catastrophic and destructive eruptions and the Millen-nium eruption.
(Cashman and Giordano, 2014), which would finally lead to formation
of caldera system. With respect to polygenetic volcanoes in the CHVF, 4.3.1. Pre-Millennium eruptions (pre-MEs)
caldera-forming eruptions of the Wangtian'e and Namphothe The time boundary between cone-construction stage (primarily ef-fusive
volcanoes are poorly known, whereas those of Tianchi volcano have eruptions) and caldera-forming stage (i.e., explosive eruptions) is
been in-vestigated by constraints from its pyroclastic deposits (e.g., ambiguous for Tianchi volcano. This could be illustrated by the coin-
Machida and Arai, 1983; Machida et al., 1990; Lim et al., 2013; cidence in age between trachyte lavas of Tianchi volcanic cone and distal
Ikehara, 2015; Chen et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2017). Given that the tephra deposits from the Japan Sea and adjacent region that have been
Millennium eruption (ME) in the 940 s CE is widely invoked to account suggested to originate from Tianchi volcano (Fig. 12). Namely,
for formation of the present-day Tianchi caldera (e.g., Horn and
Schmincke, 2000; Zou et al., 2010), caldera-forming eruptions of

Tianchi volcano probably underwent a series of Plinian-type eruptions
in its cone-construction stage (ca. 1 Ma to 10 ka), as suggested by the
potential Tianchi-sourced tephra layers in the Japan Sea [Fig. 12b;
e.g., 448 ka (Shirai et al., 1997), 67.6 ka and 85.8 ka (Lim et al., 2013)
and 24.5 ka (Machida and Arai, 1992)]. Moreover, pyroclastic rock
layers embedded in trachyte lava flows may also provide evidence for
ex-plosive eruptions in cone-construction stage (Wei, 2014), such as
the Qixiangzhan Formation. However, the proximal pre-ME tephra
deposits near Tianchi volcano, which are supposed to temporally and
chemically correlate with their distal equivalents in the Japan Sea
29
(Ikehara, 2015), remain poorly constrained in terms of
tephrostratigraphy and te-phrochronology (Fig. 12b).
The best studied proximal pre-ME tephra deposits are the grey (C-
5) and yellow (C-4) pyroclastic layers at the Tianwen Summit (Fig. 9b),
which have been verified to result from a single eruption based on their
comparable major element compositions and optically stimulated lu-
minescence dating results (Sun et al., 2017). Temporally, this pre-Mil-
14
lennium eruption has been dated at ca. 4–5 ka BP by C (Liu et al.,
40 39
1998), U-series (Wang et al., 2001) and Ar/ Ar age determination
(Yang et al., 2014). On the basis of tephrochronology and glass chem-
istry, none of the inferred distal pre-ME tephra deposits can be
M. Zhang et al. Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

Fig. 12. (a) Age (ka) versus SiO2 (wt%) for post-1 Ma volcanic rocks in the CHVF. The grey shaded area denotes cone-construction stage of Tianchi volcano. Data
sources and symbols are as in Fig. 11a. In particular, filled and open symbols represent lava and pyroclastic rocks of each group, respectively. Albeit with con-
troversies on field outcrops (see details in text), products of 1668/1702 CE and 1903 CE eruptions are shown based on Zheng et al. (1998), Fan et al. (1999), Zou et al.
(2014) and Ramos et al. (2016). (b) Age (ka) versus SiO 2 (wt%) for proximal (red cross) and distal (black cross) tephra samples that have been attributed to explosive
eruptions of Tianchi volcano. Data sources for distal tephra samples are as follows: B-Og (Shirai et al., 1997); B-KY1 & B-KY2 (Chun et al., 2006); B-Ym & B-Sado (Lim
et al., 2013); B-J (Ikehara et al., 2004; Lim et al., 2013); BeV (Machida and Arai, 1992); BeTm (Machida and Arai, 1983; Machida et al., 1990; Sun et al., 2014a; Chen et
al., 2016; McLean et al., 2016). Data sources for the proximal ME tephra samples are Machida et al. (1990), Zou et al. (2010), Sun et al. (2014a, 2015, 2017) and Chen
et al. (2016). Proximal tephra samples of the 4–5 ka BP eruption, the 1403 CE eruption, 1668 CE eruption and 1702 CE eruption are from Sun et al. (2017). The range
of silicic lava is based on trachytic and rhyolitic magmas (Fig. 12a) erupted in cone-construction stage of Tianchi volcano. The question mark denotes that compositional
data are unavailable at present due to the limited access to Japanese reference (i.e., Machida and Arai, 1992). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

attributed to the 4–5 ka BP eruption (Sun et al., 2017), although a few
studies argued for provenance affinities between the pyroclastic layers
(i.e., C-5 and C-4) at the Tianwen Summit and the B-J (Baegdusan-
Japan Basin) tephra from the Japan Sea (Pan et al., 2017). It is noted
that the 4–5 ka BP pyroclastic fall deposits directly overlie the trachytic
cone of Tianchi volcano (Fig. 9b), and no other proximal pre-ME
tephra deposits have been recognized (Fig. 12b). The lack of well-
correlated proximal-distal tephra requires future field investigation and
age de-termination. Considering the thickness of the 4–5 ka BP
pyroclastic fall deposits at the Tianwen Summit (Fig. 9b), this event,
and probably other pre-ME eruptions contributed to development of
the Tianchi caldera. Therefore, it is likely that the present-day Tianchi
caldera re-presents the result of multiple caldera collapse events,
which is a common feature of many caldera systems (Geshi et al.,
2002; Geshi, 2009).
4.3.2. Millennium eruption (ME)
The most important, well-documented explosive silicic eruption that
accounts for final formation of the Tianchi caldera system is the ME
(Chen et al., 2016; Ramos et al., 2016; Oppenheimer et al., 2017). A
great number of geochronological studies have been dedicated to con-
14
strain time of the ME by methods such as C wiggle-matching and
tephrochronology (Sun et al., 2014b). Representative age estimates of
the ME are clustered in the range of 920s CE to 960s CE
(Oppenheimer et al., 2017). In particular, a radiocarbon age of late 946
CE has been preferred as eruption time of the ME (Xu et al., 2013;
Oppenheimer et al., 2017), which agrees with some historical records
of abnormal natural phenomena in Japan and Korea (e.g., white ash
fell gently like snow in Nara of Japan on November 3, 946 CE;
Hayakawa and Koyama, 1998; Hakozaki et al., 2018).
As a result of the ME, pyroclastic fall deposits are extensively dis-
tributed in the CHVF and further regions, such as the Tianwen Summit (i.e.,
the C-1, C-2 and C-3 pyroclastic layers in Fig. 9c; Chen et al., 2016; Sun et
al., 2017), Sihailongwan maar lake (Sun et al., 2015), Japan Sea (Machida
and Arai, 1983; Machida et al., 1990; Chen et al., 2016; McLean et al.,
2016), Russian Far East (Andreeva et al., 2011) and northern Greenland
(Sun et al., 2014a). The dispersion of the ME pu-mice and ash fall deposits
is towards the East. Previous studies (Horn
and Schmincke, 2000; Chen et al., 2016; Pan et al., 2017; Sun et al.,
2017) suggested that the ME magmas changed in composition from
comenditic in early stage (represented by the C-3 layer in light grey;
Fig. 9c) to trachytic in late stage (represented by the C-2 layer in dark
grey and the C-1 layer in black; Fig. 9c). As shown in Fig. 12b,
proximal ME tephra deposits at the Tianchi volcano are well correlated
with their distal equivalents from the Japan Sea and Greenland
(Machida and Arai, 1983; Sun et al., 2014a, 2017; Chen et al., 2016),
in contrast to other explosive silicic eruptions that are poorly
constrained in terms of proximal-to-distal correlations of Tianchi-
sourced pyroclastic fall de-posits.
4.4. Post-caldera eruptions of Tianchi volcano
Historical documents from China and neighboring countries suggest
that several post-caldera eruptions occurred at Tianchi volcano, such as
1403 CE, 1668 CE, 1702 CE and 1903 CE eruptions (Wei et al., 2013; Sun
et al., 2017). The post-caldera eruptions are generally character-ized by
low explosive magnitude, such as the phreatomagmatic erup-tion in 1903
CE (Ramos et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2017). As a result, the eruptive
products of the post-caldera eruptions are mainly distributed within scope
of the CHVF. Some field outcrops of the post-caldera eruptive products
appear to be controversial. According to (a) the compositional similarities
between proximal and distal ME tephra de-posits (Chen et al., 2016; Sun et
al., 2017) and (b) the lack of inter-layered depositional break (Pan et al.,
2017), the dark grey to black pyroclastic layers (C-2 and C-1; Fig. 9c) have
been interpreted as eruptive products of the ME, arguing against previous
interpretation that preferred a 1668/1702 CE age for the uppermost units
overlying the grey ME tephra deposits at the Tianwen Summit (Liu et al.,
1998; Yu et al., 2012). Moreover, Pan et al. (2017) proposed that
previously mapped outcrops of the 1668/1702 CE (Baguamiao and
Wuhaojie; Fig. 9a) and 1903 CE (Liuhaojie; Fig. 9a) eruptions around the
Tianchi Caldera Lake (Yang et al., 2006; Wei et al., 2013) may represent
re-worked ME deposits. This interpretation may suggest that low volumes
of pyroclasts were erupted during the 1668/1702 CE and 1903 CE
eruptions, if they indeed occurred as recorded in historical documents.

30
M. Zhang et al. 5. Petrology
 As mentioned above, eruptive products of the Changbaishan vol-
canoes could be divided into shield-forming basalts with Pliocene to
Early Pleistocene ages (ca. 5–1 Ma), post-shield basalts with
Pleistocene ages (1.17–0.05 Ma) and intermediate to silicic volcanic
rocks with Late Pliocene to Holocene ages (3.14 Ma to present). In this
review, the pre-shield basalts (ca. 23–10 Ma) are not included in the
discussion on petrology, geochemistry and magma origin for the
reason that there is no evidence arguing for affinities between the
Miocene basalts and the polygenetic volcanoes.
5.1. Basaltic volcanic rocks
Shield-forming basalts consist of lava flows with a massive to
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
vesicular structure. Previous studies (Wang et al., 2006b; Kuritani et
al., 2009; Guo et al., 2014a; Liu et al., 2015a; Zhang et al., 2015a;
Chen et al., 2017c; Choi et al., 2017) have reported the petrographical
fea-tures of the basaltic volcanic rocks. Aphyric to sub-aphyric textures
with rare phenocrysts (e.g., < 3 vol%; Kuritani et al., 2009) char-
acterize the shield-forming basalts (Fig. 13a), such as samples from
Tianchi and Wangtian'e (Guo et al., 2014a). Furthermore, the shield-
forming basalts with a porphyritic texture mainly consist of (a) phe-
nocryst assemblage of clinopyroxene + plagioclase ± olivine and (b)
glassy to cryptocrystalline groundmass or microcrystalline groundmass
of plagioclase + clinopyroxene ± olivine + FeeTi oxides + glass (Fig.
13b). Notably, orthopyroxene, plagioclase and minor olivine constitute
the phenocryst assemblage of the Tumen River basalts (Wang et al.,
2006a), which also have groundmass dominated by intergranular or
intersertal texture of plagioclase + pyroxene + FeeTi oxides +

Fig. 13. (a) Aphyric texture with rare phenocrysts of the shield-forming basalts from Tianchi volcano (plane-polarized light). (b) Porphyritic texture of the shield-forming
basalts from Wangtian'e volcano (cross-polarized light). (c) Plagioclase phenocryst in the Tumen River basalts (cross-polarized light). (d) Vesicular structure and glassy
to cryptocrystalline groundmass of basaltic scorias from Hongtushan monogenetic volcano (plane-polarized light). (e) Trachyte with phenocrysts of alkali feldspar, alkali
pyroxene and fayalite from Tianchi volcano (plane-polarized light). (f) Alkali pyroxene phenocryst in the Qixiangzhan comenditic rhyolite lava from Tianchi volcano
(plane-polarized light). Abbreviation for minerals: Ol, olivine; Cpx, clinopyroxene; Pl, plagioclase; San, sanidine; Q, quartz.

31
M. Zhang et al.
glass (Fig. 13c). Plagioclase phenocrysts (up to 2–3 mm in size) can
be found in the Wangtian'e and Tumen River basalts (Wang et al.,
2006b; Choi et al., 2017).
The post-shield basalts in river gorges have petrographical and
mineralogical characteristics similar to those of the basalts from the
shield-forming lava flows (Chen et al., 2017c). The basaltic scorias
from monogenetic volcanoes show a vesicular structure and glassy to
cryp-tocrystalline groundmass with rare phenocrysts (e.g.,
clinopyroxene; Fig. 13d), while the minor spatter lava and feeding dyke
are char-acterized by massive structure and an aphyric texture. The
pyroclastic eruptive products of some monogenetic volcanoes contain
mantle xe-noliths (Liu et al., 1998).
5.2. Intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks
Volcanic rocks with intermediate composition have been reported
in the CHVF (Fan et al., 1998b, 2006; Wei et al., 2005; Guo, 2015; Liu
et al., 2015a). Generally, the intermediate volcanic rocks are por-
phyritic in texture, and have a phenocryst assemblage of plagioclase +
clinopyroxene and microcrystalline groundmass of plagioclase + apa-
tite + FeeTi oxides. Silicic volcanic rocks consist of trachytes and
rhyolites (see details in Section 6.1.1). Taking Tianchi volcano as an
example, the phenocryst assemblage of the trachytic lavas includes al-
kali feldspar, alkali pyroxene and fayalite, which are scattered in mi-
crocrystalline groundmass of sanidine + FeeTi oxides + quartz (Fig.
13e). The Qixiangzhan comenditic lavas have a phenocryst as-
semblage of alkali feldspar + alkali pyroxene + fayalite + quartz and
glassy to cryptocrystalline groundmass (Fig. 13f). Devitrification tex-
tures are commonly observed in Qixiangzhan comenditic lavas (Liu et
al., 2007b). Compared to the silicic lava, pumices have similar mi-neral
assemblage but distinct structures and textures (Zou et al., 2014;
Cheong et al., 2017). It is noted that alkali feldspars (e.g.,
anorthoclase) become the relevant phase in silicic magmas from
Tianchi volcano, whereas plagioclase is the primary phase in the silicic
rocks from Wangtian'e volcano.
6. Geochemistry
6.1. Whole-rock geochemistry
In order to minimize the effects of post-magmatic alteration on rock
compositions, samples with totals < 97 wt% or > 102 wt% (calculated
on an anhydrous basis) are not considered for data compilation, and
those with volatile contents > 3 wt% are also eliminated. Therefore, the
influence of post-magmatic alteration on the geochemistry of the
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
selected rocks can be ruled out (see details in Supplementary Material
A).
6.1.1. Major elements
As shown in the total alkali silica (TAS) diagram (Fig. 14a; Le Bas
et al., 1986), eruptive products of the Changbaishan volcanoes vary in
composition from basaltic magmas to intermediate and silicic magmas.
Notably, basaltic and silicic volcanic rocks appear to be more common
relative to intermediate volcanic rocks (Fig. 14a), which agrees with
eruption volumes of the corresponding magma types.
The CHVF basaltic volcanic rocks (SiO2 = 46.6–55.0 wt%, K2O +
Na2O = 2.94–8.66 wt%; referred to as basalts for simplicity and clarity
hereinafter) are plotted in the TAS fields of B (basalt), O1 (ba-saltic
andesite), S1 (trachybasalt) and S2 (basaltic trachyandesite) as shown
in Fig. 14a, including alkaline and sub-alkaline (tholeiitic for the CHVF)
series. Irrespective of eruptive episodes, alkaline basalts appear to be
the primary products of basaltic volcanism in the CHVF since Early
Pliocene, with an exception of the Tumen River basalts that are
dominated by tholeiitic basalts (Fan et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2006b).
Intermediate volcanic rocks (SiO2 = 54.9–63.7 wt%,
K2O + Na2O = 4.97–11.4 wt%) are mainly composed of trachyandesite
and low-SiO2 trachyte (Fig. 14a), while silicic volcanic rocks
(SiO2 = 64.2–76.3 wt%, K2O + Na2O = 8.57–12.3 wt%) from Tianchi,
Wangtian'e and Namphothe volcanoes are plotted in the TAS fields of
trachyte and rhyolite (Fig. 14a). Most silicic samples are peralkaline
with molecular ratio of (K 2O + Na2O)/Al2O3 > 1, which is consistent with
the presence of alkali pyroxene in the groundmass (Fig. 13e and f).
Additionally, almost all the peralkaline silicic volcanic rocks are plotted
in the field of comenditic magmas (Fig. 14b), with only a few Tianchi
samples classified as pantelleritic rhyolite.
The CHVF basalts are characterized by a wide range of MgO con-
tents (2.25–9.27 wt%; Fig. 15a) and relatively lower Ni (< 300 ppm;
Fig. 15b), suggesting that primary magmas of the shield-forming and
post-shield basalts experienced variable degrees of magma
differentia-tion before eruption. Moreover, the alkaline basalts exhibit
close affi-nities with intermediate to silicic volcanic rocks, as indicated
by the co-variations between SiO2 and other representative major
elements (Fig. 15c-h; see Section 7.1.1 for detailed magma
differentiation pro-cesses).
6.1.2. Trace elements
The CHVF basalts are characterized by incompatible trace element
patterns that resemble those of ocean island basalts (OIB; Sun and
McDonough, 1989; Willbold and Stracke, 2006), similar to other Late
Cenozoic basalts in NE China (e.g., Chen et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2012b).
Fig. 14. (a) Na2O + K2O versus SiO2 diagram for the CHVF volcanic rocks. All data plotted have been recalculated to 100 wt% on a volatile-free basis. Classification
boundaries are from Le Bas et al. (1986) and Le Maitre et al. (1989). Boundary line for alkaline and sub-alkaline magma series is from Irvine and Baragar (1971). Rock
types shown by letters are as follows: B, basalt; O1, basaltic andesite; O2, andesite; O3, dacite; S1, trachybasalt; S2, basaltic trachyandesite; S3, trachyandesite; U1,
T
basanite; U2, phonotephrite; T, trachyte; R, rhyolite. (b) Al 2O3 (wt%) versus FeO (wt%) diagram for classification of peralkaline silicic volcanic rocks. Boundary lines are
from MacDonald (1974). Compiled whole-rock data and references are available in Supplementary Material B.

32
M. Zhang et al.
Fig. 15. (a) Ni (ppm) versus MgO (wt%), (b) CaO/Al2O3 versus MgO (wt%), (c) MgO (wt%) versus SiO2 (wt%), (d) Al2O3 (wt%) versus SiO2 (wt%), (e) TiO2 (wt%) versus
SiO2 (wt%), (f) P2O5 (wt%) versus SiO2 (wt%), (g) K2O (wt%) versus SiO2 (wt%) and (h) Na2O (wt%) versus SiO2 (wt%) for the CHVF volcanic rocks. Data sources and
symbols are as in Fig. 14.
Compared to normal mid-ocean ridge basalts (N-MORB), the CHVF
basalts exhibit prominent enrichment in rare earth elements (REE),
large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and high field strength elements
(HFSE), indicating their affinities with an enriched mantle source.
Notably, alkaline basalts generally have higher contents of in-
compatible elements relative to tholeiitic basalts (Fig. 16), suggesting
that alkaline and tholeiitic basalts evolved from different primary
magmas. For example, the extent of enrichment in light REE over
heavy REE decreases from alkaline basalts to tholeiitic basalts (Fig.
16a), as well as the difference observed from LILE and HFSE of the
CHVF basalts (Fig. 16b).
Slightly positive Eu anomaly is a common feature of alkaline basalts
33
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
[Eu/Eu* = 1.17 ± 0.21 (1σ, n = 69)] and tholeiitic basalts [Eu/ Eu* = 1.15 ±
0.13 (1σ, n = 31)], especially for the Tumen River ba-salts (Fig. 16a). In
contrast, intermediate volcanic rocks tend to exhibit slightly negative Eu
anomaly [Eu/Eu* = 0.90 ± 0.10 (1σ, n = 9); Fig. 16c], suggesting minor
fractionation of plagioclase. Moreover, the intermediate magmas have
incompatible elements that are comparable with alkaline basalts, except for
higher K and Pb contents as well as lower Sr, P and Ti contents (Fig. 16d).
Silicic volcanic rocks display two types of Chondrite-normalized REE
patterns, as suggested by the con-trasting negative Eu anomalies (Fig.
16c). Average Tianchi and Nam-phothe silicic magmas have Eu/Eu* ratios
ranging in 0.03–0.13, whereas average Wangtian'e samples are
characterized by higher Eu/
M. Zhang et al.
Fig. 16. (a) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for basaltic volcanic rocks. (b) Primitive mantle-normalized incompatible element diagrams for basaltic volcanic rocks.
(c) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for intermediate and silicic volcanic rocks. (d) Primitive mantle-normalized incompatible element diagrams for in-termediate and
silicic volcanic rocks. Symbols are as in Fig. 14 and only average element contents of each sample group are plotted. Chondrite and primitive mantle normalization
values are from Sun and McDonough (1989). Thick grey lines in (a) and (b) represent OIB (Sun and McDonough, 1989). Trace element range of average alkaline
basaltic volcanic rocks is shown by grey area in (c) and (d).
Eu* values (0.64–0.81). Silicic volcanic rocks are more enriched in in-
compatible trace elements compared to alkaline basalts, with the no-
table exceptions of Ba, Sr, P, Eu and Ti that show prominent negative
anomalies (Fig. 16d). Together with decreasing K2O, Al2O3, P2O5 and
TiO2 with increasing SiO2 (Fig. 15), such trace element patterns clearly
result from significant removal of alkali feldspar, plagioclase, apatite
and FeeTi oxides from the silicic magmas.
6.1.3. Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes
87 86 143 144
Initial Sr/ Sr (0.704700–0.705526) and Nd/ Nd (0.512478–
0.512691; εNd = −3.08–1.04) ratios of the CHVF basalts are negatively
correlated (Fig. 17a and b), showing overlapping with the lower end of the
mantle array defined by MORB and OIB (Zindler and Hart, 1986).
Compared to depleted mantle (DM; Zindler and Hart, 1986) and mantle
xenoliths in the pre-shield basalts (Park et al., 2017), these basalts have
enriched SreNd isotopic compositions that point to contributions from
enriched mantle components (Fig. 17a), such as enriched mantle 1 (EM1)
(e.g., Basu et al., 1991; Zou et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2007; Kuritani et al.,
206 204 207 204 208 204
2011). Initial Pb/ Pb, Pb/ Pb and Pb/ Pb ratios of the CHVF
basalts show the following ranges, re-spectively: 17.258–18.041, 15.461–
15.586 and 38.189–38.412. The lead isotope features indicate a significant
DUPAL anomaly (△7/ 4 = 10–20, △8/4 = 80–120; Fig. 17c and d) with
respect to Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL). Intermediate
volcanic rocks, as well as most of trachyte and rhyolite samples, have Sr-
Nd-Pb isotopic compositions similar to the CHVF basalts (Fig. 17b and d).
87 86
The few silicic volcanic rocks with anomalously elevated Sr/ Sr ratios
87
may result from radiogenic Sr in-growth in magma chamber.
6.2. Gas geochemistry
According to relative distance to Tianchi caldera, hot springs in the
34
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
CHVF can be divided into the following two groups: (1) Group 1
located within Tianchi caldera (i.e., Lake Shoreline) and on its volcanic
cone (i.e., Julong and Jinjiang), and (2) Group 2 located away from
Tianchi caldera and cone (e.g., Yaoshui and 18th-valley). Available
chemical and isotopic data of bubbling gas samples are compiled in
Supplementary Material B.
Group 1 samples have high CO2 (70.2–99.7%) and minor N2
(0.54–14.1%), whereas Group 2 samples are dominated by high N 2
(84.8–87.5%). Additionally, Group 1 and Group 2 samples exhibit
contrasting contents of radiogenic helium (Zhang et al., 2015b). The
4
coupled high He and N2 contents of samples from the 18th-valley hot
springs suggest a derivation from sedimentary environment. Variable
3 8 12
CO2/ He ratios of hydrothermal gases (2.20 × 10 –1.72 × 10 for
6
Group 1 and 3.93 × 10 for Group 2) reflect a series of physico-che-
mical processes, such as magma degassing, calcite precipitation and
3 4
multi-component mixing. Air-corrected He/ He ratios of Group 1
samples range from 2.70 RA to 6.75 RA, but the Group 2 samples show
3 4
significantly lower He/ He ratios (0.85 RA for the 18th-valley sample).
For carbon isotopic compositions of CO2, the Group 1 samples are
13
characterized by higher δ C values (−7.9‰ to −1.6‰) than that of the
Group 2 samples (−12.3‰).
7. Discussion
7.1. Origin and evolution of the CHVF magmas
7.1.1. Fractional crystallization and crustal contamination
In stark contrast to primary magmas [e.g., whole-rock Mg# = 0.68–
0.72 (Frey et al., 1978) or 0.75–0.78 (Tamura et al., 2014) for
peridotite-sourced basalt], the CHVF basalts are characterized by
significantly lower Mg-numbers (0.26–0.60), suggesting the effects of
fractional crystallization before volcanic eruption. Primary magmas of
M. Zhang et al.
143 144 87 86
Fig. 17. (a) ( Nd/ Nd)i versus ( Sr/ Sr)i for volcanic rocks from the CHVF. Reference ranges for DM, enriched mantle (EM1 and EM2), MORB and OIB are from
87 86
i versus ( Sr/ Sr)i plot for intermediate and silicic volcanic rocks. (c) ( Pb/ Pb)i versus ( Pb/ Pb)i and
(d) (
208 204
Pb/ Pb)i versus (
206 204
Pb/ Pb)i for the CHVF volcanic rocks. Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL) is shown for reference (Hart, 1984). PSSJ denotes
Pacific subducting sediments along the Japan Trench (Plank, 2014). Data sources and symbols are as in Fig. 14.
the CHVF tholeiitic basalts experienced fractional crystallization of
predominant olivine and subordinate clinopyroxene, as suggested by
decreasing Ni and CaO/Al 2O3 with decreasing MgO (Fig. 15a and b).
By contrast, alkaline basalts with lower MgO, Ni and CaO/Al 2O3 appar-
ently resulted from protracted fractional crystallization of olivine and
clinopyroxene from primary alkaline magmas. Moreover, FeeTi oxides
(e.g., magnetite and ilmenite) become common fractionating minerals
in the alkaline basalts as SiO2 increases.
As suggested by petrographic observations and whole-rock geo-
chemical data (Fig. 15), alkaline basalts and intermediate to silicic volcanic
rocks constitute an integrated compositional spectrum of magma
differentiation. Specifically, the slightly positive to weak ne-gative Eu
anomalies suggest negligible to minor removal of plagioclase from alkaline
basaltic and intermediate magmas (Fig. 15a and c). The sharp decrease in
Al2O3 and prominent negative Eu anomaly of silicic volcanic rocks were
controlled by significant fractional crystallization of plagioclase (Figs. 15d
and 16). Negative Sr, P and Ti anomalies in-dicate that apatite and FeeTi
oxides were important fractionating mi-nerals when alkaline basaltic
magmas evolved to intermediate magmas (Fig. 15d). Towards more silicic
compositions, the alkali-rich minerals (e.g., anorthoclase and aegirine)
started to crystallize in magma chamber, which led to drawdown in K 2O and
Na2O with increasing SiO2 and prominent negative Ba anomaly (Figs. 15
and 16).
Basaltic magmas erupted within continental plate have the potential to
be affected by crustal contamination during their transport through thick
continental crust (Jung et al., 2011). Several lines of evidence, however,
argue against significant role of crustal contamination in petrogenesis of the
CHVF basalts (Basu et al., 1991; Kuritani et al., 2009; Choi et al., 2017).
Combined with mantle source characteristics of typical OIB (e.g., the
Hawaiian basalts; Huang et al., 2005; Sobolev
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M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
207 204 206 204
ZindlerandHart(1986).(b)Enlarged(143Nd/144Nd)
et al., 2005, 2007; Herzberg, 2011), we suggest that mantle hetero-
geneity is the first-order control on elemental and isotopic variations in
the CHVF basalts. For example, the CHVF basalts have lower Ce/Pb
ratios (7.75–25.7) relative to global oceanic basalts (Ce/Pb = 25 ± 5;
Hofmann et al., 1986), which could be explained by mantle hetero-
geneity related with recycling of crustal materials rather than crustal
contamination (Wang et al., 2015).
It is noted that silicic volcanic rocks in the CHVF have low Sr con-tents
(average = 19 ppm for the Tianchi samples) due to protracted plagioclase
87 86
fractionation, making Sr/ Sr ratio a sensitive indicator for contamination
by continental crust (Sr = 320 ppm; Rudnick and Gao, 2003). As shown in
87 86
Fig. 17b, however, most silicic volcanic rocks have Sr/ Sr ratios that are
comparable to those of basaltic and in-termediate volcanic rocks. Together
with the uniformity in Nd and Pb isotope compositions, we propose that the
alkaline basalts and inter-mediate to silicic volcanic rocks represent a
comagmatic rock suite with little crustal contamination, suggesting magma
evolution in a nearly closed system. A few silicic samples with anomalously
87 86 87
high Sr/ Sr but extremely low Sr may suggest radiogenic Sr in-growth
in magma chamber, which is controlled by extreme plagioclase
fractionation (lowering Sr in residual melts) and the residence time before
eruption (Shao et al., 2015; Casalini et al., 2017). In addition, evidence for
magma mingling between trachytes and comendites has been re-cognized
in the ME pumices (Fan et al., 2005; Pan et al., 2017).
7.1.2. Basalt petrogenesis: facts, theories and controversies
The fact that Late Cenozoic continental intraplate basalts in NE
China originated from a chemically and isotopically enriched mantle
source has been noticed for years (Basu et al., 1991; Liu et al., 1994;
Zou et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2007; Kuritani et al., 2011; Li et al.,
2017b), which thus spawned a series of theories and also
controversies with respect to nature and origin of the enriched source
components. As for the CHVF basalts, the ongoing debate focuses on
(a) origin of the EM1-like components, and (b) whether the Pacific
slab-derived mate-rials contributed to basalt petrogenesis or not.
7.1.2.1. Origin of the EM1-like components. As shown in Fig. 17, Sr-Nd-Pb
isotopic co-variations and the DUPAL signatures of the CHVF basalts
suggest their affinities with DM and EM1 end-members (Basu et al., 1991),
or alternatively with FOZO and LOMU/EM1 end-members (Chen et al.,
2007; Kimura et al., 2018). The binary mixing models similarly suggest
206 204
involvement of isotopically enriched (low Pb/ Pb,
87 86
intermediate Sr/ Sr; i.e., EM1-like) and depleted
206 204 143 144 87 86
Pb/ Pb, high Nd/ Nd and low Sr/ Sr; i.e., DM-like) source
components in origin of the CHVF basalts, as well as other Late Cenozoic
continental basalts from NE China (Zou et al., 2000). In contrast to the DM-
like components that have been commonly attributed to asthenospheric
mantle (Basu et al., 1991; Zou et al., 2000, 2008; Chen et al., 2007;
Kuritani et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2015a), origin of the EM1-like
components remains highly controversial.
Aqueous fluids from lower continental crust (LCC) have been in-
ferred to exhibit EM1-like isotopic compositions (Zhang et al., 2015a),
but mantle source enrichment appears to be more appropriate than
crustal contamination during magma underplating. Nonetheless, re-
cycled ancient LCC resulting from lithospheric thinning has the po-
tential to act as the EM1 end-member (Liu et al., 2008). Ancient sub-
238
continental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) with low-μ ( U/ Pb) values
was taken as suitable candidate for the EM1-like components in
earlier publications (Basu et al., 1991; Tatsumoto et al., 1992; Chen et
al., 2007; Yan and Zhao, 2008). However, peridotite xenoliths
entrained in Cenozoic basalts from eastern NCC exhibit DM-like
SreNd isotopes (e.g., Xu, 2004; Choi et al., 2005; Kim et al., 2005;
Park et al., 2017), although weak DUPAL-like Pb isotopes could be
observed (Choi et al., 2005, 2008), which has been widely attributed
to extensive replace-ment of Archaean cratonic lithosphere by juvenile
SCLM during the NCC destruction in Mesozoic (Yang et al., 2008; Zhu
et al., 2011, 2012). At least for the eastern NCC where cratonic
destruction was focused, such juvenile SCLM may be unable to satisfy
the long-term isolation of low-μ materials that is required to generate
EM1-like signatures (e.g., 1–2 Ga; Weaver, 1991; Rehkämper and
Hofmann, 1997). Notably, pyroxenite from ancient SCLM was
suggested to represent the EM1 end-member involved in petrogenesis
of the CHVF basalts (Kimura et al., 2018). However, this hypothesis
cannot reconcile with the spinel-facies peridotite xenoliths
characterized by Phanerozoic Hf model ages (Park et al., 2017).
Fig. 18. (a) FC3MS value versus Mg-number for the CHVF basalts. FC3MS = FeO/CaO – 3 × MgO/SiO 2. Partial melts of peridotite and pyroxenite are shown for
comparison (Yang and Zhou, 2013). Compositions of global OIB are compiled from the GEOROC database. (b) (Zn/Fe) × 10,000 versus Mg-number for the CHVF
basalts. Reference Zn/Fe ratios for peridotite melts are from Le Roux et al. (2010). Data sources and symbols are as in Fig. 14.
M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
Considering the juvenile SCLM with DM-like isotopic compositions,
Choi et al. (2005, 2006) argued that the EM1-like components may
originate from asthenosphere, but little information was given on how
such EM1-like materials formed. Recycled ancient oceanic crust and
sediments isolated for > 1 Ga were considered as source materials of
the EM1-like components following a mantle plume model (Qian et al.,
143 144 2015), as also suggested for the origin of OIB (Rehkämper and
Nd/ Nd and
Hofmann, 1997). However, the CHVF basalts cannot be explained by
(intermediate mantle plume model as discussed below. Li et al. (2016a, 2017a) pro-
posed that garnet pyroxenites generated by reaction between the
peridotite and ancient (> 1 Ga) subducted materials enriched in
marine sediments are dispersed in the asthenosphere beneath
eastern NCC, which may have provided EM1-like components for
mantle source en-richment of continental intraplate basalts. An earlier
study, however, argues for ancient subducted sediments in the MTZ
and/or the meta-somatized MTZ peridotite related with ancient
sediment dehydration as the agent for EM1 end-member (Kuritani et
al., 2011). Considering the possibility of decompression partial melting
triggered by either asthe-nospheric mantle convection (i.e., upwelling)
or MTZ-derived as-cending flow, it is reasonable to question that the
metasomatized source lithology [either peridotite (Kuritani et al., 2011)
204
or pyroxenite (Li et al., 2016a, 2017a)] or the ancient subducted
sediments (Kuritani et al., 2011, 2013; Wang et al., 2017) are difficult
to remain long-term (> 1 Ga) isolation since the ancient deep
subduction events.
7.1.2.2. Geochemical fingerprints of the deeply subducted Pacific slab.
Conventional binary mixing models, either DM-EM1 or FOZO-
LOMU/EM1, argue against significant contributions from the seismically
detected Pacific slab in the MTZ to magma origin (e.g., Basu et al.,
1991; Chen et al., 2007; Zou et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2015a; Kimura
et al., 2018). However, it is noted that the DUPAL-like Pb isotopes of
the CHVF basalts cannot be well explained by simple binary mixing
between end-members such as DM and EM1 (Fig. 17c and d; Zindler
and Hart, 1986). Although an Indian-type MORB source showing
affinities with recycled LCC (Escrig et al., 2004; Hanan et al., 2004;
Meyzen et al., 2005) could account for such DUPAL anomaly, the
SreNd isotopic compositions of the CHVF basalts exclude the
possibility of derivation from the Indian-type mantle source. Therefore,
additional components are required to account for the Sr-Nd-Pb
isotope systematics.
Kuritani et al. (2011) proposed that recent sediments from sub-ducted
Pacific slab can act as the required components in addition to ancient
subducted sediments (i.e., EM1-like), which have collectively fertilized
mantle source of the CHVF basalts via ancient and recent dehydration
events. This model is opposite to an earlier perspective that
36
argued against contributions from the Pacific slab-derived fluids to
petrogenesis of the CHVF basalts based on their significant Th
excess and low U/Th ratios (Zou et al., 2008; Zou and Fan, 2011). The
con-trasting interpretation may lead to a question on nature and
element transfer capacity of subduction-related fluid/melt/supercritical
fluid phases under different P-T conditions (i.e., sub-arc depth versus
MTZ depth). We suggest that contributions from the Pacific slab-
derived materials to origin of the CHVF basalts are important from an
isotope perspective. For example, subducting sediments from the
206 204 143
present-day Japan Trench have high Pb/ Pb, low
87 86
and high Sr/ Sr ratios (Plank, 2014) and can well complement the
DM-EM1 binary mixing model (Fig. 17). More importantly, low δ Mg
signatures of the CHVF basalts reveal their derivation from carbonated
peridotite source (Li et al., 2017b), which was attributed to sedimentary
carbo-nates recycled via deep subduction of oceanic slabs (including
the Pa-cific plate) into the MTZ based on temporal and spatial
variations in Mg isotopes of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic continental
basalts from eastern China (Li et al., 2017b).
Subducted Pacific oceanic crust is also likely to participate in mantle
enrichment, because carbonated MORB (eclogite) would release car-
bonatite melts in the MTZ when considering the Pacific plate with a ‘cold’
subduction geotherm (Syracuse et al., 2010; Thomson et al., 2016).
FC3MS (= FeO/CaO – 3 × MgO/SiO2; Yang and Zhou, 2013) values of the
CHVF basalts exhibit a broad range (0.46–1.89; Fig. 18a), which may
suggest partial melting of pyroxenite in mantle source. Compared to
peridotite partial melts, the CHVF basalts have higher Zn/ Fe ratios (Fig.
18b), which can be explained by source lithologies that have clinopyroxene
and/or garnet as the main phases during melting (e.g., eclogite or garnet
pyroxenite; Le Roux et al., 2010). In addition, Choi et al. (2017) proposed
that high Zr/Hf ratios of the CHVF basalts are related with mantle source
composed of garnet peridotite and clinopyroxene-rich eclogite, with the
latter possibly represented by subducted Pacific oceanic crust. Notably, the
non-peridotite lithologies derived from the subducting Pacific slab revealed
by major and trace elements must be further constrained from the aspect of
Sr-Nd-Pb iso-topic compositions. This would be benefit to quantitative
modeling of basalt petrogenesis, with the aim of revealing to what extent
different mantle source components contributed to origin of the CHVF
basalts. The involvement of subducted Pacific oceanic crust in magma
origin has also been proposed for other Late Cenozoic continental
intraplate basalts in NE China (Xu, 2014; Chen et al., 2015; Chen et al.,
2017b; Tian et al., 2016a).
7.1.3. Magma genesis and related open questions
As discussed above, elemental and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic characteristics of
the CHVF basalts suggest contributions from the following end-members or
source components: DM, EM1 and subduction-related materials, which
formed an enriched mantle source via mechanical mixing and fluid-/melt-
rock interaction. The DM end-member is most likely represented by garnet-
facies peridotite in the BMW, whereas origin of the EM1 end-member
remains highly controversial. Interaction between the DM-like peridotite and
carbonatite melts re-leased by deeply subducted oceanic slabs in the MTZ
led to formation of carbonated peridotite, which may have existed beneath
eastern China since the end of Early Cretaceous as a result of deep
subduction of the Izanagi and Pacific plates (Li et al., 2017b). In general, a
MTZ-derived plume that incorporated carbonated peridotite, EM1-like
components and the Pacific slab-derived materials could account for
chemical geo-dynamics of the CHVF basalts (see details in Section 7.3.2).
Never-theless, there are still several open questions on magma genesis.
The CHVF basalts were commonly taken as a whole when under-
standing magma origin and evolution (e.g., Zou et al., 2008; Kuritani et
al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2015a). However, observed compositional
diversities indicate that the alkaline and tholeiitic basalts evolved from
different primary magmas (Fig. 16), which requires future work to re-
veal the cause of this geochemical diversity. Another open question of
M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
230
particular concern is the genesis of post-shield basalts that are coeval with
cone-construction stage of the Tianchi volcano (Fig. 12a). As previously
reported, the relationship between post-shield eruptions of basaltic
magmas and the synchronous eruptions of intermediate to si-licic magmas
is still poorly known. One of the major issues in igneous petrology is the
dearth of intermediate magmas in different tectonic settings and magmatic
144
provinces (Charlier et al., 2011), which has also been observed at the
Nd/ Nd CHVF polygenetic volcanoes (Fan et al., 1998b, 2007; Liu et al., 2015a). A
few volcanic rocks with intermediate com-positions, ranging in age from
26
Late Pliocene to Holocene (Figs. 11 and 12a), are reported in the CHVF as
lava or volcanic pyroclasts (e.g., la-titic tephra erupted by the ME; Fan et
al., 2005; Ramos et al., 2016). The potentially important intermediate
magmas can be considered as the missing link between basaltic magmas
and silicic magmas (Fig. 15). However, their field outcrops, petrography,
mineralogy and geochem-istry remain poorly studied. Therefore, future
work is required to better understand the potential role of these
intermediate magmas in causing compositional diversity of the polygenetic
volcanoes, especially com-bining detailed studies on eruptive history of
different magma types.
7.2. Geodynamic background of the Changbaishan volcanoes
7.2.1. BMW with or without a gap in the stagnant Pacific slab
There is a general consensus that subducting Pacific slab is hor-
izontally stagnant in the MTZ (e.g., Van der Hilst et al., 1991; Fukao et al.,
1992; Zhao et al., 2004, 2007; Zhou and Wilde, 2013; Lei and Zhao, 2005),
forming a BMW system beneath NE Asia. As a result, the BMW has been
widely invoked as the first-order geodynamic me-chanism responsible for
continental intraplate volcanism in eastern China, in terms of material
contribution (e.g., Kuritani et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2012b; Wang et al., 2015;
Zhang and Guo, 2016; Li et al., 2017b) and dynamic mechanism (e.g.,
Zhao et al., 2004, 2009; Zou et al., 2008; Kuritani et al., 2009; Zhang et al.,
2015a). However, it remains con-troversial that whether there is a gap in
the stagnant Pacific slab or not (Tang et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2017a;
Zhao, 2017; Lei et al., 2018). From the perspective of subduction dynamics,
the presence of a gap in the stagnant slab would definitely cast
uncertainties on chemical geo-dynamics of continental intraplate volcanism
in eastern China, espe-cially for the Changbaishan volcanoes that have
been the focus of this debate (Tang et al., 2014; Takeuchi et al., 2014;
Zhao, 2017).
Most seismic studies revealed a continuous Pacific slab beneath
NE Asia (Zhao et al., 2004; Lei and Zhao, 2005; Huang and Zhao,
2006; Li et al., 2013; Takeuchi et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2017a), which
subducts along the Japan arc with a moderate slab dipping angle (ca.
o o
28 to 31 ; Huang and Zhao, 2006), bends to bottoming above the 660
km seismic discontinuity, and finally becomes horizontally stagnant in
the MTZ (Li et al., 2013). However, a few geophysical studies argued
that there might be a gap in the stagnant Pacific slab (Tang et al.,
2014; Liu et al., 2015b; Guo et al., 2016), which can allow upward
escape of sub-slab materials into the BMW. Takeuchi et al. (2014)
questioned the ex-istence of such gap and proposed that difference in
analysis methods (e.g., absolute P wave traveltimes versus relative S
wave traveltimes) could account for the controversies on continuity of
the stagnant Pacific slab. We suggest that geophysical methods may
be insufficient to con-strain whether there is a gap in the stagnant
Pacific slab or not. Therefore, in the following section, additional
methods (e.g., basalt geochemistry, plate motion reconstruction and
geodynamic simulation) are integrated to give some new insights into
structure of the BMW system. A BMW system with a gap in the
stagnant Pacific slab will be evaluated by analyzing the possibility of
sub-slab materials (i.e., asth-enosphere and lower mantle) as source
components of the CHVF ba-salts.
7.2.2. On the possibility of sub-slab material contributions to magma origin
7.2.2.1. Asthenospheric mantle. Tang et al. (2014) proposed that the
sub-slab materials can be represented by hot and buoyant sub-
37
lithosphere mantle (i.e., asthenosphere) entrained to MTZ depth by the
subducting Pacific slab, which ascended through the gap and directly
contributed to origin of the CHVF magmas as a result of decompression
melting at shallow depth. Following this geodynamic model, Kuritani et al.
(2017) argued for heat (rather than material) contributions from the
upwelling sub-slab materials to partial melting of the hydrous MTZ, which
subsequently led to formation of a MTZ-derived plume feeding the
Changbaishan volcanoes (Kuritani et al., 2011). This is because sub-slab
materials do not have ancient and/or recent subducted sediment
components that are required to explain geochemical characteristics of the
CHVF basalts (Kuritani et al., 2011, 2017).
The above models based on slab-entrained flows appear to be
pos-sible to account for origin of the Changbaishan volcanoes in terms
of material contribution and dynamic mechanism. However, the sub-
ducting slabs may be relatively inefficient at removing sub-slab asthe-
nosphere into MTZ depth (Phipps Morgan et al., 2007), especially for a
scenario in which the local asthenosphere is positively buoyant and
low in viscosity. Some geodynamic models assumed a thickness of ca.
100 km for the slab-entrained flow (Faccenda and Capitanio, 2012;
Song and Kawakatsu, 2012), but such entrained layer of sub-slab
asthenosphere is more likely to be thin (10–30 km; Phipps Morgan et
al., 2007; Long and Silver, 2009), as suggested by the absence of
detectable seismic anisotropy signal for the slab-entrained flows (Long
and Silver, 2008). Furthermore, even if the sub-slab asthenosphere
could be dragged downward by subducting slab to depth exceeding
660 km (Tang et al., 2014), it appears to be volumetrically unrealistic
that the thin layer of entrained asthenosphere could feed the huge gap
(width > 150 km and height > 250 km in a 2D view) and the plume
rising from 410 km depth to bottom of the lithosphere beneath
Changbaishan volcanoes. The possibility of slab-entrained flows en-
tering into MTZ depth may also be questioned by the presence of a
barrier at either the 410 km or 660 km seismic discontinuity (e.g.,
Honda et al., 2007; Long and Silver, 2008, 2009; Long, 2013), which
would hamper efficient downward movement of sub-slab astheno-
sphere. This may be the case for the Pacific subduction zone along
northern Japan, where a seismically detected sub-slab low velocity
anomaly is limited to depth around the 410 km seismic discontinuity
(Obayashi et al., 2006; Honda et al., 2007; Morishige et al., 2010). It is
noted that sub-slab low velocity anomalies, which were interpreted as
slab-entrained asthenosphere by Tang et al. (2014), were actually at-
tributed to high temperature materials with lower mantle affinities in
original studies [upwelling lower mantle (Morishige et al., 2010) or its
melts (Obayashi et al., 2006)].
Global seismic anisotropy observations provide further insights into
mantle flow field in response to plate subduction (Long, 2013). Speci-
fically, it has been revealed that the Pacific subduction zone along
northern Japan is dominated by trench-parallel sub-slab fast splitting
directions (Lynner and Long, 2014), as expected for subducting Pacific
plate (a) with slab age (ranging in 90–135 Ma along the Japan-Kuril
Trench; Sdrolias and Müller, 2006) generally older than 95 Ma (Lynner
o o
and Long, 2014) and (b) with dipping angle (ca. 28 to 31 ; Huang and
o
Zhao, 2006) greater than 25 (Song and Kawakatsu, 2012). This may
reflect dominant lateral movement of asthenospheric mantle beneath
the subducting Pacific slab (rather than the downward slab-entrained
flows), consistent with results of the trench-parallel sub-slab flow
model based on trench migration (Russo and Silver, 1994; Long and
Silver, 2008, 2009; Long, 2013).
We suggest that the role of sub-slab asthenospheric mantle in magma
origin of Changbaishan volcanoes, either as source components (Tang et
al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015b; Guo et al., 2016) or as melting trigger (Kuritani
et al., 2017), is more likely to be insignificant even if assuming a MTZ
model with a gap in the stagnant Pacific slab. Ad-ditionally, sub-slab
asthenosphere could contribute to chemical geo-dynamics of the BMW via
subduction of the Izanagi-Pacific ridge (IPR) and subsequent Izanagi slab
detachment, which possibly occurred at ca. 60–50 Ma ago (e.g., Whittaker
et al., 2007; Seton et al., 2015).
38
M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
However, the IPR subduction and slab break-off are temporally far
earlier than onset of the Changbaishan volcanism (ca. 5 Ma),
suggesting that sub-slab asthenospheric mantle contributed little to
shield-forming basalts in the CHVF.
7.2.2.2. Lower mantle. An alternative source of sub-slab materials is
the lower mantle. The conventional arguments against a deep mantle
plume rooted from the core-mantle boundary have been put forward in
previous studies (Kuritani et al., 2011; Tang et al., 2014), but the
potential involvement of lower mantle materials in magma origin of the
Changbaishan volcanoes needs to be evaluated. First, sinking of the
partially tearing Pacific slab into the lower mantle (if occurred) has the
potential to trigger rising of the lower mantle materials into the BMW,
but this possibility was discarded by Tang et al. (2014). Second, mass-
conserving counter flows in response to sinking of the Izanagi slab into
the lower mantle could also lead to rising of the lower mantle materials
into the BMW. This scenario may be related with a slab break-off event
along the IPR (Seton et al., 2015; Kimura et al., 2018), but it does not
necessarily require the presence of a gap in the stagnant Pacific slab.
To better understand origin of the CHVF basalts, however, the
above dynamically feasible models must be evaluated by additional
con-straints (e.g., basalt geochemistry) on whether the lower mantle
ma-terials contributed to magma origin or not. One of the basic
arguments supporting the involvement of the lower mantle materials in
magma origin is the excess mantle potential temperature (i.e., T p)
compared to that of ambient mantle (∆T p = 200–300 °C; Herzberg et
al., 2007), which commonly suggests the presence of hot upwelling
3 4
lower mantle. Moreover, magmatic volatiles with He/ He ≫ 8 RA can
also be asso-ciated to undegassed lower mantle (Hilton and Porcelli,
2003). For volcanoes with lower mantle affinities, such petrological and
geo-chemical constraints are generally consistent with seismically
detected low velocity anomaly rooted from lower mantle, such as
Hainan (Wang et al., 2012; Huang, 2014), Hawaii (French and
Romanowicz, 2015; Harrison et al., 2017) and Iceland (Hilton et al.,
1999; Stefánsson et al., 2017).
Kimura et al. (2018) reported mantle potential temperatures of the
CHVF basalts, which are 1410 °C (Haku-3) and 1330 °C (Haku-7), re-
spectively. The above Tp values, together with additional estimates for
continental intraplate basalts in East Asia (Tp = 1280–1440 °C), were
taken as the argument for interaction between a deep high-Tp plume
and the subducted Pacific slab in the form of entraining colder igneous
oceanic lithosphere (Kimura et al., 2018). However, the Tp variation
may be difficult to act as robust evidence for involvement of high-T p
lower mantle materials in magma origin of Changbaishan volcanoes.
For example, the higher Tp of sample Haku-3 may be less reliable due
to contributions from Archean SCLM pyroxenite as suggested by
Kimura et al. (2018). This statement appears to be puzzling, because
sample Haku-3 with > 35% pyroxenite contributions from Archean
SCLM of the NCC (commonly cold; Griffin et al., 1998; Rudnick et al.,
1998; He, 2015) yields higher Tp relative to sample Haku-7 with < 25%
Archean SCLM pyroxenite contributions in the FOZO-EM1 mixing
model of Kimura et al. (2018). Moreover, the lower Tp is essentially
comparable to normal asthenosphere (Tp = 1350 ± 50 °C; Herzberg et
al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009), which may suggest non-essential
contributions from hot lower mantle materials. In fact, the sample
Haku-7 with a KeAr age of 20.7 Ma (Kuritani et al., 2009) belongs to
the pre-shield basalts as mentioned in Section 4.1.1, and thus cannot
reflect the mantle thermal state of the predominant shield-forming
basalts with ages peaking in Early Pleistocene.
The CHVF hydrothermal volatiles are characterized by elevated
3 4
He/ He ratios (0.85–6.75 RA), suggesting significant contributions from
mantle-derived melts that are stored beneath Tianchi volcano (Zhang et al.,
3 4
2015b). Although continental crust ( He/ He = 0.02 RA; Lupton, 1983) could
variably contaminate volatiles from magma chamber (Zhang et al., 2015b),
3 4
the absence of extremely high He/ He (≫8 RA; Sano and Fischer, 2013)
distinguish Changbaishan volcanoes

Fig. 19. Helium isotope comparison between hydrothermal fluid samples from
continental intraplate volcanic fields (CHVF, B & R and Europe) and those with
mantle plume affinities (Iceland, Yellowstone and Azores). Abbreviations: CHVF,
Changbaishan volcanic field; B & R, Basin and Range. Data sources: CHVF
(Shangguan et al., 1996, 1997; Gao, 2004; Gao et al., 2006, 2010; Hahm et al.,
2008; Li et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015b; Wei et al., 2016), B & R (Kennedy and
van Soest, 2007), Europe (Bräuer et al., 2013, 2017, 2018), Iceland (Hilton et al.,
1990; Poreda et al., 1992; Füri et al., 2010), Yellowstone (Craig et al., 1978;
Chiodini et al., 2012; Lowenstern et al., 2015) and Azores (Jean-Baptiste et al.,
2009).
39
M. Zhang et al.
subduction dynamics (e.g., trench retreat, slab rollback and sinking
into the MTZ; Sdrolias and Müller, 2006; Faccenna et al., 2012; Liu et
al., 2017b). Therefore, the NE China magmatism may be correlated to
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
from those with lower mantle affinities (Fig. 19; e.g., 3.14–30.4 RA of
the Icelandic hydrothermal fluids; Stefánsson et al., 2017). Ad-
3 4
ditionally, He/ He ratios of the CHVF samples are comparable to
those from typical continental intraplate volcanic fields worldwide (Fig.
19), such as the Basin and Range in western North America (0.02–
7.44 RA; Kennedy and van Soest, 2007) and western and central
Europe (0.10–6.36 RA; Bräuer et al., 2013, 2017, 2018). Thus, the
helium data does not support the presence of lower mantle materials
in mantle source of the Changbaishan volcanoes. To better constrain
3 4
the possi-bility of lower mantle involvement, future studies on He/ He
ratios of early-stage phenocrysts (e.g., olivine and clinopyroxene) in
basaltic lavas need to be carried out.
7.3. Changbaishan volcanism in response to deep subduction of the
Pacific slab
Combined with constraints from geochemical indicators (i.e., basalt and
volatile), geophysical observations and geodynamic simulations, we prefer
a BMW system with continuous stagnant Pacific slab in the MTZ as
described in most seismic studies (e.g., Zhao et al., 2009; Zhao and Tian,
2013; Tian et al., 2016b; Chen et al., 2017a), which excludes contributions
from sub-slab materials to origin of the Changbaishan volcanoes. In this
review, deep subduction of the Pacific slab during Late Cenozoic time can
be invoked as the dominant control on regional tectono-magmatism in NE
Asia (Fig. 20a), such as opening of the Japan Sea and the Changbaishan
volcanism. From a geodynamic perspective, the role of subducting Pacific
slab is related to episodic changes in the Pacific-Eurasia convergence rate
(Northrup et al., 1995) and related
Fig. 20. Geodynamic framework accounting for origin
of Changbaishan volcanoes in continental in-traplate
setting. (a) Rollback and sinking into the MTZ of the
subducting Pacific slab between 25 Ma and 15 Ma
following a shallow-angle subduction stage (55–25
Ma). The greatest trench retreat oc-curred in 25–15
Ma (Sdrolias and Müller, 2006), which agrees well
with opening of the Japan Sea (ca. 21–14 Ma;
Tatsumi et al., 1989, 1990). Abbrevia-tions: A, Japan
arc volcanism; B, Japan Sea vol-canism; C, Pre-
shield basaltic volcanism in the CHVF.
(b) Formation of the BMW system beneath NE Asia
via bottoming, thickening and flattening of the Pa-cific slab in the MTZ since 15
Ma. Changbaishan volcanoes have been fed by a MTZ-derived plume that
incorporated fragments of carbonated perido-tite, ancient recycled EM1-like
components and the Pacific slab-derived materials (e.g., oceanic crust and
sediments) since Pliocene. The question mark de-notes uncertainty on origin of
the EM1-like compo-nents, which remains highly controversial. NSGL represents
North-South gravity lineament.
the complex dynamics of the Pacific slab, as described in details in the
next section.
7.3.1. Formation of the present-day BMW system
Accompanied by subduction along eastern margin of the Eurasian
continent, the Izanagi plate gradually came to its end in Early
Cenozoic (ca. 65–50 Ma; Whittaker et al., 2007; Müller et al., 2008;
Seton et al., 2012, 2015). On the basis of a gap between stagnant
Pacific plate in the MTZ and high seismic velocity anomaly in the lower
mantle (Li et al., 2008; Obayashi et al., 2013; Honda, 2016), an Early
Cenozoic slab break-off event was inferred to have occurred beneath
the Japan arc in response to the IPR subduction between 60 Ma and
50 Ma (Whittaker et al., 2007; Seton et al., 2015). Time and location of
the Izanagi slab break-off event are supported by geological
observations in Japan (Agar et al., 1989) and geodynamic modeling
results of ridge subduction (Burkett and Billen, 2009), which are also
consistent with (a) sub-parallel intersection between the IPR and
eastern Eurasian continent (Whittaker et al., 2007; Seton et al., 2015)
and (b) the Eocene Pacific plate reorganization (Whittaker et al., 2007;
O'Connor et al., 2013; Seton et al., 2015).
Following the Izanagi slab break-off, a new mantle wedge system was
established by continuous subduction of the Pacific plate with a lower
o
dipping angle compared to that of the present-day BMW (ca. 30 ; Huang
and Zhao, 2006). Shallow-angle Pacific subduction process (Fig. 20a),
which may be confined to the time range of 55–25 Ma (i.e., prior to the
Pacific trench retreat acceleration at ca. 25 Ma; Sdrolias and Müller, 2006),
has close affinities with young age of the Pacific oceanic lithosphere during
its initial subduction stage (ca. 0–30 Ma taking into account cessation time
of the IPR spreading; Seton et al., 2012). Moreover, continuous subduction
of the aging Pacific slab and resultant increasing slab pull force since 55
Ma (Sdrolias and Müller, 2006; Faccenna et al., 2012; Seton et al., 2015)
are in good agreement with increase of the Pacific-Eurasia convergence
rate from 30 to 40 mm/yr in Early Eocene to 70–95 mm/yr in Late
Oligocene (Northrup et al., 1995).
Shallow-angle subduction of the Pacific plate during 55–25 Ma created
favorable conditions for subsequent slab rollback and trench retreat that
accounted for formation of the Japan Sea during ca. 21–14 Ma (Fig. 20a).
Previous studies have demonstrated that (a) slab rollback could lead to a
marked increase in slab pull force (exceeding that of ridge push) and thus
trench retreat (Capitanio et al., 2010), (b) relatively fast trench retreat is
commonly accompanied by rollback of the slab when its absolute
subduction velocity slows down (Schellart, 2005). It is noted that the
Pacific-Eurasia convergence rate experienced a decrease from 70 to 95
mm/yr in Late Oligocene to 65–70 mm/yr in Early to Middle Miocene
(Northrup et al., 1995), which may have close affinities with subduction
dynamics of the Pacific slab such as slab rollback and trench retreat. More
importantly, the greatest trench re-treat occurred between 25 Ma and 15
Ma with a rate of 45 mm/yr compared to a trench-ward motion rate of 15
mm/yr for the overriding Eurasian plate (Sdrolias and Müller, 2006), in good
agreement with development of the Japan Sea during ca. 21–14 Ma
(Tatsumi et al., 1989, 1990) and Late Cenozoic continental rifting and basin
subsidence in eastern China (Ye et al., 1987; Gilder et al., 1991; Tian et al.,
1992; Ren et al., 2002). As shown in Fig. 20a, the pre-shield stage (ca. 23–
10 Ma) of basaltic volcanism in the CHVF may be triggered by
asthenosphere upwelling associated with rollback of the subducting Pacific
slab. From the point of view of the subduction dynamics, the shallow-angle
subducting Pacific slab (55–25 Ma) started to rollback, bend and sink into
the MTZ between 25 Ma and 15 Ma (Fig. 20a), which is consistent with
calculated stagnation time of the Pacific slab in the MTZ (< 10–20 Ma; Liu
et al., 2017b). Due to continuous plate con-vergence since ca. 15 Ma,
subducted Pacific slab finally sank into the MTZ and became flattened
above the 660 km depth discontinuity,
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Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
leading to formation of the present-day BMW system (Fig. 20b). After
the greatest Pacific trench retreat between 25 Ma and 15 Ma,
the Japan Sea gradually ceased to open at ca. 14 Ma and experienced
a thermal subsidence (Yoshida et al., 2014). This may be caused by
thickening of back-arc lithosphere and resultant deepening of asthe-
nospheric mantle (Tatsumi et al., 1994), suggesting the influence of
temporal variations in mantle thermal state from arc to back-arc set-
tings since 14 Ma (Yoshida et al., 2014). Subsequently, the overriding
Eurasian continent and Japan arc continued to move trench-ward to
their present locations (Miller et al., 2006), which corresponds to an
acceleration in plate convergence since Late Miocene with a high Pa-
cific subduction velocity (106 mm/yr; Northrup et al., 1995) relative to
the Eurasian continent. Goes et al. (2008) calculated that subducted
length of the Pacific slab along the Japan-Kuril arc during the past 25
Ma is in the order of 1500–2000 km. This result agrees with the
calculated length (ca. 1950 km) of the subducted Pacific slab since 25
Ma, if we adopt the reconstructed Pacific subduction velocities in
Northrup et al. (1995) and a trench-ward motion velocity of 10 mm/yr
for the overriding Eurasian plate (Schellart, 2005). Taking into account
the shallow-angle subduction stage (55–25 Ma), the calculated total
length (ca. 3500 km) of subducted Pacific slab would be significantly
higher than that estimated from the seismically imaged BMW system
at present (ca. 2500 km). We suggest that this discrepancy can be re-
conciled by a slab accommodation in the MTZ (Fig. 20b), such as slab
bending and thickening under hydrous conditions (Kameyama and
Nishioka, 2012; Li et al., 2013).
7.3.2. MTZ-derived plume feeding the Changbaishan volcanoes
Subducting oceanic lithosphere has the capacity to transport water
into the MTZ via high-pressure hydrous minerals or subduction-induced
convection (e.g., Bercovici and Karato, 2003; Hirschmann, 2006;
Maruyama and Okamoto, 2007; Schmandt et al., 2014). Long-term (10–20
Ma; Liu et al., 2017b) dehydration of stagnant Pacific slab since its sinking
into the MTZ, together with dehydration of the previously subducted
oceanic lithosphere such as the Izanagi slab (He, 2015; Niu et al., 2015),
have been suggested to account for formation of a hydrous MTZ beneath
NE Asia (Richard et al., 2006; Zhao and Ohtani, 2009; Sheng et al., 2016;
Tian et al., 2016b). Moreover, experimental studies revealed that low-
degree partial melting of carbonate-bearing sedi-ments and/or carbonated
oceanic crust would result in carbonatite melts when the subducting slab
with average geotherm enters into deeper mantle depth (e.g., the MTZ;
Thomson et al., 2016). This is plausible for deep subduction of the Pacific
slab along the Japan arc, as suggested by its relatively cold subduction
geotherm (Syracuse et al., 2010) and continental basalts from eastern
China that sourced recycled sedimentary carbonate in the MTZ (Yang et
al., 2012; Li et al., 2017b).
Similar to mantle wedge plume at sub-arc depth in response to
Rayleigh-Taylor instability (Gerya and Yuen, 2003; Faccenna et al., 2010),
hydrated thermal-chemical plume can also originate from the MTZ (Motoki
and Ballmer, 2015), as suggested by numerical modeling results for
continental intraplate volcanoes such as Changbaishan (Richard and
Iwamori, 2010; Sheng et al., 2016; He, 2017). This is consistent with the
expected reduction in mantle viscosity triggered by release of water and
carbonatite melts from subducting Pacific slab (He, 2015, 2017). It may not
be occasional that the MTZ-derived plume was formed beneath
Changbaishan volcanoes, because bending of the sub-ducting Pacific slab
beneath western Japan Sea and its westward flat-tening in the MTZ would
contribute to fragmentation, accumulation, dehydration and partial melting
of the Pacific slab (Fig. 20b). Sig-nificant depression of the 410 km and 660
km depth discontinuities beneath the Changbaishan volcanoes (Tian et al.,
2016b; Zhang et al., 2016b) may suggest slab bending and thickening
accompanied by phase transformation (Kawakatsu and Yoshioka, 2011; Li
et al., 2013), which is consistent with the detected deep earthquake
clusters near the de-pression region (Zhao and Tian, 2013; Tian et al.,
2016b).
As suggested by basalt geochemistry (Kuritani et al., 2011; Li et al.,
2017b) and constraints on deep carbon cycling (Thomson et al., 2016),
hydrous carbonatite melts released by the Pacific slab since its sinking
into the MTZ would act as metasomatic agents for overriding mantle
peridotite and lead to formation of carbonated peridotite. In response
to the effect of Rayleigh-Taylor instability, a MTZ-derived plume would
ascend and incorporate fragments of carbonated peridotite, ancient
recycled EM1-like components and the Pacific slab-derived materials
(e.g., oceanic crust and sediments), which subsequently experienced
decompression melting and triggered Changbaishan volcanism (Fig.
20b). Similar upper mantle plumes have also been invoked to account
for circum-Mediterranean anorogenic Cenozoic igneous pro-vince
(Granet et al., 1995; Lustrino and Wilson, 2007). Combined with
regional geodynamic framework of NE Asia since Late Cenozoic, we
suggest that deep subduction of the Pacific slab could well explain
origin of Changbaishan volcanoes in continental intraplate setting from
the perspective of material contribution and dynamic mechanism. Our
interpretation is similar to that proposed for the origin of continental
intraplate volcanoes in western North America, which may be related
with deep subduction of the Farallon slab into the MTZ (e.g., Faccenna
et al., 2010; Long et al., 2012).
7.4. Crustal magmatic structure beneath the CHVF
7.4.1. Magma reservoir inferred from geophysical observations High-
resolution lithospheric profiles revealed by a series of geo-
physical methods provide important insights into structure of crustal
magmatic system beneath active Tianchi volcano (e.g., Hetland et al.,
2004; Choi et al., 2013; Ri et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2017). These geo-
physical data complement crust-mantle structure of the BMW (Zhao et
al., 2004, 2009; Takeuchi et al., 2014; Tian et al., 2016b) over a
localized spatial scale. Previous geophysical studies on crustal
structure mainly focused on the Chinese side of Tianchi volcano (e.g.,
Zhang et al., 2002a, 2002b; Hetland et al., 2004; Choi et al., 2013; Kim
et al., 2017), but recently a few studies reported data collected from
the North Korean side of Tianchi volcano (Choi et al., 2013; Ri et al.,
2016). Collectively, the available data have contributed to a better
under-standing of the spatial location, depth and thermal state of
inferred magma reservoirs.
Recent surface wave dispersion model reveals a relatively deeper
Moho interface (ca. 40 km; Fig. 21a) and thus thickened crust beneath
Tianchi and adjacent volcanoes (Kim et al., 2017), which is slightly
Fig. 21. (a) Double layered magmatic structure for Tianchi volcano (modified from Kim et al., 2017). Detailed description of Bayesian inversion and simplified model is
presented in Kim et al. (2017). (b) Crustal electric conductivity profile revealed by magnetotelluric data (modified from Stone, 2011). (c) Pressure versus temperature for
volcanic rocks in the CHVF based on results of clinopyroxene-liquid thermobarometer. A possible location of magma reservoir feeding the ME is shown according to
calculation of Iacovino et al. (2016).
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Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
deeper than previously estimated Moho depth (30–35 km; Zhang et
al., 2002b; Song et al., 2007) based on P wave travel time data. This
dis-crepancy can be explained by the presence of localized partial
melts overlying mafic intrusion in crust, which can result in (a)
impedance of P wave at the lithological boundary and (b) unclear
crustal interface for P wave (Kim et al., 2017). Based on the variations
in VP/VS ratios, Kim et al. (2017) proposed that the Tianchi volcano is
characterized by a double layered magmatic system (Fig. 21a), which
consists of (1) an upper layer (15–20 km to 30–35 km) characterized
by lower VP/VS ratios and felsic compositions and (2) a lower layer
(30–35 km to 40 km) characterized by relatively higher V P/VS ratios
and mafic compositions. Along a horizontal direction, the V P/VS ratio
increases from 1.84 for seismic station ~20 km east of Tianchi volcano
to > 1.87 for the station directly at the volcano (Ri et al., 2016). This
feature corresponds to the effects of partial melts at lower crustal
depth (30–40 km; Ri et al., 2016), as suggested by the double layered
mag-matic system based on ambient noise data (Kim et al., 2017) and
high conductivity body in the middle to lower crust (12–45 km; Tang et
al., 2001). Additionally, the low Bouguer anomalies observed at the
Tianchi volcano also suggest a low density zone in the lower crust
(Choi et al., 2013).
It could be concluded that magma reservoirs are directly located
beneath Tianchi volcano. However, the structure of crustal magmatic
system may be far more complex. For example, P wave travel time
data suggest that there are at least three low velocity zones (LVZs) in
a vertical direction between 10 km depth and the Moho interface
(Zhang et al., 2002a, 2002b). It has also been noted that the most
significant high conductivity at middle crustal depth (Fig. 21b) differs
from the seismically detected LVZs in the lower crust (Ri et al., 2016;
Kim et al., 2017). The crustal electric conductivity profile also suggests
the pre-sence of a few high conductivity bodies at shallower depth (ca.
1–5 km; Tang et al., 2001). As indicated by the extensive hydrothermal
activities at Tianchi volcano (Zhang et al., 2015b), the magma
chamber may remain partially molten and have a high thermal state
(Kim et al., 2017), in contrast to the inferred completely cooled magma
chambers beneath the Wangtian'e and Namphothe volcanoes (Choi et
al., 2013; Kim et al., 2017).
7.4.2. Petrological constraints on magma reservoir
As discussed above, magma differentiation of Tianchi volcano is
controlled by fractional crystallization in a nearly closed system, where
the residual melts change in composition from basalt to trachyte and
rhyolite. Mingling processes are subordinate and restricted to the ME
pumices. In this section, P-T conditions of the crystallization processes
are calculated based on thermometers and barometers for volcanic
systems (Putirka, 2008; Masotta et al., 2013; see details in Supple-
mentary Table S2). The structure of crustal magmatic system beneath
Tianchi volcano will be discussed in combination of estimates from
other studies (e.g., Iacovino et al., 2016). As shown in Fig. 21c, the
results of clinopyroxene-liquid thermobarometer indicate that the
shield-forming basaltic magmas experienced fractional crystallization
mainly at lower crustal depth to uppermost mantle depth (ca. 19–45
km corresponding to pressure of 5.1–11.8 kbar assuming an average
3
crustal density of 2700 kg/m ; T = 1135–1200 °C). We suggest that the
pet-rological constraints on magma chamber depth are consistent with
the LVZs and high conductivity bodies revealed by geophysical studies
(Tang et al., 2001; Zhang et al., 2002a, 2002b; Ri et al., 2016; Kim et
al., 2017). Crystallization depths of trachytic and rhyolitic magmas of
Tianchi volcano may be very shallow (Fig. 21c). Melt inclusion studies
on the ME comendite reveal melt H 2O contents of ~1–4 wt% (corre-
sponding to pressure of ~150–900 bars), suggesting a magma
chamber at depths between 0.5 and 3.5 km (Iacovino et al., 2016).
Basaltic magmas underplated at lower crustal depth and stalled to
form a magma chamber, where minerals started to crystalize. As such,
residual melts segregated from the solid phases (i.e., crystal mush;
Cashman et al., 2017) and ascended to shallower depth until eruption.
As sug-gested by the model described in Cashman et al. (2017),
vertical de-velopment of crustal magmatic system beneath the Tianchi
volcano may be more complex. Nevertheless, the petrological results
agree well with the geophysical information and the close
correspondence be-tween the two data sets favors a model in which
two overlapping re-servoirs characterize the present-day magma
plumbing system of the Tianchi volcano. Future work is needed to
constrain the size and geo-metry of such reservoirs.
7.4.3. Tectonic control on magma ascent in the crust
The CHVF volcanoes spatially define a NW-SE trending alignment
(Fig. 22), with the polygenetic, larger volcanoes located at its southern
Fig. 22. Density map (number of vents/area) of the CHVF volcanoes (data from Fig. 1), epicenter of the 2009–2013 crustal earthquakes (data from Yu et al., 2015), and
isolines of uplift and subsidence rate from leveling data (Ji et al., 2014). The fault trace is from Yu et al. (2015) and Deng et al. (2007).
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Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
tip. Independent seismic and tectonic data (Yu et al., 2015) indicate that the
epicenters of tectonic earthquakes occurred in the CHVF be-tween 2009
and 2013 are also aligned along a rough NW-SE direction. These
observations suggest the occurrence of an up to 50 km deep fault crossing
the crust located just below the CHVF (Fig. 22). According to Yu et al.
(2015), this structure is affected by a transpressional stress regime
characterized by a WNW-ESE maximum compression compa-tible with
prevailing left-lateral movements along the NW-SE strike of the inferred
fault (Fig. 22). In addition, this fault and the CHVF vents are located in an
area separating two crustal sectors with different deformation fields. To the
left of the fault, the leveling data show an area subjected to a 1 to 2 mm/yr
uplift, whereas to the right, a sub-sidence of −1 to −2 mm/yr occurs ( Ji et
al., 2014). Therefore, the CHVF vents are located along a NW-SE left-
lateral strike-slip fault along which an active flexure of the crust is located.
These NW-SE trending strike-slip faults cross the major NE-SW structures
delimiting the major basin of NE China, i.e., the Songliao Basin (Deng et
al., 2007; Liu et al., 2007a). A tomography profile paralleled to the CHVF
alignment also shows a 60 to 200 km deep, low V s lens extending from the
Tianchi volcano northwestward to the southern boundary of the Songliao
Basin (Guo et al., 2018). The above geological and geophysical data
strongly suggest that melts from the uppermost mantle ascend in the crust
along a NW-SE trending strike-slip fault zone, a major crustal discontinuity
along which the CHVF volcanoes form. As concerns the occurrence of the
polygenetic volcanoes to the south of CHVF, the available data do not allow
us to give a well-constrained explanation. As a preliminary hypothesis, we
suggest that the thicker (about 40 km thick; Zhang et al., 2014) continental
crust in the southern sector of the CHVF area could favor the storage of
magma at depth allowing the formation of magma chambers, whereas the
thinner, 30 to 35 km thick crust (Zhang et al., 2013, 2014) of the northern
CHVF sector may favor the uprising of mantle melts to the surface.
7.5. Magma degassing at Tianchi volcano
Magma degassing is one of the most fundamental processes of an
active volcano, which could exert significant influence on eruptive
dynamics and magma evolution in the crust (De Vivo et al., 2005;
Cashman et al., 2017). In this section, we discuss magma degassing
at Tianchi volcano in terms of past eruptions (i.e., the ME) and the pre-
sent-day volatile emissions via hot spring and soil microseepage, and
then propose a model for deep carbon cycle at Tianchi volcano that
could be linked to the stagnant Pacific slab in the MTZ.
7.5.1. Volatile emissions from the ME
Volcanic eruptions, especially explosive silicic eruptions, could
exert significant impact on climate change over a range of temporal
and spatial scales (Robock, 2000, 2015; Sigl et al., 2015). As one of
the most violent eruptions during the past 2000 years (Oppenheimer,
2003, 2011), the ME of Tianchi volcano has drawn considerable
attention from volcanologists worldwide, aimed at evaluating its
climatic impacts by estimating fluxes of volatiles emitted into the
atmosphere (e.g., H2O, CO2, sulfur and halogens; Horn and
Schmincke, 2000; Guo et al., 2002; Iacovino et al., 2016).
Volatile yields of the ME have been estimated based on petrological
(Horn and Schmincke, 2000; Guo et al., 2002) and geochemical (Iacovino
et al., 2016) methods. Petrological method depends on var-iation in volatile
content before (represented by the most evolved phenocryst-hosted melt
inclusions) and after (represented by matrix glass) eruption, if the volume
and density of erupted materials are known (Devine et al., 1984).
Geochemical method proposed by Iacovino et al. (2016) considers gases
generated before and during eruption, as well as additional contributions
from solid phases, which would yield maximum values for the magmatic
volatiles. Taking recent estimates as an example, H 2O (3121 megatons)
dominated the ME volatile inventory, while total yields of CO 2, S, F and Cl
were calculated at 273, 45, 58 and 20 megatons, respectively (Iacovino et
al., 2016). In particular, compared to previously calculated total S flux (2
megatons; Horn and Schmincke, 2000), the ME may have produced a
larger magnitude of sulfur, which is similar to that of the 1815 CE Tambora
eruption (Iacovino et al., 2016). Nevertheless, relatively low sulfate load in
Greenland ice may suggest minimal climate impacts for the ME (Sun et al.,
2014a), in stark contrast to the Tambora eruption and re-lated climate
cooling events (Oppenheimer, 2003). The difference in climatic impacts
between Tianchi and Tambora volcanoes may be caused by distinctive
transportation of sulfate aerosols to the Arctic under the influence of latitude
and season of volcanic eruption (Kravitz and Robock, 2011; Iacovino et al.,
2016).
7.5.2. Present-day greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions
As for the present-day Tianchi volcano, hot springs and soil mi-
croseepage are the dominant pathways for outgassing of volatiles, and
particularly the greenhouse gases (e.g., CO 2) are focused during its
quiescent stage considering the importance of active volcanoes for global
geological carbon emissions (Burton et al., 2013). Bubbling gas from hot
springs consists primarily of CO2, with CH4, N2, He and Ar as minor
species. Based on measurements of gas flow rate for bubbles from
representative hot springs, together with chemical compositions of the
bubbling gases, a preliminary estimate of the total CO 2 and CH4 output
from hot springs at Tianchi volcano was given in Zhang et al. (2011), which
4 2 −1
is 6.90 × 10 and 4.28 × 10 t a , respectively. Wen et al. (2011) and
Zhang et al. (2015b) investigated diffusive CO2 emissions from soil
microseepage on western flank of the Tianchi volcano using accumulation
chamber method. The calculated average soil CO 2 flux ranges in 19–23 g
−2 −1
m d and is significantly lower relative to that of typical active volcanoes
such as Stromboli and Vulcano (Chiodini et al., 1996; Carapezza and
Federico, 2000). Assuming that the flanks of the Tianchi volcano with area
2 petrogenesis. More importantly, the present-day magma degassing at
of ca. 110 km are characterized by similar soil CO 2 flux, total soil CO 2
5 −1
emitted into the atmosphere would be 7.79 × 10 t a (Guo et al., 2014b).
Another type of GHGs emissions is the surface of a volcanic lake, which
emits volatiles through bubbling, evaporation and diffusion through the
water/air interface (Pérez et al., 2011; Mazot and Bernard, 2015). Zhang et
al. (2011) noticed bubbling
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Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
degassing of the Tianchi Caldera Lake, where several ice-free belts
can be observed in winter at hot springs along the lake shoreline (Jin
et al., 2003), but future detailed investigations are required to estimate
CO2 emissions from the Tianchi Caldera Lake. A recent study on
diffusive CO2 emissions from the Yuanchi Lake, NE of Tianchi volcano,
suggested that the minimum CO2 emissions from the lake is ca. 1.76 ×
2 −1
10 t a (Sun et al., 2018). In summary, the up-to-date total output of
5 −1
GHGs emissions from Tianchi volcano is about 8.49 × 10 t a , a
value that should be added to the estimates of global volcanic
subaerial CO2 flux (Burton et al., 2013).
7.5.3. Deep carbon cycle linked to the stagnant Pacific slab
The present-day outgassing of hydrothermal volatiles (mainly CO 2)
from Tianchi volcano is characterized by significant contributions from
3 4
mantle-derived components, as suggested by the elevated He/ He ra-
tios (e.g., 2.70–6.75 RA). However, it remains a matter of debate that
where the mantle-derived components originate (Shangguan et al.,
1996, 1997; Hahm et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2015b; Wei et al., 2016),
which holds the key to understanding carbon cycle processes via
Tianchi volcano. In this review, we emphasize an important criterion
that the volatiles released from magma reservoir should have the
same (or at least similar) source components as those incorporated in
magma genesis, especially for active Tianchi volcano that is widely
suggested to be fed by mantle-derived melts.
Shangguan et al. (1996, 1997) proposed that residual mantle-de-
rived melts stored in the crust may be the source of hydrothermal vo-
latiles, but no information was given with respect to origin of such
mantle-derived melts. The SCLM metasomatized by ancient slab-de-
rived fluids (e.g., the Mesozoic Izanagi subduction) was invoked as
source of the residual melts and hydrothermal volatiles (Hahm et al.,
2008). This model appears to be plausible according to overlapping in
3 4
He/ He between the CHVF hydrothermal volatiles and mantle xeno-
liths entrained in Late Cenozoic basalts from NE China (e.g., 4.80–
7.71 RA; Kim et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2007). However, constraints
from basalt geochemistry suggest that the SCLM is insignificant for
origin of the CHVF magmas. Similarly, the model arguing for
involvement of fluids from both MORB-like mantle and metasomatized
SCLM (Wei et al., 2016) cannot well explain genesis of magma and
the hydro-thermal volatiles. Combined with constraints from basalt
geochemistry and geophysical observations, we favor a more plausible
model invol-ving the stagnant Pacific slab in the MTZ to explain
magma degassing at present (Zhang et al., 2015b).
As discussed above, recycling of water and carbon into the MTZ can be
expected for deeply subducted Pacific plate (Fig. 20b). HeeC isotope
coupling model of Zhang et al. (2015b) quantitatively constrained source
characteristics of the volatile elements following the deep sub-duction
26
scenario, which is particularly supported by low δ Mg values of the CHVF
basalts (Li et al., 2017b). Similar to source components required for origin
of the CHVF basalts, subduction-related materials (e.g., oceanic crust and
sediments) from the Pacific slab also con-tributed to volatile origin during
slab-mantle interaction (Zhang et al., 2015b). This model will provide an
integrated constraint from both volatile (e.g., He and C) and non-volatile
elements (e.g., major and trace elements) for understanding material
cycling mechanism related with deep subduction of the Pacific slab,
differing from other models that are lack of supports from basalt
Tianchi volcano can shed light on the mechanism of deep carbon cycle via
active volcanoes in continental intraplate setting, which has been
demonstrated to have close affinities with deep subduction of oceanic
lithosphere (Litasov et al., 2013; Safonova et al., 2015; Thomson et al.,
2016; Palot et al., 2017).
7.6. Volcanic monitoring
Continuous monitoring of active Tianchi volcano, in terms of vol-
canic seismicity, ground deformation and gas geochemistry, has been
carried out by the Changbaishan Volcano Observatory (CHVO) since
its establishment in 1999 CE (Liu et al., 2006, 2011). In this section,
we summarize recent state of the Tianchi volcano based on available Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52

monitoring records and then look forward to future volcanic monitoring

and potential hazards at Tianchi volcano.
7.6.1. Recent state of active Tianchi volcano
Volcanic seismicity at Tianchi volcano can be categorized into three
time periods (Liu et al., 2017a): 1999–2001 (quiet), 2002–2005 (ac-tive),
and 2006 to present (quiet). During 1999–2001 and 2006 to present, the
seismicity rate was relatively low (10–20 per month; Fig. 23a) and can be
considered as background value (Xu et al., 2012a; Liu et al., 2017a). By
contrast, during the active period that possibly signals magmatic unrest (Xu
et al., 2012a), average seismicity rate in-creased to 72 per month with the
peak value (243 per month) observed
in November 2003, which is also accompanied by an abrupt increase
in cumulative seismic moment (Fig. 23b; Xu et al., 2012a; Liu et al.,
2017a). As shown in Fig. 23c and d, most hypocenters of earthquakes
were clustered under the Tianchi Caldera Lake within the uppermost 5
km of the crust, suggesting possible relationships with pressurization
in the magma chamber (Xu et al., 2012a). The anticipated magma
chamber at shallow depth (e.g., 2–6 km as suggested by a Mogi point
source model; Xu et al., 2012a) coincides with low resistivity body and
low isostatic anomaly under the Tianchi volcano (Tang et al., 2001;
Choi et al., 2013).
Ground deformation measurements documented a clear horizontal
inflation with average rate of ca. 9–20 mm/a during the active period,
together with a cumulative vertical uplift of ca. 68 mm (Xu et al.,
2012a). No strong horizontal displacement away from Tianchi Caldera
Lake was observed after 2006 and simultaneously vertical movement

Fig. 23. Representative monitoring records of Tianchi volcano between 1999 and 2011 (modified from Xu et al., 2012a). (a) Monthly number of earthquakes. (b) A time
series of the monthly maximum magnitude and cumulative seismic moment. (c) Earthquake swarms detected by mobile seismic campaign during the summers of 2002
3 4
and 2003. (d) Relocated earthquake hypocenter distribution at depth of ca. 5 km. (e) Annual variation of He/ He from Jinjiang and Lake Shoreline hot springs. (f)
Monthly variation of CO2 content and He concentration from Julong hot spring.

44
M. Zhang et al. became slow and weak, although vertical gravity subsidence of volcanic
cone was locally detected in 2010 (Liu et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2012a). As for
impacts of the UNEs on the Tianchi volcano, a hypothetical UNE-induced
earthquake (M = 7) would generate ~67 kPa dynamic stress change on the
surface and ~120 kPa in magma chamber (Hong et al., 2016). However, it
is noted that magnitudes of the UNE-induced earthquakes so far are
generally lower than 5.6 (Zhao et al., 2015; Xie and Zhao, 2018).
Additionally, Liu et al. (2017a) performed similar analysis for data recorded
by the CHVO during the UNEs and did not recognize any clear increase of
high-frequency signals during the pas-sage of surface waves of these
events. The lack of changes in the dy-namics of the Tianchi volcano in
response to the UNEs suggests that they are unable to destabilize magma
chamber and trigger eruptions of the Tianchi volcano at least on a short-
term timescale. The effects of repeated UNEs need, in any case, to be
evaluated, especially for those on the country rocks surrounding the
chamber.
Chemical and isotopic compositions of hydrothermal volatiles from hot
springs in the CHVF have been studied since the 1990s (Shangguan et al.,
1996, 1997; Gao et al., 2006, 2010; Hahm et al., 2008; Li et al., 2015;
Zhang et al., 2015b; Wei et al., 2016), which provided important information
for evaluating state of Tianchi volcano during quiescent stage. For
3 4
example, an elevated average He/ He ratio was observed from Jinjiang
hot spring between 2003 and 2006, and consistent high CO 2 content was
also observed in samples from Julong hot spring during the same period
(Fig. 23e and f; Xu et al., 2012a), which may suggest anomalous addition of
magmatic volatiles (i.e., carbon and helium) into shallow hydrothermal
system. Although such geochemical indicators could signal magmatic
unrest beneath an active volcano (Bräuer et al., 2018), it should be noted
that variable degrees of crustal contamination have the potential to modify
chemical and isotopic compositions of the initially degassed volatiles from
magma chamber (Liotta et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2015b, 2016a, 2017).
Therefore,
3 4
Fig. 24. Present-day magma degassing characteristics of Tianchi volcano. The He/ He ratios (a) and δ C values (b) of bubbling gas samples exhibit systematic
variations with distance to Tianchi caldera, suggesting that magma-derived volatiles with minor crustal contamination are mainly emitting from volcanic conduits of
Tianchi caldera. (c) Schematic model showing magma degassing of Tianchi volcano at present (modified from Sano et al., 2015). Abbreviations: A, Yaoshui; B, Julong;
C, Lake Shoreline; D, Jinjiang; E, 18th-valley. Magmatic volatiles released from magma reservoir experienced variable degrees of crustal contamination during their
transportation in shallow hydrothermal system (Zhang et al., 2015b).
45
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Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
continuous and episodic gas sampling and data collection, together
with calculation of volatile inventory, are required in future to ensure
the authenticity of the geochemical indicators in reflecting source
characteristics and magmatic unrest.
In addition to above monitoring records, the characteristics of
magma degassing at Tianchi volcano can also provide constraints on
3 4 13
its current state. As shown in Fig. 24a and b, He/ He ratios and δ C
values of the hydrothermal volatiles exhibit systematic variations re-
lative to their distance to Tianchi caldera, suggesting that the region
affected by present-day magma degassing is mainly limited to its cal-
dera and cone (Fig. 24c). In particular, there are no typical fumaroles
at the Tianchi volcano, in stark contrast to active volcanoes with
intensive magma degassing as indicated by the presence of high-
and/or low-temperature fumaroles (Liotta et al., 2010; Paonita et al.,
2013). Ad-ditionally, almost no sulfur and chlorine were detected in
volatiles from the Tianchi volcano, suggesting a slow release rate of
magmatic vola-tiles that contributed to efficient absorption of such
water-soluble vo-latiles in shallow hydrothermal system (Fischer et al.,
1996; Liotta et al., 2010). This is consistent with the low average soil
CO2 flux re-lated with weak degassing intensity (Zhang et al., 2015b).
Therefore, it can be concluded that Tianchi volcano remains quiet
since the mag-matic unrest between 2002 and 2005.
7.6.2. Potential hazards and future volcanic monitoring
Although being in quiescent stage, potential hazards related with future
eruption of the Tianchi volcano cannot be neglected. The ME with a VEI of
7 provides a good example for studying potential hazards related to future
eruption of Tianchi volcano. At the present, the ha-zards involving the
Tianchi caldera include: (a) ash fall and pyroclastic density currents from
Strombolian to sub-Plinian events, Vulcanian and hydromagmatic
eruptions, (b) hydrothermal explosions in the caldera area, (c) landslides
from strong earthquakes, and (d) lahars from snow
13
melting along outer and inner flanks of the caldera and lake overflows (Liu
and Xiang, 1997; Wei et al., 2003, 2013; Yu et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2018).
Additional hazards are related to the gas emissions (Guo et al., 2002, 2006;
Zhang et al., 2015b). Therefore, volcanic monitoring of the Tianchi volcano
is of great urgency. All the potential hazards should be evaluated on a
statistical basis by collecting additional monitoring data and by
reconstructing the dynamics of the past eruptive, geomorpho-logical and
tectonic events, including the occurrence (or not) of po-tential precursors. In
particular, the integration of seismic, geodetic, geochemical and
petrological data and shallow geophysics exploration is required to
characterize the size, geometry and depth of magma re-servoirs beneath
active volcanoes.
7.7. Global significance of the Changbaishan volcanoes
The intraplate Changbaishan volcanic field and active Tianchi cal-dera
have global significance for understanding the origin of intraplate
volcanism. From a geodynamic point of view, the CHVF shows many
similarities with the Cenozoic intraplate volcanic fields in western and
central Europe (Wilson and Downes, 1991; Lustrino and Wilson, 2007) and
western North America (Christiansen et al., 2002), where deeply subducted
oceanic slabs may also present in the MTZ (Faccenna et al., 2010; Liu and
Stegman, 2012; Long et al., 2012) and the rock suites also vary in
composition from basalts to rhyolites [e.g., Cantal volcano, France (Wilson
et al., 1995); Valles caldera, USA (Kelley et al., 2013)]. The BMW system
and the deep slab dehydration/melting responsible for origin of the
Changbaishan volcanoes could shed light on how the continental intraplate
volcanism could be related to the dynamics of the deep subduction of
oceanic plates. We porpose that the deep subduction of oceanic slabs
accounts for the origin of intraplate volcanoes in con-tinental intraplate
setting as a result of Rayleigh-Taylor instability and a MTZ-derived plume
incorporating subduction-related materials.
Large, destructive eruptions of active Tianchi caldera in historical
times highlight its global significance for the potential volcanic hazards,
especially considering the proximity of the Tianchi caldera to populated
regions of China and neighbor countries (North Korea, South Korea,
Russia and Japan). Although the Tianchi caldera is quiet according to
records of the volcanic monitoring networks, the hazard related to
possible future eruptions has drawn growing attention in recent years
(Stone, 2010, 2011, 2013; Witze, 2016). We suggest that the Tianchi
caldera requires particular studies and public awareness activities for
reducing the risk related to a re-activation of the magmatic system and
eruptions.
8. Concluding remarks
The conclusions of this review on the CHVF can be summarized in
the following main points:
1) Two types of central vent volcanoes characterize the CHVF: i)
polygenetic volcanoes with a summit caldera (i.e., Tianchi, Wangtian'e
and Namphothe) showing diverse magma compositions and long-lived
eruptive history, and ii) monogenetic basaltic vol-canoes with short-
lived eruptions. Minor fissure eruptions of basaltic magmas also
occurred in the CHVF.
2) Pliocene to Early Pleistocene (ca. 5–1 Ma) eruptions of basaltic
magmas led to formation of a shield-like lava plateau, over which the
Tianchi, Wangtian'e and Namphothe volcanoes successively built
volcanic cone by eruptions of intermediate to silicic magmas since
Late Pliocene (ca. 3.14–0.01 Ma). Post-shield eruptions of basaltic
magmas (represented by monogenetic volcanoes) are coeval with
dominant stage of cone-construction at Tianchi volcano (ca. 1–0.01
Ma).
46
M. Zhang et al.
Earth-Science Reviews 187 (2018) 19–52
3) The CHVF basalts consist of alkaline and tholeiitic series that
evolved from different primary magmas. Constraints from basalt
geochemistry suggest an enriched mantle source, which may re-
present a mixture of carbonated peridotite, EM1-like components and
the Pacific slab-derived materials. Alkaline basalts, intermediate
volcanic rocks, trachytes and rhyolites constitute an integrated
spectrum of magma composition that can be explained by closed
system fractionation processes. Minor mingling characterizes the
pumices of the ME.
4) According to constraints from geochemistry, geophysics and geo-
dynamics, a BMW with continuous stagnant Pacific slab in the MTZ is
preferred to explain origin of the Changbaishan volcanoes. Subduction
dynamics of the Pacific plate since Early Cenozoic led to formation of the
present-day BMW system via the following stages: i) shallow-angle Pacific
subduction that established a mantle wedge system (55–25 Ma), ii) slab
rollback and sinking into the MTZ to-gether with trench retreat (25–15 Ma);
iii) slab bottoming, thick-ening and flattening in the MTZ (15–0 Ma). A MTZ-
derived plume ascended and incorporated fragments of carbonated
peridotite, EM1-like components and the Pacific slab-derived materials,
which subsequently triggered the Changbaishan volcanism. Therefore, the
CHVF holds the key to understanding origin and evolution of active volcanic
systems in continental intraplate setting.
5) Constraints from geophysical and petrological studies suggest the
presence of magma reservoir beneath Tianchi volcano, which re-
mains a high thermal state to act as source of heat and material for
shallow hydrothermal system during quiescent stage. Given that
Tianchi volcano is fed by a MTZ-derived plume, volatile outgassing
during its eruptive and quiescent stages represents an important
mechanism for liberating volatile elements (especially carbon) from
Earth's interior to the exosphere.
6) The CHVF vents emplace along a NW-SE trending, strike-slip fault
system affecting the crust. The magma ascended from the mantle
along this structural discontinuity and stalled in the crust in the
southern CHVF sector to form magma reservoirs (Tianchi, Wangtian'e
and Namphothe polygenetic volcanoes); in the northern CHVF sector,
magma ascended from the mantle without significant storage in the
crust (e.g., monogenetic volcanoes).
7) Monitoring records of volcanic seismicity, ground deformation and
volcanic gas geochemistry suggest a magmatic unrest beneath the
Tianchi caldera between 2002 and 2005, followed by a relatively quiet
episode since 2006. The Tianchi caldera is characterized by different
types of hazards, including those related with the volcanic, tectonic,
geomorphological and hydrological processes. These ha-zards should
be statistically evaluated and considered in the risk analysis at Tianchi
volcano.
8) Further research on the CHVF should focus on how the volcanoes
work (input rate from the mantle, storage time in the crust, and output
rate due the eruptions), the structure of the magma plumbing system
and of the hydrothermal reservoir, the eruptive dynamics of the past
eruptions, and the hazard evaluation.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2018.07.011.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of
Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant No. XDB26000000), the Key
Research Project of Frontier Sciences of Chinese Academy of Sciences
(Grant No. QYZDY-SSW-DQC030), the Natural Science Foundation of
China (Grant Nos. 41702361 and 41572321) and the China Postdoctoral
Science Foundation (Grant No. 2016M601126). We
thank Arturo Gómez-Tuena for the editorial handling, Károly Németh
and Dapeng Zhao for their constructive comments and suggestions.
We also appreciate Chunqing Sun for helpful discussions.
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