EE6900 Flight Management Systems

“Flight Management System – Part 2”

Dr. Maarten Uijt de Haag

Ohio University
Flight Management System (FMS)
• Basic FMS functions:
– Navigation
• responsible for determining the best estimate of
the current nav state of the aircraft.
– Flight planning
• allows the crew to establish a specific routing for
the aircraft
– Trajectory prediction
• responsible for computing the predicted aircraft
profile along the entire specified routing
– Performance computations
• provides the crew with aircraft unique
performance information such as takeoff speeds,
altitude capability, and profile optimization
advisories
– Guidance
• responsible for producing commands to guide
the aircraft along both the lateral and vertical
computed profiles

2
FMS- Functional Block Diagram
Navigation Navigation
Database

Performance
Computations
Data Link

Lateral Performance Trajectory

Guidance Database Prediction
Vertical
Flight Planning
Guidance

Lateral & Flight Plan

Vertical Profile Buffer

3
Flight Management – Typical
Position,
velocities,
vert speed,
Inertial pitch, roll, Air Navigation
Reference heading, Data Receivers
accels

Altitude,
Init data, flight speeds, Freq, range, bearing, LOC deviation,
Initial temperatures GPS position, GPS GS, time
plans, clearance,
position
weather
Data Tuning cmds
Link Fuel weight,
engine thrust
Flight Engine and
Data entry,
display data Management Thrust limits Fuel Systems
Flight ID, aircraft
MCDU state, trajectory
Flight plan & Roll axis cmds,
Map scale, path, nav pitch axis cmds,
display data, route thrust axis cmds Trajectory
selections data, HIS data conflicts
Tactical cmds,
Aircraft modes
Surveillance
Displays Systems
Flight
Controls

4
 VNAV Flight Path

𝑡0 𝑡1
IDLE descent,
constant velocity
JAIKE ILENE
13,000ft 13,000ft 𝑡2
280kts 250kts
WACKI
11,000ft
250kts

𝑡3

REGLE
7,000ft

250kts
Example of a VNAV Path

5
 Flight Path

𝑡0 𝑡1
IDLE descent,
constant velocity
JAIKE ILENE
13,000ft 13,000ft 𝑡2
280kts 250kts
WACKI
11,000ft
250kts

𝑡3
Can this work?
REGLE
𝑉 0 0 7,000ft
𝜓 0 0
𝛾 0 0
𝐱= = = = 𝐟 𝑉, 𝜓, 𝛾, ℎ, 𝑟, 𝑊 250kts
ℎ 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ) −𝑉𝐷 𝑊
𝑟 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾) 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑊 0 0 Example of a VNAV Path 6
 Altitude Change versus Distance
x 10
4 Descent @ IDLE Thrust vs Time
1.3

1.25

Altitude [ft]
1.2
Range @ IDLE Thrust vs Time
7

6
1.15
5
Range [NM]

4
1.1
3

2
1.05
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time elapsed [sec]
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time elapsed [sec]
70 80 90
Answer: does not work at IDLE thrust!

7
 Adjust the Thrust?
Not IDLE thrust
ILENE
13,000ft
𝑇−𝐷 𝑉
ℎ= = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛾
𝛾 𝑊
𝑇−𝐷
𝛾𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒 sin 𝛾 =
Δℎ𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑊
WACKI 𝑇 = 𝐷 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛾)
(e.g. 13000ft) 11,000ft

Δ𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑠
Range @ IDLE Thrust vs Time
6NM 9

(e.g. 8NM) 8

Δℎ𝑑𝑒𝑠
Range [NM]
𝛾 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 5

Δ𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑠 4

𝑔 3
𝑉 𝑇 − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛾) 0
𝜓 𝑊 0 2
𝛾 0 0
𝐱= = 0 =
ℎ 𝑉(𝑇 − 𝐷) 𝑊 1
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ) 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑟
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾) 0
0
𝑊 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0 Time elapsed [sec]
= 𝐟 𝑉, 𝜓, 𝛾, ℎ, 𝑟, 𝑊

8
 Flight Path – First Segment

𝑡0 Straight and level, 𝑡1

Speed change

26NM
JAIKE ILENE
13,000ft 𝑑𝑉 13,000ft 𝑡2
𝑑𝑟
280kts 250kts
WACKI
11,000ft
250kts

𝑡3
𝑔
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛾)
𝑊 𝑔
𝑉 𝑔 𝑇−𝐷 REGLE
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜇 𝑊
𝜓 0
𝑊𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾) 7,000ft
𝐱=
𝛾
= 𝑔 = 0 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉
ℎ 𝑊𝑉
𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) + 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜇) − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾) 0 𝑉= = = 𝑉
𝑟 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ) 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟
𝑊 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(γ) −𝜂 𝑉 𝑇
−𝜂 𝑉 𝑇
Example of a VNAV Path 9
 Flight Path – First Segment

Non-steady Straight and Level vs Time Non-steady Straight and Level vs Time
280 30

275 25

270 20
Aispeed [kts]

Range [NM]
265 15

260 10

255 5

250 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time elapsed [sec] Time elapsed [sec]

10
 Automation Modes – B787

Autothrottle modes Roll modes Pitch modes

THR LNAV (armed) TO/GA
THR REF LNAV (engaged) VNAV (armed)
HOLD HDG SEL (engaged) VNAV SPD (engaged)
IDLE TRK SEL (engaged) VNAV PTH (engaged)
SPD TRK HOLD (engaged) VNAV ALT (engaged)
ATT (engaged) V/S (engaged)
LOC (armed) FPA (engaged)
LOC (engaged) FLCH SPD (engaged)
FAC (armed) ALT (engaged)
FAC (engaged) G/S engaged)
B/CRS (armed) G/P (engaged)
B/CRS (engaged) FLARE (armed)
TO/GA FLARE (engaged)
ROLLOUT (armed)
11
ROLLOUT (engaged)
 VNAV Mode – B787

• VNAV engages at 400 feet AGL

• if VNAV is selected and the FMC has insufficient data to provide VNAV guidance (such as the gross
weight is invalid or there is no end–of–descent point in descent) displays PERF/VNAV UNAVAILABLE in
the CDU help window
• VNAV SPD, VNAV PTH or VNAV ALT pitch mode is displayed in green (engaged) on the PFD and HUD
pitch flight mode annunciator
• in the VNAV SPD pitch mode, the AFDS commands pitch to hold target airspeed. The autothrottle
operates in the THR REF, THR, IDLE or HOLD mode, as required by the phase of flight
• in the VNAV PTH pitch mode, the AFDS commands pitch to maintain FMC target altitude or the VNAV
path. The autothrottle maintains speed
• in the VNAV ALT pitch mode, the AFDS commands pitch to maintain the MCP selected altitude when that
altitude is lower than the VNAV commanded altitude in climb or higher than the VNAV commanded
altitude in descent
• if VNAV is selected and VNAV commands a descent with the MCP altitude window above the current
airplane altitude, the autopilot maintains the altitude at which VNAV was selected. When on an
instrument approach using VNAV, selecting the missed approach altitude does not interfere with the
VNAV descent
• if VNAV is selected and VNAV commands a climb with the MCP altitude window below the current
airplane altitude, the autopilot maintains the altitude at which VNAV is selected
• with the VNAV ALT pitch mode engaged, the autothrottle operates in the speed (SPD) mode

12
 Important Note

𝑡0 𝑡1

JAIKE ILENE
13,000ft 13,000ft 𝑡2

WACKI
11,000ft
250kts

𝑡3
The path is defined in an Earth-
referenced frame (navigation REGLE
7,000ft
frame, earth-frame)

13
 What happens when we have a tail-wind?

𝑡0 𝑡1

JAIKE ILENE
13,000ft 13,000ft 𝑡2

WACKI
11,000ft
250kts
𝑉 𝑉𝑤 𝑡3

𝑉𝑔
REGLE
7,000ft
So, this 1st segment would be completed
faster than expected.

14
What happens when we have a tail-wind?

ILENE ILENE
13,000ft 13,000ft
𝑟 𝑟 𝑉𝑤
ℎ ℎ 𝑉𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 Too high w.r.t. path

No wind WACKI
11,000ft
Tailwind WACKI
11,000ft
250kts 250kts

VNAV may disconnect;

Airspeed must somehow be reduced
(reduce thrust, spoilers, etc.)

15
 Cost Index (CI)
Time-related direct operating cost (minus cost of fuel):
• flight crew wages (hourly or fixed);
• lease of engines, auxiliary power units, airplanes;
• maintenance costs;

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ($ ℎ𝑟)

𝐶𝐼 =
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑏)

Cost of fuel, may be complex calculation due to:

• variation of fuel cost as a function of location;
• fuel tankering;
• fuel hedging.

16
 Cost Index (CI)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 ($ ℎ𝑟)
𝐶𝐼 =
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑏)

Must be entered in the control

display unit (CDU) of the FMC.

Good if fuels costs are high Good if fuels costs are low
and time costs are low and time costs are high

17
 CI Ranges for Boeing Aircraft

B787 as well

From: W. Roberson, et al., “Fuel Conservation Strategies: Cost Index Explained,” Boeing

18
 CI Results for Phases of Flight
Minimum fuel flight

Minimum time flight

From: W. Roberson, et al., “Fuel Conservation Strategies: Cost Index Explained,” Boeing

19
CI Impact Example

20
 Airbus CI Examples
Old fuel prices!!!

Crew cost is between 10-20 US$/min

Maintenance cost is between 7 and 17 US$/min,
Based on: “Getting to Grips with the Cost Index,” Airbus, May 1998. 21
CI Effect on Climb

22
 CI Effect on Climb

The higher the cost index:

• the steeper the descent path (the higher the speed),
• the shorter the descent distance
• the later the top of descent (TOD)

23
 Cruise Flight - Strategy
• Speed selection during cruise:
– Maximize the distance traveled for a given amount of
fuel (i.e., maximum range).
– Minimize the fuel used for a given distance covered
(i.e., minimum trip fuel).
– Minimize total trip time (i.e., minimum time).
– Minimize total operating cost for the trip (i.e.,
minimum cost, or economy [ECON] speed).
– Maintain the flight schedule.
Optimum fuel mileage
Based on: W. Roberson, et al., “Fuel Conservation Strategies: Cruise Flight,” Boeing

24
Cruise Flight – Short Term Constraints
• Strategy may be temporarily abandoned during flight
due to:
– Flying a fixed speed that is compatible with other
traffic on a specified route segment.
– Flying a speed calculated to achieve a required time
of arrival (i.e., RTA) at a fix.
– Flying a speed calculated to achieve minimum fuel
flow while holding (i.e., maximum endurance).
– When directed to maintain a specific speed by air
traffic control.

25
 Cruise Schemes
• Maximum-Range Speed (MRC)
– The speed that will provide the furthest distance for
a given amount of fuel burned and the minimum fuel
burned for a given cruise distance
• Long-range Cruise (LRC)
– Speed above MRC that will result in a 1 percent
decrease in fuel mileage (in NM/kg fuel burned)

Typically this 1% means a 3 to 5 % higher cruise speed

26
 MRC versus LRC

From: W. Roberson, et al., “Fuel Conservation Strategies: Cruise Flight,” Boeing

27
Typical CI Values

28
 Cost Simulations
• Price fuel: $2.94/gallon
• Crew and maintenance: $45/minute
• Altitude: 20,000ft
• Cruise for 200NM
• Cruise: steady straight and level flight
• Change from Vmo down to 0.65Vmo

29
 Jet Fuel Priced (Commodity)

6.84 lbs/US gallon = 3.10kg/ US gallon

30
 Speed at Altitude
Cruise
440

420

400
Airspeed [NM]

380

360

340

320

300

280
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time elapsed [sec]

Includes conversion from CAS to TAS for standard atmosphere!

31
 Range and Speed
Cruise Cruise
250 238

237
200

236

Mass [tonnes]
Range [NM]

150

235

100

234

50
233

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 232
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Time elapsed [sec] Time elapsed [sec]

32
 Fuel Usage
Fuel usage versus Mach no Fuel usage versus Mach no
10400 1500

10200

10000 1450
Fuel usage [lbs]

Fuel usage [gal]

9800

9600 1400

9400

9200 1350
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
Mach no. Mach no.

33
 Costs
Time-related Cost versus Mach Fuel-related Cost versus Mach no.
1900 4400

4350
1800

4300
Time-related Cost (US$)

Fuel-related Cost (US$)

1700
4250

1600
4200

1500 4150

4100
1400
4050
1300
4000

1200 3950
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
Mach no. Mach no.

34
Fuel Mileage versus Mach
Fuel Mileage versus Mach no.
48

47.5 MRC
47 LRC
Fuel mileage [NM/1000kg]

46.5

46

45.5

45

44.5

44

43.5

43
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
Mach no.

35
 Cost Index versus Mach
Computed Cost Index
34

32

30
Cost Index

28

26

24

22
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
Mach no.

36
 Now for Flying at Different Altitude
Fuel-related Cost versus Mach no. Fuel-related Cost versus Mach no.
4400 4600

4350
4500

4300

Fuel-related Cost (US$)

Fuel-related Cost (US$)

4400
4250

4300
4200

4150 4200

4100
4100
4050
4000
4000

3950 3900
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95
Mach no. Mach no.

@ 20,000ft @ 30,000ft
(standard atmosphere) (standard atmosphere)

37
 Now for Flying at Different Altitude
Computed Cost Index Computed Cost Index
34 32

32 30

28
30
Cost Index

Cost Index
26
28

24

26
22

24
20

22 18
0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95
Mach no. Mach no.

@ 20,000ft @ 30,000ft
(standard atmosphere) (standard atmosphere)

38
 Speed Schedule
• Climb:
– Economy (based on cost index) –optimizes the
overall cost
– Maximum angle of climb – maximum climb rate w.r.t.
distance
– Maximum rate of climb – maximum climb rate w.r.t.
time
– Required time of arrival speed (RTA) – optimizes
cost of operation, but at the same time achieve the
arrival at a specific waypoint at a specific time

39
 Speed Schedule
• Cruise:
– Economy (based on cost index) – optimizes the
overall cost
– Maximum endurance – produces the lowest fuel
burn rate (MRC)
– Long range cruise – see LRC discussion (good fuel
rate, good range)
– Required time of arrival speed (RTA) – optimizes
cost of operation, but at the same time achieve the
arrival at a specific waypoint at a specific time

40
 Speed Schedule
• Descent:
– Economy (based on cost index) –optimizes the
overall cost
– Maximum descent rate – maximum descent rate
w.r.t. time
– Required time of arrival speed (RTA) – optimizes
cost of operation, but at the same time achieve the
arrival at a specific waypoint at a specific time

41
 Crossover Altitude
• Crossover Altitude (or transition altitude) is the altitude
at which a specified CAS (Calibrated airspeed) and
Mach value represent the same TAS (True airspeed)
value. Above this altitude the Mach number is used to
reference speeds
𝛾−1
𝑉 𝑉 2 𝑝𝑡 𝛾
𝑀= = = −1
𝑉𝑎 𝛾𝑅𝑇 𝛾−1 𝑝

1
1 𝜇 2
2 𝑝0 𝑝 𝜇𝜌 2 𝜇
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 1+ 1+ 𝑉 −1 −1
𝜇 𝜌0 𝑝0 2𝑝

42
Crossover Altitude

Typical Climb Profile

43
 Primary Flight Display

Climb display Cruise display

44
 Flat Earth Approximation
• Remember the 3DOF equations of
motion:
𝑔
𝑉= 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛾)
𝑊
𝑔
𝜓= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜇
𝑊𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑔
𝛾= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) + 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜇) − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑊𝑉
ℎ = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ)
𝑟 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 γ
𝑊 = −𝜂 𝑉 𝑇

• These assume a “Flat earth”

45
 Flat Earth Approximation
• First extend by breaking ‘r’ into a ‘x’
(North) and ‘y’ (East) direction:
𝑔
𝑉= 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛾)
𝑊
𝑔
𝜓= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜇
𝑊𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑔
𝛾= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) + 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜇) − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑊𝑉
ℎ = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ)
𝑥 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 γ cos 𝜓 = 𝑉𝑁
Still a flat earth (ENU)
𝑦 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 sin 𝜓 = 𝑉𝐸
𝑊 = −𝜂 𝑉 𝑇

46
 Earth-Referenced Equations
• Assume a spherical Earth
• Latitude and longitude rates are then:
𝑉𝑁
𝐿=
𝑅𝑒 + ℎ
𝑉𝐸
𝜆=
𝑅𝑒 + ℎ cos(𝐿)
• Compare to non-spherical Earth
𝑉𝑁
𝐿=
𝑅𝑁 + ℎ
𝑉𝐸
𝜆=
𝑅𝐸 + ℎ cos(𝐿)

47
 Non-Spherical Earth (FYI)
North Pole Equatorial plane

RN RE
North
pole

 Side view
 Top view

𝑅(1 − 𝑒 2 ) 𝑅
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝐸 =
1 − 𝑒 2 sin2 𝐿 3/2 1 − 𝑒 2 sin2 𝐿 1/2

Meridian Radius Transverse Radius

It is the radius of the best fitting curve to It is the radius of the best fitting curve to
a meridian section of the reference earth ellipsoid a vertical east-west section of the reference earth ellipsoid

Length of semi-major axis: 𝑅

Length of semi-minor axis: 𝑅(1 − 𝑓) R = 6378137.0
Flattening: f = (𝑅 − 𝑟)/𝑅 e = 0.0818191908426
Major eccentricity: e = f 2 − f 1/2

Mean Radius of Curvature: 𝑅0 = 𝑅𝐺 = 𝑅𝑁 𝑅𝐸 48

 Back to Spherical Coordinates
• 3DOF EOM:
𝑔
𝑉= 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼) − 𝐷 − 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛾)
𝑊
𝑔
𝜓= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜇
𝑊𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑔
𝛾= 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) + 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜇) − 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛾)
𝑊𝑉
ℎ = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛(γ)
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 γ cos 𝜓
𝐿=
𝑅𝑒 + ℎ
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 sin 𝜓
𝜆= Can solve these equations again
𝑅𝑒 + ℎ cos(𝐿) using the ODE solvers, but now the
𝑊 = −𝜂 𝑉 𝑇 results are in the spherical Earth

49
Example: 1200NM Cruise @ 20,000ft
Track: 45 degrees

50
Remember from earlier notes …
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐿𝑖
WAYPOINT ‘i’ 𝐫𝑖 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐿𝑖 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐞𝑖
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐿𝑖
E

Radius of a sphere
(approximate Earth by a sphere)
𝐿𝑖
𝜆𝑖
𝐿𝑖 = waypoint latitude
𝜆𝑖 = waypoint longitude

51
 Lateral Guidance
Great-circle route:
Δ𝑟𝑎𝑝−𝑔𝑡
= 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐞𝑎𝑝 ∙ 𝐞𝑔𝑡 𝐞𝑔𝑡

North-pointing local 𝐞𝑎𝑝 𝐞𝐸,𝑠𝑡 = 𝐞𝑍 × 𝐞𝑠𝑡

level unit vector 𝐞𝑁,𝑠𝑡 = 𝐞𝑠𝑡 × 𝐞𝐸,𝑠𝑡
𝐞𝑁,𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑒
𝐞𝐸,𝑠𝑡
𝐞𝑠𝑡
East-pointing local
Δ𝑟𝑠𝑡−𝑔𝑡 level unit vector

= 𝑅𝑒 cos−1 𝐞𝒔𝒕 ∙ 𝐞𝑔𝑡

Normal vector to 𝐞𝑠𝑡 𝐨𝐞𝑔𝑡 plane:
𝑅𝑒
𝐧 = 𝐞𝑠𝑡 × 𝐞𝑔𝑡
𝐞𝑧 = 0 𝑇
0 1
st: start point
gt: go to 𝐨
ap: along path

52
 Lateral Guidance
Top-view
Cross-track error:
𝑋𝑇𝑅𝐾 = −𝑅𝑒 cos −1 𝐞𝑎𝑝 ∙ 𝐞𝑝𝑜𝑠 𝐞𝑔𝑡
𝑋𝑇𝑅𝐾 = −𝑅𝑒 𝐧 ∙ 𝐞𝑝𝑜𝑠
𝐷𝑇𝑅𝐾 Track error:
𝐞𝑎𝑝 𝑇𝑅𝐾𝐸𝑅𝑅 = 𝐷𝑇𝑅𝐾 − 𝐶𝑇𝑅𝐾

𝑋𝑇𝑅𝐾 𝐶𝑇𝑅𝐾
𝐞𝑝𝑜𝑠

Desired track:
𝐞𝑠𝑡 −𝐧 ∙ 𝐞𝑁,𝑎𝑝
𝐷𝑇𝑅𝐾 = 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛
−𝐧 ∙ 𝐞𝐸,𝑎𝑝

53
 Lateral Guidance
• LNAV is a so-called roll mode: a roll must
be commanded so the XTRK error and
the TRKERR can be reduced to zero
• Over-simplified control strategy:
𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝐺𝑋𝑇𝑅𝐾 ∙ 𝑋𝑇𝑅𝐾 + 𝐺𝑇𝑅𝐾𝐸𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝑅𝐾𝐸𝑅𝑅 + 𝜑𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

54
 Lateral – Waypoint Changing
Nominal bank angle may exist due to a desired (nominal) course change

Centripetal force

𝑉 = 𝜔𝑅 𝛼
𝑉2 𝐿1
𝑚 𝑅
𝑅
𝐿2
𝑅 𝑉2
𝑅=
Radius of turn 𝑅 𝑔 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

55
 Vertical Guidance

• Vertical path changed

Autothrottle modes
THR
Pitch modes
TO/GA
using pitch and
THR REF VNAV (armed) autothrottle (thrust)
HOLD VNAV SPD (engaged)
IDLE
SPD
VNAV PTH (engaged)
VNAV ALT (engaged)
• Vertical paths so far:
V/S (engaged) – Climb, descent, vertical
FPA (engaged)
FLCH SPD (engaged) speed, take-off, etc.
ALT (engaged)
G/S engaged)
G/P (engaged)
FLARE (armed)
FLARE (engaged)

56
Vertical Guidance - Data

From: Avionics Handbook – Chapter 15 - Flight

Management Systems, Randy Walter

57
 Vertical Guidance
ℎ𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑝𝑜𝑠
Δℎ
𝐞𝑎𝑝 Path gradient: 𝑔ℎ = Δ𝑟
ℎ Δℎ ℎ𝑎𝑝

ℎ𝑔𝑡
Δ𝑟
(really: distance between two points)

Path altitude: ℎ𝑎𝑝 = ℎ𝑔𝑡 + 𝑔ℎ Δ𝑟𝑎𝑝−𝑔𝑡

Vertical deviation: 𝛿ℎ = ℎ𝑝𝑜𝑠 − ℎ𝑎𝑝

Desired V/S: 𝑉/𝑆𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ℎ𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑔ℎ 𝑉𝐺𝑆

58
 Transitions and switches
• Auto Flight Phase Transitions:

Cruise
ℎ𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒

Climb ℎ
Switch from climb to cruise (level):
ℎ𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 − ℎ < 𝐺𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ

• Vertical leg switches:

𝐺𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ,𝑛 − ℎ𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ,𝑛+1 < ℎ𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑,𝑛 − ℎ𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑,𝑛+1

59
 Vertical Guidance

From: Avionics Handbook – Chapter 15 - Flight Management Systems, Randy Walter

60
 Vertical Guidance
Vpath:
ℎ𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑−𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 −ℎ
Capture: Δ𝜃 = 𝐺𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ−𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 sin−1
𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
Track: Δ𝜃 = 𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝛿ℎ + 𝐺𝑉𝑆 ℎ𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑−𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 − ℎ /𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

Altitude error V/S error

For example VNAV PATH (B787 FCOM):

in the VNAV PTH pitch mode, the AFDS commands pitch to maintain FMC target altitude or the
VNAV path. The autothrottle maintains speed

ℎ = 𝑉 𝑆 =vertical speed

61
 Vertical Guidance
Vspd:
Capture: Δ𝜃 = 𝐺𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑−𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Track: Δ𝜃 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝛿𝑉 + 𝐺𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑−𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉 /𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

Airspeed error Airspeed rate

𝑉 𝛿𝑉
𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
For example VNAV SPD (B787 FCOM):
in the VNAV SPD pitch mode, the AFDS commands pitch to hold target airspeed (“track”). The
autothrottle operates in the THR REF, THR, IDLE or HOLD mode, as required by the phase of flight

62
 Vertical Guidance
Valt:
Capture: ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑡−𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝛿ℎ
ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 −ℎ
Δ𝜃 = 𝐺𝑉/𝑆 sin−1
𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
Track: Δ𝜃 = 𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝛿ℎ + 𝐺𝑉𝑆 ℎ /𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

For example VNAV ALT (B787 FCOM):

in the VNAV ALT pitch mode, the AFDS commands pitch to maintain the MCP selected altitude
when that altitude is lower than the VNAV commanded altitude in climb or higher than the VNAV
commanded altitude in descent

63
 Vertical Guidance
• Thrust is set based on the equations of motion:
– Taking into account the thrust limit and idle power
(see BADA discussion)

𝑊 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

𝑇= 1+ +𝐷
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑔 𝑑ℎ

64
 Instrument Approach using VNAV
1. Cruise - before the top of
descent, FMC is in cruise mode
and commands VNAV PTH and
ECON cruise speed.
2. Descent - nearing descent speed,
VNAV commands a descent in
VNAV PTH at ECON descent
speed.
3. Descent Deceleration Phase -
before the speed restriction
altitude, the FMC commands the
target descent airspeed. The pitch
mode remains VNAV PTH and the
descent rate approximates 500
feet per minute.4
4. Descent and Approach - when
at target speed, VNAV commands
a descent and starts approach in
VNAV PTH at commanded
speed.5
5. Missed Approach - when
selected during missed approach,
VNAV activates in VNAV SPD.6
6. Missed Approach Level Off - at
missed approach altitude, VNAV
SPD changes to VNAV
B787 FCOM pp. 1210 and on …

65
Takeoff and Climb
1. Takeoff - if armed for takeoff, VNAV activates at 400 feet RA and
pitch guidance continues to maintain the target airspeed. During
takeoff, the FMC updates the target airspeed to the current airspeed
until VNAV activates. The target airspeed is between V2 + 15 and V2
+ 25 knots.
2. Acceleration Height - at acceleration height or flap retraction, VNAV
commands an airspeed increase to a speed 5 knots below the flap
placard speed for the existing flap setting. When flaps are retracted or
at an AFDS capture altitude, VNAV commands the greater of VREF +
80 knots or the speed transition associated with the origin airport,
limited by configuration. The FMC changes the thrust reference mode
to the selected climb thrust at the thrust reduction point.
3. VNAV Climb - the VNAV climb profile uses VNAV SPD or VNAV
PTH at the default climb speed or pilot selected climb speed to
remain within all airspeed and altitude constraints that are part of the
SID entered into the active route. Autothrottle uses selected climb
thrust limit.
4. Climb Constraints - VNAV enters the VNAV PTH mode to remain
within departure or waypoint constraints. Speed maintained during
this time can be: procedure based speed restriction, waypoint speed
restriction, default VNAV climb speed, manually entered climb speed.
If the FMC predicts the airplane will not reach an altitude constraint,
the FMS–CDU help window message UNABLE NEXT ALTITUDE
displays. Speed intervention can be used by pushing the IAS/MACH
selector and manually setting a lower airspeed to provide a steeper
climb; or, climb derates can be deleted on the THRUST LIMIT page.
5. Top Of Climb (T/C) - the point where the climb phase meets the
cruise altitude is called the top of climb. Approaching this point, the
FMC changes from the climb phase to the cruise phase. The T/C
displays any time the FMC calculates a change from a climb phase to
a cruise phase, such as a step climb.

66
ILS Approach

67