Week 5 notes

State how energy enters and leaves the ecosystem

Energy enters the system as light and leaves the system as heat.

Relate the transfer of electrons via redox reactions to the release of stored energy

Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules in pathways that release stored molecular
energy. The catabolic pathways yield energy by transferring electrons in oxidation and reduction
reactions.

Redox reactions release potential energy from electrons. Es lose potential energy when they are
shared unequally.
There are several important high energy molecules involved in cellular reactions: ATP, NADH,
FADH2. NADH and FADH are coenzymes and electron carriers.

NAD+ and FAD shuttle electrons and are also crucial in cellular respiration. Enzymes remove
hydrogen and electrons and donate it to NADH+.

Explain how ATP can be generated in the absence of O2

Oxygen is not essential for all organisms nor required at all times to generate ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is used by some prokaryotes e.g. some bacteria use sulphate as the final
electron acceptor. They produce H2S instead of H2O. Anaerobic respiration still requires an ETC,
unlike fermentation.

Describe the different types of fermentation and give examples of organism or cells type that may
rely on each type

Some microorganisms use fermentation to obtain ATP.

Alcohol fermentation: End product is alcohol (ethanol). Bacteria and yeasts can grow without
oxygen.
Step 1: Pyruvate reduced to acetaldehyde, releases CO2.
Step 2: Acetaldehyde reduced to ethanol by NADH. Gives NAD+, thus NAD+ still available for
glycolysis.

Lactate fermentation: End product is lactate. Occurs in mammals and some bacteria and fungi
Reaction: pyruvate reduced to lactate. 1 step process. NADH converted back to NAD+.

When do humans & other mammals carry out lactic acid formation?
In muscle cells when oxygen is scarce to keep supply of ATP to muscles e.g early stages of strenuous
exercise, not enough O2 from lungs, cells switch to lactic acid fermentation.
What happens to lactate produced in muscles?
- Can cause muscle fatigue & pain
- Is released into the blood and is converted back into pyruvate by the liver

Fermentation is a solution providing some ATP for cell function in anaerobic conditions (Absence of
O2)
Glycolysis can only continue in the absence of O2 if NAD+ is regenerated from NADH.
Some organisms can act aerobically depending on access to O2
 - Facultative anaerobes e.g. our muscle cells.

Recall how each stage of cellular respiration is related to the other stages

Glycolysis: = splitting of sugars

Occurs in the cytosol, converts 1 glucose to 2 pyruvate molecules. Has 9 steps and releases ¼ energy
in glucose. If O2 is present, the chemical energy stored in pyruvate and NADH can be extracted by
steps 2 & 3 of cellular respiration. In prokaryotes, this happens in the cytosol; in eukaryotes, in the
mitochondrion.

Oxidation of pyruvate to ACoA links glycolysis to the CA cycle & releaces CO2.

TCA cycle

It is a metabolic furnace that oxidises organic fuel derived from pyruvate.

*Electrons (Es) released by these oxidation reactions are captured by NAD+ and FAD.

Oxidative phosphorylation:

Es for oxidative phosphorylation come from glycolysis (NADH) and the TCA cycle (NADH and FADH2).

Oxidative phosphorylation can be divided into 2 parts: ETC and chemiosmosis.

The ETC is a series of proteins in the mitochondrial membrane that pass Es along releasing energy as
they go.
Free energy change during electron transport.
Energy released by the passage of electrons is used to pump H+ into the intermembrane space
creating H+ gradient. The energy released in the falling of electrons down the chain is used to pump
protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This creates a proton gradient across the
inner mitochondrial membrane.

Oxygen is the final electron acceptor.

Oxygen collects the electrons at the end of the chain freeing it up to pass more electrons

The final part of oxidative phosphorylation is chemiosmosis.

- The H+ ions (protons) gradient created by the ETC can be used to do work – specifically to
power ATP synthase.
- Protons flow through the ATP synthase making it spin generating energy to make ATP
- Each molecule of glucose yield many ATP molecules during cellular respiration.

Map the flow of electrons through the stages of cellular respiration

Use your knowledge of cellular respiration to predict the effect of disturbances to the system or
the effects of particular drugs on the system

Some poisons block cellular respiration.

ETC blockers:

Rotenone (insecticide) blocks first ET protein complex

Cyanide and carbon monoxide, block fourth electron protein complex

Uncouplers e.g. DNP

Make the inner mitochondrial membrane leaky to H+ ions

Remove H+ gradient, no ATP generated

ET continues, O2 consumed
ATP synthase blockers

Oligomycin prevents H+ ions passing through ATP synthase. Used to treat fungal infections.