Structure of the compendium on sanitation technologies in peri-urban and urban

unserviced/underserviced areas

The compendium consists of three major sections:

1. Introduction and Background
2. Sanitation Technology Options
3. Handwashing and Other Critical Considerations
4. Recommendations for peri-urban and underserviced/unserviced areas

Section I: Introduction and Background

The introductory section provides a summary on the structure of the sanitation compendium. It
defines key terminologies and provides a sanitation system template useful in configuring
sanitation systems in peri-urban and urban unserviced/underserviced areas. In addition, the
introductory section describes the sanitation situation in peri-urban and urban
unserviced/underserviced areas of Zimbabwe to provide a clear picture of the context and the
implications for sanitation infrastructure. Users of this compendium are encouraged to carefully
read and understand the sections on “Compendium Terminology” to ensure acquaintance with
key terms and the sanitation system thinking. The section also introduces guidelines and the key
selection criteria that users should consider when selecting appropriate sanitation technologies
and designing a context-appropriate sanitation system for urban areas. These guidelines will be
used to build different scenarios and comes up with various sanitation technology options that
are relevant and meet the needs and expectations of both urban planners and system users.
Finally, these guidelines shall be used at the end of the compendium to recommend low cost,
approapriate and sustainable sanitation technology options for piloting in peri urban and
unserviced/underserviced urban areas.
Compendium Terminology

Sanitation Technology
Sanitation technologies refer to sanitation infrastructure, methods, or services designed to collect,
contain, transform and treat sanitation products. The compendium focuses primarily on
sanitation technologies that have been sufficiently proven and tested. It is also mainly concerned
with systems and technologies directly related to managing human excreta.

Anal Cleansing Water

It is water used by some cultural groups to cleanse the body after defecating and/or urinating.
Such cultural groups use water rather than dry material for anal cleansing.

Compost
Composting is an excreta treatment process. Compost is decomposed organic matter that results
from a controlled aerobic degradation process. In this biological process, microorganisms,
mainly bacteria and fungi, decompose the biodegradable waste components and produce an
earth-like, odourless, brown/black material. Compost has excellent soil-conditioning properties
and a variable nutrient content. Generally, excreta or sludge should be composted long enough in
order to be sufficiently safe for agricultural use.

Dried Faeces
Drying faeces is a form of treatment from harmful pathogens. Faeces need to be dehydrated until
they become a dry, crumbly material. Dehydration takes place by storing faeces in a dry
environment with good ventilation, high temperatures and/or the presence of an absorbent
material. There is a small risk that some pathogenic organisms can be reactivated under humid
conditions

Dry Cleansing Materials

These are solid materials used to cleanse oneself after defecating and/or urinating, for example,
paper, leaves, corncobs, rags, sticks or stones. Depending on the sanitation system, dry cleansing
materials may be collected and separately disposed of.

Excreta
It consists of urine and faeces that are not mixed with any flushwater. Excreta are relatively
small in volume, but concentrated in both nutrients and pathogens.

Faeces
This refers to semi-solid excrement that is not mixed with urine or water. Faeces contain vast
majority of the pathogens excreted by the body that are harmful if ingested by another person.
The faeces are also energy and carbon rich.

Organics
Organics refer to biodegradable plant material that must be added to some sanitation
technologies for them to function well. Organic degradable material can include kitchen waste,
leaves, grass and food market waste. Although other products in this compendium contain
organic matter, the term organics is used to refer to undigested plant material.

Pit Humus
The term describes the nutrient-rich, hygienically improved, humic material that is generated in
fossa alterna pit technologies through degradation. The various natural decomposition processes
taking place in alternating pits can be both aerobic and anaerobic in nature, depending on the
technology and operating conditions. The main difference of pit humus compared to compost is
that the degradation processes are passive and are not subjected to a controlled oxygen supply
and that the carbon to nitrogen ratio, humidity and temperature may be less favourable.
Therefore, the rate of pathogen reduction is generally lower and the quality of the product,
including its nutrient and organic matter content, can vary considerably. Pit humus can look very
similar to compost and have good soil conditioning properties, although pathogens can still be
present.

Sludge
Sludge is a mixture of solids and liquids, containing mostly excreta and water, in combination
with sand, grit, metals, trash and/or various chemical compounds. A distinction can be made
between faecal sludge and wastewater sludge. Faecal sludge comes from on-site sanitation
technologies, that is, it has not been transported through a sewer. It can be raw or partially
digested, a slurry or semi-solid, and results from the collection and storage/treatment of excreta
or blackwater, with or without greywater. Wastewater sludge, also referred to as sewage sludge,
originates from sewer-based wastewater collection and semi-centralised treatment processes. The
sludge composition will determine the type of treatment that is required and the end-use
possibilities.

Stored Urine
Stored urine is hydrolysed naturally over time, that is, the urea is converted by enzymes into
ammonia and bicarbonate. Stored urine in closed containers usually has a pH of 9 or higher.
Most pathogens cannot survive at this elevated pH. After 1–6 months of storage, the risk of
pathogen transmission is therefore considerably reduced.

Urine
Urine product refers to pure urine that is not mixed with faeces or water. Depending on diet,
human urine collected from one person during one year (approx. 300 to 550 L) contains 2 to 4 kg
of nitrogen. The urine of healthy individuals is sterile when it leaves the body but is often
immediately contaminated by coming into contact with faeces.
Guidelines and key selection criteria for selection of urban sanitation technologies

These guideline are s on the understanding that urban sanitation solutions are not wholly
technical, rather, they are whole mix of technical, social, environmental, institutional and
economic factors. These guidelines will be used to build different scenarios and comes up with
various options that are relevant and meet the needs and expectations of both urban planners and
system users.

Section II: Sanitation Technology Options

Introduction
The aim of this section is in providing a comprehensive compilation of relevant sanitation
technologies that can potentially be implemented in peri-urban and unserviced/underserviced
urban areas of Zimbabwe. The review of technology options is based on what is currently in use
in Zimbabwe with specific reference to Harare, Chitungwiza, Chegutu and Gweru as well as best
practices drawn from other countries with similar contexts. Specifically, the review focuses on
technologies that have been sufficiently proven, tested and are considered “improved” as defined
by WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) guidelines and the Zimbabwe Data
Harmonisation (2020). The sanitation technologies are grouped and analysed based on two broad
categories “Dry” and “Wet” technologies. These are further sub-divided into “Onsite” and
“Offsite” technologies. Technologies falling under each of the categories and sub-categories are
analysed, outlining their design considerations, applicability, advantages and disadvantages.

Improved sanitation is defined as the provision of facilities and services for safe management
of human excreta from the toilet to containment, storage and treatment onsite or conveyance,
treatment and eventual safe end use or disposal (WHO, 2019). It is the hygienic means of
promoting health through prevention of human contact with waste hazards. Waste hazards can
either be physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of diseases. Improved
sanitation objectives can be achieved through use of improved sanitation technologies. Improved
sanitation technologies are defined as the specific infrastructure, methods, or services designed to
hygienically collect, contain, transform and treat products 1. The compendium is primarily
concerned with technologies directly related to managing human excreta. It does not address
greywater or stormwater management.

According to WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) and the Zimbabwe Data
Harmonisation (2020), the improved sanitation technologies include dry sanitation technologies
(VIP latrines or compositing toilets) and wet sanitation technologies (flush/pour flush toilets
connecting to sewers, septic tanks). To be effective the facility must be correctly constructed and
properly maintained.

1
Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies, 2nd revised edition, Eawag, 2014
Onsite Dry Sanitation Technologies

Onsite sanitation is defined as "a sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected
and stored or treated on the plot where they are generated” 2. This includes all sanitation
technologies in which safe disposal of excreta takes place on or near the site of the toilet. The
degree of treatment may be variable, from none to advanced. Onsite sanitation technologies can
be classified into two main categories:
1. ‘Dry’ which do not require any water for flushing.
2. ‘Wet’ which require water for flushing

Dry Toilets
The term "dry toilet" is used differently by different people in the WASH sector. Some refer "dry
toilet" to the device over which the user sits or squats (user interface) and not the subsequent
storage and treatment. Others use it to refer to a variety of technologies, or combinations of
technologies especially pits or container-based systems. In this compendium, a dry toilet refers to
a variety of sanitation technologies that operate without flush water and without a connection to
a sewer or septic tank3. In both cases, excreta (both urine and faeces) fall through a drop hole into
a pit. Dry toilets come in the form of pit latrines of various forms that include the following:

a) The traditional pit latrine

b) SanPlat- the pit with concrete slab and cover
c) Blair Ventilated Improved Pit (BVIP) latrine
d) Fossa Alterna- the Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan) or shallow double pit compost latrine
e) Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT)

Sanitation Technology 1: The Traditional Pit Latrine

For most parts of peri-urban and rural areas of Africa, the pit toilet remains the most commonly
used sanitation technology. While the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP)
guidelines count pit latrines as safe, the Zimbabwe Data Harmonisation guidelines consider
2
Tilley, E.; Ulrich, L.; Lüthi, C.; Reymond, Ph.; Zurbrügg, C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and
Technologies (2nd Revised Edition). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag),
Duebendorf, Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-906484-57-0
3
Tilley, E.; Ulrich, L.; Lüthi, C.; Reymond, Ph.; Zurbrügg, C. (2014). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and
Technologies (2nd Revised Edition). Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag),
Duebendorf, Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-906484-57-0
traditional pit latrine unimproved. However, it is very common and often used in most peri-urban
and rural areas because it is simple to construct using local materials and is less costly.

Design and functionality of traditional pit latrines

A hole is dug in the ground, lined or unlined, fitted with cover slab of wood or concrete and with
a superstructure of many different materials. Lining the pit prevents it from collapsing and
provides support to the superstructure. The latrine superstructure can be made from local
materials, such as bamboo, grass matting, wood, plastic or metal sheeting. Pit lining materials
can include brick, rot-resistant timber, bamboo, concrete, stones, or mortar plastered onto the
soil. Communities can have pre-cast slabs and superstructure which can be made available for
immediate use or that can be stockpiled in advance. Roof slabs can be fabricated on-site with a
mould and cement. Once the pit is full, equipment for emptying or materials for covering the pit
are required.

Figure 1: Pit Latrine, Matsime Settlement, Chitungwiza, Zimbabwe

The pit may be two to three metres deep. Excreta, along with anal cleansing materials (water or
solids) are deposited into the pit. Three processes of leaching, consolidation and degradation
limit the rate of pit filling. Urine and water percolate into the soil through the bottom and walls
of the pit, while microbial action partially degrades the organic fraction. A smooth and regularly
cleaned platform can promote hygienic conditions by minimising possible human contact with
faeces. The slab should be well sized to the pit and be at least 10 cm above the surrounding
ground to prevent storm water from infiltrating the pit and to prevent overflow.

The hole can be closed with a lid to prevent flies and intrusion of unwanted insects and rodents.
Pedestals and squatting slabs can be made locally with concrete. The latrine design should
include arrangements for emptying. When it is not possible to dig a deep pit or where the
groundwater level is too high, the latrine can be raised above the ground. A superstructure is
erected to provide privacy and protection from environmental hazards. The design of Pit Latrines
should be discussed with the community beforehand. It should reflect local user preferences
(sitter vs. squatter, anal cleansing practices, direction, positioning, screens etc.) and should
account for the accessibility and safety of all users, including men, women, children, elderly and
disabled people. It is possible to adapt or upgrade a pit latrine to an improved technology such as
a Ventilated Improved Pit by adding a vent pipe. This should be considered in the initial design.

Applicability of a pit latrine

Pit latrines are not appropriate for peri-urban. In densely populated areas, pit emptying can be
difficult and there is often insufficient space for infiltration. In Zimbabwe, a pit latrine without a
slab is regarded as unimproved sanitation and does not count towards the target as it is unlikely
to hygienically separate human excreta from human contact. However, pit latrines exist in
several peri-urban areas of Zimbabwe as illustrated in fig 1.

Operation and Maintenance of a pit latrine

Daily maintenance associated with a pit latrine includes regular cleaning, routine checking
availability of water, hygiene items, soap and dry cleansing materials, providing advice on
proper use, conducting minor repairs and monitoring of the pit fill level. As pits are often
misused for solid waste disposal, which can complicate pit emptying, awareness raising
measures should be a part of installation programmes. When the pit is full it needs either
desludging including subsequent transport, treatment and safe disposal/reuse options or if enough
space is available the superstructure and squatting plate can be moved to a new pit with the
previous pit safely covered and decommissioned.

Advantages of a pit latrine

 It is relatively cheap to construct.
 It is simple to construct. It can be constructed by the user or a semi skilled mason
 It can be built and repaired using locally available materials
 It does not require water to function so it is appropriate where water is scarce
 It is easy to maintain

Disadvantages of a pit latrine

 It smells badly
 It is considerably a nuisance because of flies and insects particularly during hot and wet
seasons
 Flies are usually noticeable
 It can collapse
 Low pathogen reduction
 The risk of contamination of groundwater is high where water table is high
 It eventually fill up
 Costs to empty may be significant compared to capital costs
  The toilet has to be outdoors with the associated security risks if the person is living in an
insecure area
 Pit latrines are often relocated or re-built after some years (when the pit is full and if the
pit is not emptied) and thus need more space

Sanitation Technology 2: SanPlat (Sanitary platform) Pit latrine

The San-plat is a pit toilet with concrete slab, with a fitting concrete lid attached to a wire handle.
It is a small locally prefabricated concrete slab designed for improvement of floor conditions
around the drop-hole of a pit latrine.

Design and functionality

SanPlat can be fitted over logs on a traditional pit toilet or over a brick lined pit. The pit can be
made in a round or square shape. It offers a hygienic surface which can be easily cleaned. This
type of latrine is used in several African countries that include Mozambique, Malawi and Angola
where it was piloted by UNDP and The World Bank between 1979 and 1989. It has also been
adopted in several other countries including Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia. One of the great
advantages with the system is that the SanPlat can be integrated in the floor of a traditional
latrine, hence reducing or even excluding the need of on-site cement works in peripheral areas.

Advantages
 The SanPlat System is a low cost sanitation option
 It is simple to install. The SanPlat can be produced locally for less than two US dollars
using simple moulds, local labour and only a fifth of a bag of cement, or less, per
improved latrine (Björn Brandberg, 1991).
 Latrines eventually do fill up, or cease to function for any other reason. In such a case the
SanPlat can easily be removed and reinstalled in the new latrine. As it is only the SanPlat
that has required external assistance, a new equally good latrine can therefore easily be
built by the owner
 The SanPlat is a highly improved latrine slab. The improvements on the latrine slab are
the ones that do improve hygiene and safety e.g. The SanPlat has a drop hole shaped like
a key hole, which is safe even for a very small child. It is big enough to use comfortably
and small enough to be completely safe.
 It is adaptable, that is, it can be integrated in the structural latrine slab of a septic tank-
based ventilated improved latrine. It can be made as a separate element to safeguard the
hygienic and child safety conditions of a traditional pit latrine.

Disadvantages
While the SanPlat technology is an improvement from the traditional pit latrine, it still has
weaknesses which include:
  There may be a foul odour from the pit
 It can be a favourable place for the breeding of flies and mosquitoes.
 A new pit needs to be dug every time one gets full.
 They can be susceptible to failure/overflowing during floods.
 Other disadvantages can be overcome by proper design, construction and usage. For
example, if the superstructure is not properly constructed, it may discourage use of the
latrine by family members.
 Children may be discouraged from using the latrine if the slab is too big for them.
 Use of excess water or less compostable materials for anal cleansing should be avoided
because it may affect the decomposition rate of human excreta

Sanitation Technology 3: Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines

These are also called Blair-ventilated improved pit latrines following the name of the Blair
Research centre where the toilet was designed. There are two types of VIP latrines, one pit
latrine and double or multiple pit latrine.

The VIP is seen as an improvement over the Pit Latrine because continuous airflow through the
ventilation pipe prevents odours and acts as a trap for flies as they escape towards the light.
When correctly designed, built, used and maintained, VIPs can be completely odour-free. Flies
that hatch in the pit are attracted to the light at the top of the ventilation pipe. When they fly
towards the light and try to escape, they are trapped by the fly-screen and eventually die. The
ventilation also allows odours to escape and minimises the attraction for flies.

Design Considerations
The only design difference to a Pit Latrine is the ventilation. For the ventilation, a straight vent
pipe is needed with an internal diameter of at least 11 cm and reaching more than 30 cm above
the highest point of the toilet superstructure. Wind passing over the top creates a suction pressure
within the pipe and induces an air circulation. Air is drawn through the user interface into the pit
and moves up the vent pipe. The vent works best in windy areas and surrounding objects such as
trees or houses should not interfere with the air stream.
Figure 2: Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine

To test the effectiveness of ventilation, a smoking stick can be held over the user interface (the
hole), the smoke should then be pulled down into the pit. The mesh size of the fly screen must be
large enough to prevent clogging with dust and allow air to circulate. The toilet interior must be
kept dark so that flies in the pit are attracted to the light of the vent pipe. The design of the Single
VIP should reflect local user preferences (sitter vs. squatter, anal cleansing practices, direction,
positioning, screens etc.) and should account for accessibility and safety of all users including
men, women, children, elderly and disabled people.

The latrine superstructure can be made from local materials, such as bamboo, grass matting,
wood, plastic or metal sheeting (though this often heats up the interior). Pit lining materials can
include brick, rot-resistant timber, bamboo, concrete, stones, or mortar plastered onto the soil.
The slab on top can be fabricated on site with a mould and cement. Other slab materials such as
wood or bamboo are also possible, where no other materials are available. Once the pit is full,
equipment for emptying or materials for covering the pit are required. The ventilation pipe can
be made from a range of materials, including PVC or metal piping, masonry, or bricks.

Applicability
As no water is needed for its operation, a VIP is also an appropriate solution for water scarce
peri-urban areas with sufficient space. It can be replicated quickly and implemented at scale.
The VIP should be sited in areas with a good breeze to ensure effective ventilation. The
technology is not appropriate in areas with limited space. Like other pit latrines they are not
suitable in areas with rocky or compacted soils or in areas that flood frequently. VIPs rarely
work as communal toilets as they are often improperly used and with unclear ownership,
maintenance quickly becomes a problem. Despite the existence of VIPs in peri-urban areas of
Zimbabwe, the Housing Standards Act [Chapter 29:08], Model Building Bylaws, and the
Regional, Town and Country Planning Act (1976, revised in 1996), which government housing
development, stipulate that land servicing precedes allocation and occupation and do not
recognise construction of VIPs in urban areas. The existence of such structures is, therefore,
deemed illegal.

Operation and Maintenance

General operation and maintenance (O & M) tasks include regular cleaning, ensuring the
availability of water, hygiene items, soap and dry cleansing materials, conducting minor repairs
and monitoring pit fill levels. Dead flies, dust and other debris should be removed from the fly
screen to ensure good air flow. As pits are often misused for solid waste disposal, which can
complicate pit emptying, awareness raising measures should be a part of installation
programmes. VIPs for general public use may have a sludge build-up rate too fast for absorption
into the soil and will thus require regular emptying. If regular desludging is needed the
accessibility for desludging vehicles must be considered.

If used and managed well, a VIP can provide a clean, comfortable, and acceptable toilet. VIPs
need to be equipped with handwashing facilities and proper handwashing with soap after toilet
use should be emphasised as part of hygiene promotion activities. Emptying of the pit should be
carried out in such a way as to minimise the risk of disease transmission including personal
protective equipment and hygiene promotion activities.

Advantages
 It does not have mechanical parts, therefore, it does not need repairs except in the event
that it cracks.
 Flies and odours are significantly reduced (compared to non-ventilated pits)
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 Low capital costs depending on materials and pit depth
 Small land area required
 Significant reduction in pathogens
 Flies and odours are significantly reduced (compared to non-ventilated pits)
 Can be built and repaired with locally available materials

Disadvantages
 Costs of desludging toilet may be significant compared to capital costs
 Sludge requires secondary treatment and/or appropriate discharge.
 Manual removal of humus is required
 Possible contamination of groundwater
 Pits remain susceptible to failure and/or overflowing during floods and health risks
associated with flies are not completely removed by ventilation
Sanitation Technology 4: Fossa Alterna

Ecological sanitation which is often abbreviated as EcoSan, is not a sanitation technology, rather
it is a concept. It works on the principle of recovery and recycling of nutrients from excreta to
create a valuable resource for agriculture. Fossa alterna (alternating shallow pit compost toilet”)
is an example of sanitation technology that uses the EcoSan approach.

Design and functionality

A fossa alterna toilet consists of two permanently sited pits dug side by side. This is sometimes
called shallow double pit compost latrine. It cannot work with a single pit. Each pit is dug to a
maximum depth of 1.5m. ash or soil is added to the pit as cover material after defecation. Non
compostable materials like rags, bottles, rubber, plastic and all manner of other garbage shoul be
added to the pit. The soil, ash and leaves help to introduce a variety of organisms like worms,
fungi and bacteria which assist in degradation/composting of sludge. The materials also help in
increasing pore space which allows for aerobic conditions necessary for sludge degradation.
Additionally, ash helps to control fly breeding, reduces odours and makes the mix slightly more
alkaline. Wood ash gives a pH of 8.6-9.4, thus it gives alkaline treatment to excreta.
Figure 3: Fossa alterna toilet

When a pit is about to fill up, the slab is removed to the next pit. The pit is topped up with soil
and is left to degrade while the second pit is being used. The fossa alterna technology works
properly if the two pits are used sequentially and not concurrently. It usually takes one year for
the pit to fill up for an average family of six members. The material in the full pit will degrade
into a dry, earth-like mixture that can be easily removed manually. The number of pathogens in
faecal material during storage will be reduced with time due to natural die off, without further
treatment4.

The removed compost can be dug into vegetable gardens or used to fill pits dug for tree planting.
It can also be bagged ready for adding to maize or vegetable beds. If two ring beams are used,
the unused ring beam can be turned into a “ring beam garden” for growing vegetables whilst the
other ring beam is used for the toilet. In flood-prone areas and where the groundwater table is too
high, the fossa alterna can be raised or built entirely above ground to avoid groundwater
pollution. Raising the pits could also be an option for rocky ground and compacted soils that are
difficult to dig.

Operation and Maintenance

Users should avoid bathing in the toilet. The fossa alterna can be used for urine, but water should
not be added. Only small amounts of anal cleansing water can be tolerated. Water is discouraged
because it enables the development of vectors and pathogens, and it also fills the pore spaces and
deprives the aerobic bacteria of the oxygen that is required for degradation. Some common
challenges in using fossa alterna include pit overuse when the family is big. Under this
circumstance, increasing depth to 1.5m will be acceptable or dig two more pits and rotate around
them. Secondly, is lack of ash. Soil can be used in place of ash mixed with leaves. Thirdly, is a
good distribution of soil in the pit. The soil should be added often so that it is well distributed in
the pit and some soil is near to the excreta wherever it may be in the pit. By adding lots of
excreta without soil and then adding a bag of soil later is not the ideal. Add soil often to get a
well distributed mix.

Applicability

4
Guidelines for the Safe Use of Urine and Faeces in Ecological Sanitation Systems.
The Fossa alterna was originally designed for use in peri-urban settlements. Through the concept
of ecological sanitation, it is possible to close the nutrient loop by obtaining safe fertilizer
products from urine and excreta. The total area required for this toilet is quite small, about three
square metres which is appropriate for peri-urban areas with high population densities. Within
this area, it is possible to excavate two shallow pits lined wholly or partly with bricks or
protected with two ring beams at the head of each pit. The main aspect is that the use of excreta
should not result in enhanced disease transmission and an increased number of infections in
human populations. The current EcoSanRes Guidelines for the handling and use of collected
urine and faeces therefore aim to minimize the risk for transmission of infectious diseases that
potentially can occur through urine and/or faeces. A combination of barriers to decrease
exposure of humans to excreta should be applied in order to reduce risks for disease transmission
in ecological sanitation systems.

Treatment of the excreta is considered as a necessary step for the subsequent use as fertilizer on
agricultural land. Many microorganisms are adapted to a neutral pH (7). Highly acidic or alkaline
conditions will have an inactivating effect. As such addition of lime to excreta in dry latrines can
increase pH and will inactivate microorganisms 5. The speed of inactivation depends on the pH
value, for example, it is much more rapid at pH 12 than at pH 9. Further, personal protection
equipment should be used when handling and applying human compost. Awareness measures
about the safety of handling excreta and its use as manure for agriculture should accompany
provision of ecosan toilets to increase its acceptability among communities. Zimbabwean
communities do not have a culture of using human excreta for agriculture until recently.
However, culture can be changed with effective community engagement and dialogue.

Several fossa alterna toilets have been constructed in Harare’s peri-urban areas of Epworth and
Hopley. Other successful ecosan toilets have constructed in Niassa, Mozambique, which has
studied various aspects of the uptake and use of the Fossa alterna has provided much evidence
for the popularity of this system. A similar pattern of uptake is also seen in Malawi.

Advantages
 Because double pits are used alternately, their life is virtually unlimited
 It has low capital costs depending on materials. Low operating costs are incurred if self-emptied
 Excavation of humus is easier than faecal sludge
 There is significant reduction in pathogens, hence the risk of human contamination is very low.
 It generates nutrient-rich humus with good potential for use as soil conditioner.
 Flies and odours are significantly reduced through addition of ash and soil
 It is less expensive, it can be built and repaired with locally available materials
 It is especially suitable in water-scarce environments.
 The shallow depths means a reduction in the risk of groundwater contamination

Disadvantages
 It requires constant addition of ash after every use which is rarely found in large
quantities in urban and peri-urban areas.
 Manual removal of humus is required
 Human excreta may also contain pathogenic microorganisms that may constitute a threat to
human health due to improper practices in the handling chain of excreta
5
Guidelines for the Safe Use of Urine and Faeces in Ecological Sanitation Systems.
  People like to bath in toilets. It is not appropriate for greywater as the pit is shallow and the
conditions must remain aerobic for degradation.
 Garbage may ruin end-use opportunities of the product
 Acceptance is sometimes a huge challenge as handling of human excreta compost is
uncommon among communities in Zimbabwe

Sanitation Technology 5: Urine Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT)

A Urine-Diverting Dry Toilet (UDDT) is a toilet that operates without water and has a divider
that separates urine from faeces. The separation facilitates subsequent treatment processes such
as dehydration of the faeces and nutrient recovery as well as considerable odour reduction.
The UDDT is built such that urine is collected and drained into a container from the front area of
the toilet, while faeces fall through a large hole in the back of the toilet. Depending on the
collection and storage/treatment technology that follows, drying material such as lime, ash or
sawdust may be added into the same hole after defecating.

Design and functionality

It is important that the two sections of the UDDT are well separated to ensure that faeces do not
fall into and clog the urine collection area in the front, and that urine does not splash into the dry
area of the toilet. Other options have a 3-hole separating toilets to enable anal cleansing water to
get into a third basin separate from the faeces and urine faeces collection chambers. Users can
opt for sitting or squatting UDDT designs to separate urine from faeces. Pipe work should avoid
sharp angles of 90° to allow for smooth flow. A pipe diameter of 50 mm is sufficient for steep
slopes and where maintenance is easy. Larger diameter pipes of above 75 mm should be used for
minimum slopes. In cold climates, pipes should be insulated to prevent freezing of urine. An
odour seal should be installed at the urine drain to prevent odours from coming back up the pipe.

Figure 4: Urine Diverting Dry Pit (UDDP) Latrine

In many parts of the world it is a tradition to keep the urine and faeces apart. The old Japanese
practice of nightsoil recovery from urban areas separated urine and faeces, with the urine
regarded as a valuable fertilizer (Matsui, 1997). In Sweden, urine was historically often collected
separately. Mainly due to practical reasons, it was poured into the drain to avoid smells and to
prevent the latrine from filling too quickly.

Applicability
Plant ash, lime dried soil or sawdust can be added after each defecation as a bulking agent to
enhance the drying process (JOENSSON et al. 2004). The immediate coverage of the fresh
faeces with an additive material can considerably lower nuisances caused by odour or flies. The
UDDT is simple to design and build, using such materials as concrete and wire mesh or plastic.
The UDDT design can be altered to suit the needs of specific populations and cultural settings,
that is, smaller for children, people who prefer to squat or sit. UDDTs are waterless systems that
are particularly suitable for conditions where water is scarce or expensive. The main risks in the
use of excreta are related to the faecal fraction and not the urine fraction. Therefore, it is of major
importance to avoid or diminish faecal cross-contamination to the urine fraction. Even though
some pathogens may be excreted in urine, the faecal cross-contamination that may occur by
misplacement of faeces in the urine-diverting toilet (Schönning et al., 2002)

Advantages
There are some benefits of keeping the fractions separated that are still valid in UDDT latrines.
These include:
 The collection system will fill up much slower if the urine is diverted and the volume of
faecal material will be kept small. Further reduction of the volume and weight of faeces
through dehydration/decomposition is possible.
 The smell will be less when keeping the urine and faeces apart and will result in both
more convenient and acceptable use of the toilet and handling of the excreta.
 Prevention of dispersal of pathogen-containing material. A drier faecal fraction will cause
less risk for leaching and transport of pathogens through fluids to the groundwater and to
the surrounding environment.
 Safer and easier handling and use of excreta. The faeces will be drier, which may be
beneficial for pathogen reduction. In addition, drying will facilitate further reduction of
pathogens by various other treatment means and will also make it easier to handle and to
use the separated urine and faecal fractions.
Disadvantages
 Prefabricated models are not available everywhere
 It requires training and acceptance to be used correctly
 It is prone to misuse and clogging with faeces
 The excreta pile is visible
 It is difficult to use for small children
 Double-vault UDDTs require large surface area for construction
 Regular shifting of containers from single-vaults is required
Section 3: Handwashing and Other Critical Considerations

Introduction
This section presents other critical considerations that are necessary to complete the improved
sanitation loop and enable effective and sustainable achievement of sanitation objectives. These
include hygiene enabling facilities, hygiene promotion, socio-cultural issues and background
information to be considered when making decisions and choices about sanitation technology
and design. Selection of the most appropriate sanitation technology option requires a thorough
analysis of all factors including cost, cultural acceptability, simplicity of design and construction,
operation and maintenance, and local availability of materials and skills.

Handwashing with soap

Dry onsite latrines can be considered safe excreta containment technologies and primary barriers
to transmission of sanitation related diseases if used and managed well by blocking key faecal-
oral transmission routes as illustrated in fig 5. Handwashing with soap is particularly key during
five critical times that include: after using the toilet; after cleaning the bottom of a child who has
been defecating; before eating; after eating and before preparing food. Handwashing with soap
has been shown to be the most cost- effective way to avert diarrheal diseases (WHO, 2016). An
investment of US$3.35 in handwashing promotion is estimated to deliver the same amount of
health benefits as a US$11 investment in latrine construction, a US$200 investment in household
water supply, or an investment of many thousands of US dollars in immunizations 6. This should
be addressed as part of hygiene promotion interventions. Latrines without handwashing facilities
cannot complete stop faecal-oral transmission of WASH-related diseases.

Figure 5:The F-Diagram: Faecal-oral route of transmission of disease

Handwashing facilities need to be provided next to all toilet facilities. It is recommended that
handwashing stations be present within a short radius of maximum 5 m of each toilet 7.
Promotion of handwashing has to address different drivers of the behaviour like health risk
perceptions, cost-benefit beliefs, emotions, experienced social pressure, abilities, and action and
barrier-reduction planning. The practice of handwashing with soap requires a constant supply of
clean, safe water supply and soap.

Design Considerations
A handwashing station has to include a constant source of water and soap or ash. Handwashing
facilities include taps of different sorts connected to a pipe or a container or simple low-cost
solutions like Tippy Taps, which consist of a suspended jerrycan that can be tipped with a foot
lever allowing water to flow out.

6
https://globalhandwashing.org/about-handwashing/why-handwashing/economic-impact/#_edn3
7
Monitoring WASH in Health Care Facilities, WHO (2016)
Figure 6: Tippy Tap for Handwashing

Drainage of effluent is required in order to keep the area around the handwashing station clean
and hygienic and not muddy and flooded. Effluent can be captured in a bucket catching the grey
water, or can be discharged into open drainage channels or soak away. Handwashing stations
have to be inclusive and children and people with reduced mobility have to be able to reach the
handwashing facilities to use them. A very important design consideration is the durability of the
tap. The tap needs to be very robust in order to prevent theft or breakage.

Applicability
Handwashing needs to be enforced through constant promotion in all situations, urban and peri-
urban. Handwashing and handwashing promotion is particularly important in emergency
situations where there is an outbreak of a diarrheal disease

Operation and Maintenance

Water containers need to be refilled and soap needs to be restocked constantly. In many
situations, handwashing facilities are either dry or there is no soap available. This compromises
effective use of sanitation facilities. The Handwashing Facilities need to be kept clean.
Soap bars and plastic buckets for handwashing stations are usually cheap and locally available.

Sanitation Myths
Myths about urban sanitation have created contradictions. These pieces of mistruths create
impossibilities and negative beliefs systems that usurp people’s drive to improve. Understanding
these myths help in overcoming them through strategic planning. The following are some of the
common myths about sanitation provision in poor communities such as peri-urban and urban
unserviced/underserviced areas.

People don’t demand improvements in sanitation where it is deficient or absent

In fact:  There is latent demand for sanitation services even in the poorest areas.  What is
sometimes true however is that low income residents often feel unable to affect change,
especially when facing uninterested politicians, land tenure limitations, and technical challenges,
and they are reluctant to openly express their demands8.

Poor people are not willing to pay for sanitation services

In fact: Poor people are willing to pay for sanitation services, and they do, even when they
receive sub-standard services.  Often, their only option is to resort to an unregulated private
service to periodically empty their latrine/septic tank, whereas richer areas are connected to
sewer systems with subsidized services.

There isn’t enough money to solve the urban sanitation problem

In fact: There are available resources but they need to be better allocated and used more
efficiently. Investments needs are huge — 40% of estimated funds needed to extend universal
access to safely managed water, sanitation and hygiene are needed for urban sanitation. In
addition to increasing public budgets, which will be necessary but not sufficient, service
providers and households need to be supported to make efficient investment decisions. Private
financing can be leveraged for investment opportunities, especially if public funds are used more
strategically.

Investing in urban sanitation is not productive

In fact:  Sanitation investments provide demonstrated health, economic, social and environmental
benefits that are essential to turn towns and cities into vibrant economic centers. Globally,
inadequate sanitation costs poor countries on average 5% of their GDP9. The economic return on
sanitation spending is estimated at USD5.5 for every dollar invested10

Centralized conventional sewers and wastewater treatment are the only way to solve the urban
sanitation crisis
In fact: Experience of citywide inclusive sanitation in numerous cities, be it from Brasilia,
Dakar, Durban, Manila or Kuala Lumpur, mixing onsite collection and fecal sludge treatment
solutions and sewerage solutions show important progress. Adaptive, expandable, decentralized
and cost-effective approaches, mixing onsite collection and treatment and sewerage solutions,
can be resilient to external economic, demographic and environmental shocks. Local innovation
allows for sanitation solutions that reflect local conditions and meet customer needs.

Solving urban sanitation is all about toilets

In fact: Providing access to a toilet, a latrine or a sewer connection is only part of the solution.
The SDGs now require that human waste is conveyed, treated and reused/disposed of safely and
sustainably. The full sanitation service chain needs to be sustainably managed.

Sanitation produces waste that is a nuisance to be eliminated

8
WaterAid. 2016. Overflowing cities: The State of the World's Toilets 2016. Media Briefing
9
Water and Sanitation Program. 2016. Economics of Sanitation Initiative.
10
Hutton, G. 2012. Global costs and benefits of drinking-water supply and sanitation interventions to reach the
MDG target and universal coverage. World Health Organization
In fact:  Human waste contains valuable nutrients. These can be recovered and reused as soil
conditioner or fertilizer. Energy can be produced from both heat recovery and biogas
combustion. Water can be recycled for industrial, agricultural and even potable use.   Such
underutilized value, when monetized, can generate revenue to offset service costs.

In summary, there is no silver bullet, no simple, single solution to urban sanitation

challenges. People must develop locally relevant and innovative solutions along the sanitation
service chain that put customers first and focus as much on service management as on
technology. City planners and other sector decision makers should consider the tradeoffs along
the service chain between, for example, providing basic access to a toilet to all versus providing
sewers and advanced wastewater treatment to the few. Debunking these myths should be part of
sector efforts to help sanitation sector professionals in transforming their thinking and practices
to deploy both old and new solutions in smarter ways to achieve sustainable, equitable and safe
management of excreta for a whole city.

Section IV: Recommendations for peri-urban and underserviced/unserviced areas

Introduction
This section provides a summary of recommendations on appropriate sanitation technologies
based on the views, opinions and choices of residents and stakeholders of Harare, Chitungwiza,
Chegutu and Gweru. It provides designs and detailed bill of quantities for piloting the
recommended technologies in these four cities/towns.